Gupta Ch. 1

H y d r o l o g y and
Hydraulic Systems
Third Edition
ctfn S.
Gupta
1
D e m a n d for Water
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1.1
DEVELOPMENT OFW A T E R RESOURCES

W a t e r resources are developed either t o use o r t o c o n t r o l g r o u n d w a t e r a n d surface w a t e r
flows. A d e v e l o p m e n t a l a c t i v i t y f o r t h e u s e o f w a t e r c o m p r i s e s s t u d y i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
a n d d e m a n d for water a n d c o n t e m p l a t i n g a project that c a n m e e t the expected needs f r o m
available supplies b y means o f engineering w o r k s a n d n o n s t r u c t u r a l measures. W a t e r control activities are concerned w i t h regulating t h e rate o fwater supply i n order t o i m p r o v e
c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n a n area. T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e facilities p r o v i d e d b y a p r o j e c t is t o v a r y t h e
q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y , t i m e o f supply, a n d place o f use o f t h e w a t e r resources i n accordance
w i t h need. D e v e l o p i n g a project involves the design a n d arrangement o f structural c o m p o nents, a l o n g w i t h n o n s t r u c t u r a l measures, i f any, t o serve t h e i n t e n d e d purpose.
T h i s b o o k a i m s t o p r o v i d e a basic u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f all t h e quantitative elements that
are i n v o l v e d i n t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a w a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t project. T h e process o f developm e n t c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g sequence o f questions. T h e b o o k is d e v o t e d t o
answering these questions.
1. H o w m u c h w a t e r i s n e e d e d ? I n o r d e r t o d e v e l o p a w a t e r - u s e p r o j e c t , p l a n n e r s m u s t k n o w
t h e c u r r e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d b e able t o predict f u t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f
t h e p l a n p e r i o d f o r a l l o f t h e a n t i c i p a t e d uses. T h i s is dealt w i t h later i n t h i s chapter.
2. H o w m u c h w a t e r is available? T h i s q u e s t i o n reflects t h e p r i m e objective o f t h e s t u d y o f
h y d r o l o g y a science related t o the occurrence a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f n a t u r a l w a t e r o n a n d
b e l o w t h e earth's surface a n d i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e . O b t a i n i n g reliable estimates o f fresh
surface w a t e r a n d g r o u n d w a t e r e n t e r i n g a basin a n d e s t i m a t i n g t h e i r spatial a n d t e m p o ral distributions are t h e m o s t difficult problems f o r t h e hydrologist. I n this b o o k w e
s t u d y c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y a l l aspects o f h y d r o l o g y . T h i s i n c l u d e s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f n a t u ral w a t e r c i r c u l a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e h y d r o l o g i c cycle a n d discussion o f t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e
cycle ( C h a p t e r 2 ) ; t h e t h e o r y , assessment, a n d m o n i t o r i n g o f g r o u n d w a t e r supplies
( C h a p t e r s 3 , 4 , a n d 5 ) ; t h e field m e a s u r e m e n t s o f s t r e a m f l o w s ( C h a p t e r 6 ) ; a n d t h e
assessment o f surface w a t e r supplies w i t h t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n ( C h a p t e r 7). E s t i m a t i o n o f
p e a k flows ( C h a p t e r 8 ) a n d h a n d l i n g o f p e a k flows ( C h a p t e r s 9 , 1 3 , a n d 1 4 ) a r e i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s o f water c o n t r o l projects.
3. H o w a r e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s s a t i s f i e d b y t h e s u p p l i e s ? T h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f a p r o j e c t i s t h e
answer t o this question. A d e v e l o p m e n t project m a y encompass a single unit, a regional
development, o r a basinwide development. I t m a y be f o r a single purpose o r m a y
i n v o l v e m u l t i p u r p o s e uses. T h e m a g n i t u d e a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f supplies ( C h a p t e r 7 ) are
c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n i n d e m a n d s ( C h a p t e r 1 ) . W h e n t h e supplies always exceed
1
t h e d e m a n d s , a r u n - o f - r i v e r p r o j e c t ( d i r e c t w i t h d r a w a l f r o m t h e s o u r c e ) is i n d i c a t e d .
H o w e v e r , s t o r a g e o f a d e q u a t e s i z e ( C h a p t e r 1 0 ) is n e e d e d i n t h e case o f s e a s o n a l o r o v e r a l l w a t e r d e f i c i e n c i e s . D a m s a n d c o n t r o l s t r u c t u r e s ( C h a p t e r 1 0 ) a r e d e s i g n e d t o s t o r e as
w e l l as r e g u l a t e w a t e r f l o w s . O t h e r f a c i l i t i e s d e p e n d o n t h e p u r p o s e t o b e s e r v e d b y t h e
project. F o r example, a water supply project needs p u m p s and conveyance (channel)
a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n (pipe) systems; a n i r r i g a t i o n project requires conveyance (canal) a n d
drainage systems; a h y d r o p o w e r project includes channels a n d penstocks (conduits); a
