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Isotropic Definition
Most metallic alloys and thermoset polymers are considered isotropic, where by d
efinition the material properties are independent of direction. Such materials h
ave only 2 independent variables (i.e. elastic constants) in their stiffness and
compliance matrices, as opposed to the 21 elastic constants in the general anis
otropic case.
The two elastic constants are usually expressed as the Young's modulus E and the
Poisson's ratio n. However, the alternative elastic constants K (bulk modulus)
and/or G (shear modulus) can also be used. For isotropic materials, G and K can
be found from E and n by a set of equations, and vice-versa.
Hooke's Law in Compliance Form
Hooke's law for isotropic materials in compliance matrix form is given by,
Some literatures may have a factor 2 multiplying the shear modulii in the compli
ance matrix resulting from the difference between shear strain and engineering s
hear strain, where , etc.
Hooke's Law in Stiffness Form
The stiffness matrix is equal to the inverse of the compliance matrix, and is gi
ven by,
Some literatures may have a factor 1/2 multiplying the shear modulii in the stif
fness matrix resulting from the difference between shear strain and engineering
shear strain, where , etc.
Visit the elastic constant calculator to see the interplay amongst the 4 elastic
constants (E, n, G, K).
Spherical Pressure Vessel
Thin-walled pressure vessels are one of the most typical applications of plane s
tress.
Consider a spherical pressure vessel with radius r and wall thickness t subjecte
d to an internal gage pressure p.
For reasons of symmetry, all four normal stresses on a small stress element in t
he wall must be identical. Furthermore, there can be no shear stress.
The normal stresses s can be related to the pressure p by inspecting a free body
diagram of the pressure vessel. To simplify the analysis, we cut the vessel in
half as illustrated.

Since the vessel is under static equilibrium, it must satisfy Newton's first law
of motion. In other words, the stress around the wall must have a net resultant
to balance the internal pressure across the cross-section.
Cylindrical Pressure Vessel
Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel with radius r and wall thickness t subjec
ted to an internal gage pressure p.
The coordinates used to describe the cylindrical vessel can take advantage of it
s axial symmetry. It is natural to align one coordinate along the axis of the ve
ssel (i.e. in the longitudinal direction). To analyze the stress state in the ve
ssel wall, a second coordinate is then aligned along the hoop direction.
With this choice of axisymmetric coordinates, there is no shear stress. The hoop
stress sh and the longitudinal stress sl are the principal stresses.
To determine the longitudinal stress sl, we make a cut across the cylinder simil
ar to analyzing the spherical pressure vessel. The free body, illustrated on the
left, is in static equilibrium. This implies that the stress around the wall mu
st have a resultant to balance the internal pressure across the cross-section.
Applying Newton's first law of motion, we have,

To determine the hoop stress sh, we make a cut along the longitudinal axis and c
onstruct a small slice as illustrated on the right.
The free body is in static equilibrium. According to Newton's first law of motio
n, the hoop stress yields,
Remarks

The above formulas are good for thin-walled pressure vessels. Generally,
a pressure vessel is considered to be "thin-walled" if its radius r is larger t
han 5 times its wall thickness t (r > 5 t).

When a pressure vessel is subjected to external pressure, the above form

ulas are still valid. However, the stresses are now negative since the wall is n
ow in compression instead of tension.

The hoop stress is twice as much as the longitudinal stress for the cyli
ndrical pressure vessel. This is why an overcooked hotdog usually cracks along t
he longitudinal direction first (i.e. its skin fails from hoop stress, generated
by internal steam pressure).