flood c o n t r o l project m a y require e m b a n k m e n t s , channel improvements, drainage
w o r k s , and n o n s t r u c t u r a l measures; and a navigation project involves i m p r o v e m e n t s to
e x i s t i n g c h a n n e l s as w e l l as c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a r t i f i c i a l c h a n n e l s .
H y d r a u l i c principles ( C h a p t e r 9) a n d t h e basic h y d r a u l i c structures ( C h a p t e r 10), c o n veyance systems o r channels (Chapter 11), d i s t r i b u t i o n systems o r pipes (Chapter 12),
p u m p s ( C h a p t e r 1 2 ) , a n d d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s ( C h a p t e r s 13 a n d 1 4 ) a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e
b o o k . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s , t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n s p e c i a l i z e d f a c i l i t i e s s u c h as t r e a t m e n t plants for water supply, headworks a n d outlets for irrigation, powerhouses for
hydropower, d e t e n t i o n basins for flood c o n t r o l , a n d shiplocks for navigation. These
structures are n o t covered i n t h i s b o o k .
4 . H o w is t h e u s e d - u p w a t e r d i s p o s e d o f ? T h e u s e d - u p w a t e r s o r excess s t o r m f l o w s f r o m
u r b a n areas, i r r i g a t e d lands, h i g h w a y s , a n d a i r p o r t s are disposed o f t h r o u g h t h e d r a i n age s y s t e m . C h a p t e r s 13 a n d 1 4 d e a l w i t h t h i s .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r e c e d i n g q u e s t i o n s t h e r e are o t h e r p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n s t h a t relate t o
t h e q u a l i t y o f w a t e r , s u c h as: W h a t t y p e o f w a t e r i s n e e d e d ? W h a t k i n d o f w a t e r is a v a i l a b l e ?
W h a t t r e a t m e n t i s r e q u i r e d ? W h a t a r e t h e q u a l i t y a n d effects o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r d i s c h a r g e d
o r d r a i n e d i n t o a r i v e r system? T h e s e are e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t questions i n w a t e r resources
d e v e l o p m e n t ; h o w e v e r , these q u a l i t a t i v e aspects lie o u t s i d e t h e scope o f t h i s b o o k .
It s h o u l d be recognized that p l a n n i n g a n d design p r o v i d e o n l y t h e conceptual framew o r k o f a w a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t project. T h e c o m p l e t e process o f d e v e l o p m e n t includes the
c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n , a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e p r o j e c t as w e l l .
1.2
ASSESSMENT OF DEMANDS
T h e n e e d f o r a w a t e r d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t y arises f r o m t h e d e m a n d f o r w a t e r f o r s o m e p u r p o s e . A f t e r d e m a n d is e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f w a t e r r e s o u r c e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e
d e m a n d c e n t e r is a s s e s s e d t h r o u g h a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f h y d r o l o g y . T h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f t h e d e m a n d w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s i n a n o p t i m a l m a n n e r is t h e o b j e c t i v e o f
w a t e r r e s o u r c e s p l a n n i n g . W h e r e t h e r e s o u r c e s a r e r e s t r i c t e d c o m p a r e d t o t h e d e m a n d , as
f o r i r r i g a t i o n i n s o m e r e g i o n s , t h e p r o b l e m is a p p r o a c h e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g h o w m u c h
d e m a n d can be satisfied w i t h the available w a t e r resources. T h e r e m a y be conflicting
d e m a n d s w h e n m o r e t h a n o n e p u r p o s e is i n v o l v e d . T h e s e h a v e t o be r e s o l v e d b y establishi n g a p r i o r i t y r a n k i n g a m o n g w a t e r uses. T h e l o c a t i o n , t y p e , a n d c o m p o n e n t s o f a project,
as w e l l as i t s f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p u r p o s e a n d m a g n i t u d e o f
d e m a n d s . T h u s t h e p r o j e c t cost is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d e m a n d . B u t t h e d e m a n d f o r w a t e r is
a f f e c t e d t o s o m e e x t e n t b y t h e c o s t o f p r o v i d i n g w a t e r v i a t h e p r o j e c t . T h e r e f o r e , d e m a n d is
n o t a static p r o b l e m t h a t can be c o n c l u s i v e l y d e t e r m i n e d at o n e p o i n t i n t i m e . Rather, t h e
i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e s a r e r e v i e w e d a t a l a t e r stage i n t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s . T h e p r o j e c t e s t i m a t e s
also are revised accordingly. T h e procedures f o r m a k i n g t e n t a t i v e estimates o f d e m a n d f o r
each m a j o r p u r p o s e o f d e v e l o p m e n t are discussed i n s u b s e q u e n t sections.
Demand forWater
Chapter 1
1.3
DEMAND FOR WATER
SUPPLY
Withdrawal uses i n v o l v e d i v e r s i o n o f s u r f a c e w a t e r o r g r o u n d w a t e r f r o m i t s s o u r c e o f s u p p l y , s u c h as f o r i r r i g a t i o n a n d w a t e r s u p p l y . Nonwithdrawal uses a r e o n - s i t e u s e s s u c h as

n a v i g a t i o n a n d r e c r e a t i o n . Consumptive uses i n v o l v e t h a t p o r t i o n o f w i t h d r a w n q u a n t i t y
t h a t is n o l o n g e r available for f u r t h e r use because i t is used u p b y crops, h u m a n beings,
i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t processes, e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n , a n d s o o n . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
a g r i c u l t u r e , t h e c o n s u m p t i v e u s e r e q u i r e m e n t o f a c r o p i s d e f i n e d as t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r
needed for crop growth.
Water supply requirements usually have the highest priority a m o n g the developmental
u s e s , a n d w a t e r o f g o o d q u a l i t y is n e e d e d . A l t h o u g h t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f w i t h d r a w a l i n b i g
cities m a y b e r e l a t i v e l y large, the c o n s u m p t i v e w a t e r use i s s m a l l since 80 t o 9 0 % o f t h e
t o t a l i n t a k e i s r e t u r n e d t o t h e r i v e r s y s t e m ( o f c o u r s e , i t s q u a l i t y is d e g r a d e d ) . T h e w a t e r
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a c i t y can be d i v i d e d i n t o three b r o a d categories:
Municipal requirements
Large industrial requirements
Waste dilution requirements

T h e o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s i s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g u r e 1.1 f o r a t y p i c a l
c i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f a b o u t 150,000. I f t h e sewage a n d i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e are discharged
a f t e r t r e a t m e n t , t h e w a s t e d i l u t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e r e d u c e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y as d i s c u s s e d
s u b s e q u e n t l y . T h e t o t a l w a t e r s u p p l y r e q u i r e m e n t i n a r i v e r s y s t e m f o r a n u m b e r o f c i t i e s is
not equal t o t h e s u m o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f the i n d i v i d u a l cities because t h e d i l u t i o n
r e q u i r e m e n t is a n o n w i t h d r a w a l use t h a t is available t o a l l cities o n t h e s a m e river, a n d t h e
c o n s u m p t i v e r e q u i r e m e n t is o n l y a s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l . T h u s , i f all cities are s i t u a t e d
o n the same river w i t h sufficient distance i n between for p u r i f i c a t i o n o f the discharged
wastes, the total r e q u i r e m e n t s w i l l be o n l y slightly m o r e t h a n the largest city requirements.
1.4
MUNICIPAL
REQUIREMENTS
T h i s i n c l u d e s ( I ) s u c h d o m e s t i c u s e s as d r i n k i n g , c o o k i n g , w a s h i n g , w a t e r i n g l a w n s , a n d
air c o n d i t i o n i n g , ( 2 ) p u b l i c uses s u c h as i n p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s a n d f o r f i r e f i g h t i n g , ( 3 ) c o m m e r c i a l use i n s h o p p i n g centers, hotels, a n d l a u n d r i e s , (4) s m a l l i n d u s t r i a l use b y i n d u s tries n o t h a v i n g a separate s y s t e m , a n d ( 5 ) losses i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m . T h e m u n i c i p a l
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e h i g h l y v a r i a b l e , d e p e n d i n g o n s u c h f a c t o r s as s i z e o f c i t y , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , n a t u r e a n d size o f c o m m e r c i a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , c l i m a t i c
conditions, a n d cost o f supply.
M u n i c i p a l r e q u i r e m e n t s are e s t i m a t e d b y the f o l l o w i n g s i m p l e e q u a t i o n :
required quantity =
population at
per
the end o f
capita
design period ^
V usage
L^
1.1)
T h e t w o p a r a m e t e r s f o r assessing t h e m u n i c i p a l r e q u i r e m e n t s i n eq. ( 1 . 1 ) p o p u l a t i o n
estimates a n d per capita w a t e r usageare discussed i n the f o l l o w i n g sections.
S e c t i o n 1.4
Municipal Requirements
Figure 1.1
Water requirements of a city of 150,000 population.

City
Municipal
Well field
Household A
^Commercial
13%
35cfs
Sewage
treatment
r
Small
\
\mdustries 30%^
(
o
fN
Public a n d ^
losses 17% J
Industrial
Large
industries
^
T
Thermal
power
J T \
^ T ^
->-1055cfs
River
1.5
1042 cfs
Waste dilution
800 cfs
POPULATION FORECASTING
L i k e a n y o t h e r n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n o n , t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f f u t u r e p o p u l a t i o n is q u i t e c o m p l e x .
A n y s o p h i s t i c a t e d m o d e l h a s s e v e r a l i m p l i c i t a n d e x p l i c i t a s s u m p t i o n s . T h e success o f f o r e casting lies i n t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e forecaster a n d t h e reliability o f these a s s u m p t i o n s .
M o s t m e t h o d s p e r t a i n t o t r e n d analysis w h e r e i n future changes i n p o p u l a t i o n are
expected t o f o l l o w t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e past. H o w e v e r , d y n a m i c h u m a n g r o w t h involves c o n t i n u o u s d e v i a t i o n s f r o m p a s t t r e n d s , w h i c h a r e d i f f i c u l t t o assess. L o n g - t e r m p r o j e c t i o n
m e t h o d s consider p r o b a b l e shifts i n trends. T h e r e are f o u r b r o a d categories o f p o p u l a t i o n
forecasting techniques: (1) graphical, (2) mathematical, (3) ratio and correlation, and (4)
component methods.
T h e t w o t y p e s o f p o p u l a t i o n p r e d i c t i o n s u s e d are ( 1 ) s h o r t - t e r m estimates f o r 1 t o 1 0
years, a n d ( 2 ) l o n g - t e r m f o r e c a s t i n g f o r 10 t o 50 o r m o r e years. T h e m e t h o d s u s e d f o r these
t w o t y p e s o f e s t i m a t e s a r e d i f f e r e n t , as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s .
Demand forWater
Chapter 1
1.6
SHORT-TtRM ESTIMATES
C e r t a i n t e c h n i q u e s f r o m t h e categories o f g r a p h i c a l a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d s are used
for s h o r t - t e r m estimates. T h e s e m e t h o d s are essentially t r e n d analyses i n graphic o r m a t h ematical f o r m . T h e mathematical approach assumes three f o r m s o f p o p u l a t i o n growth:
g e o m e t r i c g r o w t h , a r i t h m e t i c g r o w t h , a n d d e c l i n i n g rate o f g r o w t h . T h e s e are s h o w n b y
t h r e e s e g m e n t s i n F i g u r e 1.2. E a c h s e g m e n t h a s a s e p a r a t e r e l a t i o n . T h e h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n
data o f the s t u d y area m a y be p l o t t e d o n a regular graph. D e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r the shape
is s i m i l a r t o ab, be, o r ed, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h a t s e g m e n t s h o u l d b e u s e d f o r p o p u l a t i o n
p r o j e c t i o n . T h e s h o r t - t e r m m e t h o d s are used f o r either intercensal estimates f o r a n y year
b e t w e e n t w o censuses o r postcensal estimates f r o m t h e last census u n t i l t h e n e x t census.
1.6.1 G r a p h i c a l E x t e n s i o n M e t h o d
T h i s m e t h o d consists o f p l o t t i n g the p o p u l a t i o n o f past census years against t i m e , sketchi n g a c u r v e t h a t fits t h e data, a n d e x t e n d i n g t h i s c u r v e i n t o t h e f u t u r e t o o b t a i n the p r o j e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n . S i n c e i t i s c o n v e n i e n t a n d m o r e a c c u r a t e t o p r o j e c t a s t r a i g h t l i n e , i t is
a i m e d t o g e t a s t r a i g h t - l i n e f i t t o t h e p a s t d a t a b y m a k i n g a s e m i l o g o r l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t , as
necessary. T h e forecast m a y v a r y w i d e l y d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e last t w o k n o w n p o i n t s
are j o i n e d a n d e x t e n d e d o r o t h e r p o i n t s are j o i n e d a n d extended.
1.6.2 A r i t h m e t i c G r o w t h M e t h o d
T h i s m e t h o d considers t h a t t h e s a m e p o p u l a t i o n increase takes place i n a g i v e n p e r i o d .
Mathematically,
dt-""^
where
P = population
t = t i m e , years
= u n i f o r m growth-rate constant
B y integrating the equation above, w e o b t a i n
Py=Po + K,t
(1.2)
where
P j = p r o j e c t e d p o p u l a t i o n t y e a r s a f t e r Pq
Pq = p r e s e n t p o p u l a t i o n
t - period o f projection
and
K-^^
[T-M
(1-3)
w h e r e P j a n d P2 a r e r e c o r d e d p o p u l a t i o n s a t s o m e t i n t e r v a l a p a r t .
S e c t i o n 1.6
Short-Term Estimates
Figure 1.2
Saturation population, P,,.
Population
g r o w t h curve.
Time, t (years)
E X A M P L E 1.1
T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a c i t y h a s b e e n r e c o r d e d i n 1 9 9 0 a n d 2 0 0 5 as 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 ,
respectively. E s t i m a t e the 2015 p o p u l a t i o n , a s s u m i n g a r i t h m e t i c g r o w t h .
SOLUTION
E r o m eq. (1.3),
110,000-100,000
K
= 667
"
15
F r o m eq. ( 1 . 2 ) ,
P2015 = 110,000 + 667(10) = 116,667 persons
1.6.3
GeometricGrowth Method
T h i s m e t h o d considers t h a t the increase i n p o p u l a t i o n takes place at a constant percent o f

the current population. Mathematically,
-
^P
By integrating we obtain
lnP^=\nPo
+ Kpt
(1.4)
where
In P , - I n P,
E X A M P L E 1.2
[ T - M
U s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m E x a m p l e 1.1, estimate the p o p u l a t i o n a s s u m i n g

growth.
(1.5)
geometric
Chapter 1
SOLUTION
F r o m eq. (1.5),
n 110,000 - n 100,000
K =
P
= 0.0064
15
F r o m eq. (1.4),
In P,n,c = I n 1 1 0 , 0 0 0 + 0.0064(10) = 11.672
2015
p
_ g l l . 6 7 2 =_ 1 1 7 , 2 4 0 p e r s o n s
.^2015 ~
1.6.4 D e c l i n i n g G r o w t h R a t e M e t h o d
T h i s m e t h o d assumes that t h e city has a s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e rate o f g r o w t h
b e c o m e s l e s s as t h e p o p u l a t i o n a p p r o a c h e s t h e s a t u r a t i o n l e v e l . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e r a t e
o f i n c r e a s e i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n d e f i c i t {P^^^ - P ) , t h a t i s .
dP
dt
U p o n integration, w e have
(1.6)
Pr=Ps.t-{Ps^t-Poy''
R e a r r a n g i n g eq. ( 1 . 6 ) gives
Ps.t-P2
[ T -1]
(1.7)
Ps.y-Pl
EXAMPLE
1.3
I n E x a m p l e 1.1, i f t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c i t y is 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , e s t i m a t e t h e 2 0 1 5 p o p u lation. A s s u m e a declining rate o f g r o w t h .

SOLUTION
F r o m eq. (1.7),
200,000-110,000
Kn =
^
In
15
200,000-100,000
= 0.007
F r o m eq. (1.6),
P2015 =200,000-(200,000-110,000)e-l^l(il ^
=
EXAMPLE
116,085 persons
1.4
A city has a present p o p u l a t i o n o f 200,000, w h i c h is estimated t o increase g e o m e t r i c a l l y t o

2 2 0 , 0 0 0 i n t h e n e x t 15 y e a r s . T h e e x i s t i n g t r e a t m e n t p l a n t c a p a c i t y i s 5 1 m g d . T h e r a t e o f
i n p u t t o t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t is 165 g a l l o n s p e r p e r s o n p e r day. F o r h o w m a n y years f r o m
now w i l l t h e t r e a t m e n t plant be adequate?
S e c t i o n 1.6
Short-Term Estimates
SOLUTION
1. F r o m e q . ( 1 . 5 ) ,
n 220,000-200,000
K =
= 0.00635
P
15
2. P o p u l a t i o n t h a t c a n b e s e r v e d b y t h e p l a n t :
51.0(l0M
= 309,090 persons
165
3. T i m e t o r e a c h t h e d e s i g n p o p u l a t i o n :
F r o m eq. ( 1 . 4 ) ,
In 309,090 = In 200,000 + 0.00635(t)
'
1.7
LONG-TERM
f = 68.55 years
FORECASTING
L o n g - t e r m p r e d i c t i o n s are m a d e u s i n g techniques f r o m a l l f o u r categories. T h e entire past

r e c o r d o f h i s t o r i c p o p u l a t i o n d a t a is u s e d i n l o n g - t e r m p r e d i c t i o n s . T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l
c u r v e - f i t t i n g a p p r o a c h is p o p u l a r b e c a u s e i t i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o a p p l y . M c j u n k i n ( 1 9 6 4 )
indicates, however, t h a t the c o m p o n e n t a n d r a t i o m e t h o d s offer greater reliability t h a n
the traditional graphical-mathematical methods.
1.7.1 G r a p h i c C o m p a r i s o n M e t h o d
Several larger cities i n t h e v i c i n i t y are selected w h o s e earlier g r o w t h e x h i b i t e d characteristics
s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e s t u d y area. T h e p o p u l a t i o n - t i m e curves f o r these cities a n d f o r t h e
s t u d y a r e a a r e p l o t t e d i n F i g u r e 1.3. F r o m p o i n t O ' c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e l a s t k n o w n p o p u l a t i o n f o r s t u d y a r e a A, a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e i s d r a w n i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e o t h e r c u r v e s at O j ,
O3,
etc. A t 0 \s p a r a l l e l t o O^B, OjC, O 3 A etc. a r e d r a w n as 0 ' 5 ' , O'C",
O'D',
etc.,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e s e l i n e s e s t a b l i s h a r a n g e o f f u t u r e g r o w t h w i t h i n w h i c h O ' A ' is e x t e n d e d .
T h i s m e t h o d h a s a s h o r t c o m i n g s i n c e i t is n o t c e r t a i n t h a t t h e f u t u r e g r o w t h o f t h e s t u d y
area w i l l be s i m i l a r t o t h e past g r o w t h o f t h e o t h e r areas.
1.7.2 M a t h e m a t i c a l L o g i s t i c C u r v e M e t h o d
T h i s m e t h o d is s u i t a b l e f o r t h e s t u d y o f l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n c e n t e r s s u c h as l a r g e c i t i e s , states,
o r n a t i o n s . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e s t u d y o f t h e g r o w t h c u r v e o f F i g u r e 1.2, c e r t a i n m a t h e m a t i cal e q u a t i o n s o f a n e m p i r i c a l c u r v e c o n f o r m i n g t o t h i s shape (S-shape) w e r e p r o p o s e d .
O n e o f t h e b e s t k n o w n f u n c t i o n s is t h e l o g i s t i c c u r v e i n t h e f o r m
p
*
1 + ae'"
where
Pf - p o p u l a t i o n a t a n y t i m e f f r o m a n a s s u m e d o r i g i n
^sat ~ s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n
a, b = c o n s t a n t s
8
D e m a n d forWater
Chapter 1
Figure 1.3
Graphical projection by c o m p a r i s o n .
Extended growth
50
60
70
90 2000 2010 2020

Years
O'S' is parallel to 0^6
O'C is parallel to O^C
O'D' is parallel to O3D
O'A' is a projected curve
80
T h e constants are d e t e r m i n e d b y selecting three p o p u l a t i o n s f r o m t h e record: o n e i n

t h e b e g i n n i n g , Pg, o n e i n t h e m i d d l e , P j , a n d o n e n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e r e c o r d , P 2 , a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e y e a r s T g , P j , a n d T2 s u c h t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f y e a r s ( i n t e r v a l ) b e t w e e n Pg a n d P j i s
t h e s a m e as t h a t b e t w e e n P j a n d P 2 . T h i s i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n Pg a n d P j i s d e s i g n a t e d as n. T h e
_ constants are given b y
Ps.y
[1.9)
=
PpPz-Pi'
a=
Psat
Pq
Po{Psat-Pl)
(1.10)
(1.11)
Pl{Psat-Po)
I n e q . ( 1 . 8 ) , t i m e t is c o u n t e d f r o m t h e y e a r P g . F r o m e q . ( 1 . 9 ) , P^^^ m u s t b e p o s i t i v e
a n d m u s t exceed t h e latest k n o w n p o p u l a t i o n . A test o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f l o g i s t i c g r o w t h is
t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n d a t a p l o t as a s t r a i g h t l i n e o n s p e c i a l l y s c a l e d ( l o g i s t i c ) g r a p h p a p e r .
( T h e g r a p h o f l o g [(Pât - P ) / P ] v e r s u s t is a s t r a i g h t l i n e . )
S e c t i o n 1.7
Long-Term Forecasting
E X A M P L E 1.5
I n t w o 2 0 - y e a r p e r i o d s , a c i t y g r e w from 4 5 , 0 0 0 t o 2 5 8 , 0 0 0 t o 4 3 8 , 0 0 0 . E s t i m a t e (a) t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n , ( b ) t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e l o g i s t i c c u r v e , a n d (c) t h e p o p u l a t i o n 4 0 y e a r s

after t h e last p e r i o d .
SOLUTION
Pg = 4 5 , 0 0 0
PJ = 2 5 8 , 0 0 0
P2 = 4 3 8 , 0 0 0
;
(a)
=2o
F r o m eq. (1.9) (expressing n u m b e r s i n thousands).

2(45) (258) (438) - (258) ^ (45 + 4 3 8 )
Psat
(45)(438)-(258)2
= 469,000
(b) F r o m e q . ( l . I O ) ,
4 6 9 - 4 5
a =
= 9.42
45
F r o m eq. (1.11),
b =
~\n
20
45(469-258)
= -0.122
258(469-45)
The equation o f the logistic curve:

469,000
P t = - l + 9.42e--i22t
(c) T h e t i m e f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g , t = 4 0 + 4 0 = 8 0 y e a r s ; t h u s
P =
469,000
= 4 6 8 , 7 4 5 persons
l + 9.42e-0-i22{80)
1.7.3 R a t i o a n d C o r r e l a t i o n M e t h o d s
A c i t y o r s m a l l e r area is a p a r t o f a r e g i o n , state, n a t i o n , o r o t h e r larger area. M a n y factors
and influences affecting p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h occur t h r o u g h o u t a region. T h u s the g r o w t h o f
t h e s m a l l e r area h a s s o m e r e l a t i o n t o t h e g r o w t h o f t h e larger area. Because a careful p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n a n d / o r state (larger area) is m a d e b y a n
a u t h o r i t a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n , these m a y be u s e d t o forecast t h e g r o w t h o f t h e s m a l l e r area.
I n t h e s i m p l e s t t e c h n i q u e , a c o n s t a n t r a t i o o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e m o s t recent d a t a is u s e d
as f o l l o w s :
P.'
(1.12)
Pt-KPt'
10
Chapter 1
where
P ; = p o p u l a t i o n o f s t u d y area a t last census
; P- = p o p u l a t i o n o f l a r g e r a r e a a t l a s t c e n s u s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s a m e y e a r
P ( = f u t u r e p o p u l a t i o n for study area
Pf' = e s t i m a t e d f u t u r e p o p u l a t i o n o f l a r g e r a r e a
K,. - c o n s t a n t
I n a refined technique using variation i n ratios, the ratios o f the population o f the
s m a l l e r area t o t h e larger area are calculated f o r a series o f census years. B y u s i n g a n y o f t h e
g r a p h i c a l o r m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d s o f s h o r t - t e r m e s t i m a t e s ( S e c t i o n 1.6), t h e t r e n d l i n e o f
t h e r a t i o s is p r o j e c t e d . T h e p r o j e c t e d r a t i o i n t h e y e a r o f i n t e r e s t is a p p l i e d t o a n e s t i m a t e o f
the study area p o p u l a t i o n .
I n a n o t h e r statistical m e t h o d , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n technique described i n Chapter 7 is
applied. B e t w e e n t h e t w o series o f census data r e l a t i n g t o the s t u d y area a n d larger area, a
relation is established t h r o u g h regression analysis. F o r example, a simple regression equat i o n m a y be o f the f o l l o w i n g f o r m :
Pf =aP'f+h
(1.13)
where
= p o p u l a t i o n o f the study area
>
P ^ = p o p u l a t i o n o f the r e g i o n (larger area)

a, 1; = r e g r e s s i o n
constants
T h e f u t u r e p o p u l a t i o n is p r o j e c t e d f r o m eq. ( 1 . 1 3 ) .
1.7.4
Component Methods
A p o p u l a t i o n change c a n occur i n o n l y three ways: (1) b y b i r t h , (2) b y death, a n d ( 3 )

t h r o u g h m i g r a t i o n . These c o m p o n e n t s o f p o p u l a t i o n change can be l i n k e d by the balance
equation:
- =
Pj=Po + B-DM
(1.14)
where
P^ = f o r e c a s t p o p u l a t i o n a t t h e e n d o f t i m e t
PQ = e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n
B = number o f births during t i m e t
D = n u m b e r o f deaths d u r i n g t i m e t
M = net n u m b e r o f migrants during t i m e t
(positive v a l u e indicates m i g r a t i o n i n t o t h e s t u d y area)
Because m i g r a t i o n affects t h e b i r t h s a n d d e a t h s i n a n area, t h e estimates o f n e t m i g r a t i o n are m a d e before e s t i m a t i n g t h e n a t u r a l c h a n g e due t o b i r t h s a n d deaths. T h e m i g r a t o r y t r e n d s m a y b e e s t i m a t e d b y a p p l y i n g eq. ( 1 . 1 4 ) b a c k w a r d t o t h e past census data o n
p o p u l a t i o n , b i r t h s , a n d deaths d u r i n g a selected p e r i o d . T h e s c h o o l attendance m e t h o d .
S e c t i o n 1.7
Long-Term Forecasting
11
c o m p a r i n g t h e a c t u a l c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d t o t h e c h i l d r e n f r o m b i r t h records, is also used f o r

estimating migration.
F o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e n a t u r a l c h a n g e d u e t o b i r t h s a n d d e a t h s , t h e s i m p l e s t p r o c e d u r e is
t o m u l t i p l y t h e e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n b y t h e e x p e c t e d b i r t h a n d d e a t h r a t e s , t h a t is,
B = K^PQAt
(1.15)
D = K2PQAt
(1.16)
where
k i p l C 2 = b i r t h a n d death rate, respectively
A t = forecast p e r i o d
Better estimates o f n a t u r a l change (births a n d deaths) are m a d e b y the cohort-survival
technique, w h i c h makes projections for each s u b c o m p o n e n t related t o the natural change.
1.8
PER CAPITA WATER
USAGE
P e r c a p i t a u s e i s n o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e d as t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y r a t e , w h i c h i s t h e m e a n a n n u a l
usage o f w a t e r averaged f o r a day i n t e r m s o f gallons ( o r liters) per capita per day (gpcd).
T h e seasonal, m o n t h l y , daily, a n d h o u r l y v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e rate are g i v e n i n percentages o f
t h e average. D e c i d i n g w h i c h o f these s h o u l d b e u s e d f o r t h e design capacity depends o n t h e
components o f the water supply system. T h e layouts o f two water supply systemsone for
d i r e c t p u m p i n g f r o m a r i v e r o r f r o m a w e l l field a n d o n e f o r a n i m p o u n d i n g r e s e r v o i r a r e
s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.4. T h e p e r i o d o f d e s i g n f o r w h i c h t h e p o p u l a t i o n p r o j e c t i o n i s t o b e
m a d e a n d t h e design capacity c r i t e r i a o f d i f f e r e n t c o m p o n e n t structures o f t h e systems are
i n d i c a t e d i n Table 1.1.
Figure 1.4
Layout of typical w a t e r supply systems (from Fair, Geyer, a n d O k u n , 1966).
Well field
Intake
conduit Treatment
plant
Conveyance
conduit
Service
reservoir
Supply
pipe to
city
Conveyance
conduit
Impounding
12
Treatment
plant
Distribution
system
Chapter I
Table 1.1
Design Periods a n d Capacity Criteria for Constituent Structures

Structure
Design Period^ (years)
Required Capacity
1. Source of supply
a.
River
indefinite
b. Well field
10-25
Maximum dally (requirements)

Maximum dally
c. Reservoir
25-50
Average annual demand
25-50
Maximum daily
25-50
Maximum daily
2. Conveyance
a.
Intake conduit
b. Conduit to treatment plant

3. Pumps
a.
Low-lift
b. High-lift
10
Maximum dally plus one reserve unit
10
Maximum hourly plus one reserve unit
4. Treatment plant
10-15
Maximum dally
5. Service reservoir
20-25
Working storage (storage capacity

computation, Sect. 10.10) plus fire
demand for a specified duration
(Table 1.3) plus emergency storage
25-50
Greater of (1) maximum dally plus fire

demand of a day or (2) maximum
6. Distribution
a. Supply pipe or conduit
b. Distribution grid
Full development
hourly requirement
"Design period" does not necessarily indicate the life of the structure. A design period takes into account other
factors, such as subsequent ease of extension, rate of population growth and shifts In community, and Industrial/commercial developments.
1.8.1 A v e r a g e D a U y p e r C a p i t a p e r D a y U s a g e
F o r h o u s e h o l d use, t h e p e r capita w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n ranges b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 180 gallons
p e r day, w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e a v e r a g e o f 1 0 1 g a l l o n s p e r d a y . M u n i c i p a l w a t e r u s e s h o u l d ,
h o w e v e r , also i n c l u d e c o m m e r c i a l use, s m a l l i n d u s t r i a l use, p u b l i c use, a n d losses i n t h e
system. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e U . S . Geological S u r v e y ( U S G S ) t h e estimated usage o f public
w a t e r s u p p l i e s i n t h e U . S . i n 2 0 0 0 w a s 1 7 9 g p c d . A t y p i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a n a v e r a g e c i t y is
g i v e n i n T a b l e 1.2. W h e n i n d u s t r i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c o m e r e l a t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t i n a c i t y ,
t h e y s h o u l d b e considered separately.
1.8.2 V a r i a t i o n s i n U s a g e
T h e v a l u e s i n T a b l e 1.2 r e f e r t o t h e d a i l y a v e r a g e o f t h e l o n g - t e r m ( m a n y y e a r s ) u s a g e . I n
actuality, c o n s u m p t i o n changes w i t h the seasons, varies f r o m day t o day i n the week, a n d
f l u c t u a t e s f r o m h o u r t o h o u r i n a day. K n o w l e d g e o f t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e
d e s i g n o f p r o j e c t c o m p o n e n t s , as i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 1 . 1 . T h e r e a r e t w o c o m m o n t r e n d s :
(1) the smaller the city the m o r e variable the demand; and (2) the shorter the period o f
f l o w , t h e w i d e r is t h e v a r i a t i o n f r o m t h e a v e r a g e ( i . e . , t h e h o u r l y p e a k f l o w i s m u c h h i g h e r
than the daily peak).
T y p i c a l v a r i a t i o n i n d a i l y u s a g e f r o m a c i t y w a t e r s u p p l y i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.5. T h e
v a r i a t i o n s a r e c o m m o n l y i n d i c a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e percentage o f t h e l o n g - t e r m average
value. T h e r e are n o f i x e d ratios; each c i t y has its o w n t r e n d . H o w e v e r , i n t h e absence o f
S e c t i o n 1.8
PerCapita Water Usage
13
Table 1.2
Typical Average Usage

Average Use
(gpcd)^
Use
Percent of Total
Household
101
56
Commercial
30
17
Industrial
22
12
Public
17
Loss
10
Total
180
100
^ Liter = gallons X 3.8.
Figure 1.5
Typical variation in usage in a day.
data, t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a d e v i s e d b y R . O . G o o d r i c h is v e r y c o n v e n i e n t f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e
m a x i m u m usage f r o m 2 h o u r s ( 2 / 2 4 day) t o a year (365 days) f o r s m a l l cities.
180
p =
[unbalanced]
(1.17)
Chapter 1
where
p = percentage o f a n n u a l average daily usage
r = t i m e , days
F r o m eq. ( 1 . 1 7 ) , t h e m a x i m u m d a i l y u s e i s 1 8 0 % o f t h e ( l o n g - t e r m ) average d a i l y
u s a g e , a n d t h e m a x i m u m m o n t h l y u s e is 1 2 8 % . F a r g e r c i t i e s m a y h a v e s m a l l e r p e a k s .
T h e m a x i m u m h o u r l y c o n s u m p t i o n i n a n y day is l i k e l y t o b e 1 5 0 % o f the usage f o r
t h a t d a y ( M c G h e e , 1 9 9 1 ) . F o r a d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m , t h e fire d e m a n d s a l s o h a v e t o b e
added. It is u n l i k e l y that water w i l l b e d r a w n a t the m a x i m u m h o u r l y rate w h i l e a serious
fire is r a g i n g . H e n c e , t h e c a p a c i t y is b a s e d o n t h e m a x i m u m d a i l y u s a g e p l u s fire d e m a n d
o r m a x i m u m h o u r l y u s a g e , w h i c h e v e r is g r e a t e r .
F o r p u m p d e s i g n , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o n m i n i m u m flow r a t e , w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e
2 5 t o 5 0 % o f t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y f l o w , a l s o is i m p o r t a n t .
E X A M P L E 1.6
F o r a city h a v i n g a n average daily w a t e r usage o f 180 gpcd f r o m the m u n i c i p a l supply,

d e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m h o u r l y r e q u i r e m e n t ( e x c l u d i n g t h e fire d e m a n d s ) .
SOLUTION
1 . M a x i m u m daily usage = 1 8 0 % o f average daily

180
=
(180) = 324 gpcd

100
2. F o r a m a x i m u m day, m a x i m u m h o u r l y u s a g e = 1 5 0 % o f d a i l y u s e
= ( 3 2 4 ) = 486 gpcd
100
'
1.9
FIRE DEMANDS
T h e q u a n t i t y o f w a t e r i n c l u d e d u n d e r t h e c a t e g o r y o f " p u b l i c u s e " f o r firefighting p u r p o s e s
is q u i t e s m a l l b u t t h e r a t e o f w i t h d r a w a l is h i g h . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m a n d s e r v i c e r e s e r v o i r t h u s s h o u l d i n c o r p o r a t e p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e fire d e m a n d s i n t h e i r c a p a c i t i e s .
M a n y m e t h o d s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f fire f l o w a n d d u r a t i o n . T h e s e i n c l u d e A p p e n d i x H o f t h e U n i f o r m F i r e C o d e ( 2 0 0 6 ) , t h e I n s u r a n c e Services
Office ( I S O ) Guide, the N a t i o n a l Fire Protection Association ( N F P A ) Standards, the Iowa
State M e t h o d , t h e I l l i n o i s I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y Research M e t h o d , a n d t he A m e r i c a n
W a t e r W o r k s Association ( A W W A ) M a n u a l . T h e U n i f o r m C o d e adopts a table t o s i m p l i f y
the procedure.
T h e C o d e utilizes the type o f b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d the f l o o r area t o d e t e r m i n e the
r e q u i r e d flows. B u i l d i n g s a r e c l a s s i f i e d b a s e d o n t h e t y p e o f b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l a n d t h e fire
r e s i s t a n c e r a t i n g . T h e fire resistance rating is d e f i n e d as t h e t i m e i n h o u r s o r f r a c t i o n t h e r e o f
t h a t a m a t e r i a l o r a s s e m b l y o f m a t e r i a l s w i U w i t h s t a n d t h e passage o f f l a m e a n d t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f h e a t w h e n e x p o s e d t o fire u n d e r s p e c i f i e d c o n d i t i o n s o f t e s t a n d p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a .
S e c t i o n 1.9
Fire D e m a n d s
15
1.9.1 T y p e s o f C o n s t r u c t i o n
T h e t w o basic categories are:
1 . Noncombustible ( c o n c r e t e , m a s o n r y , s t e e l ) : T y p e I a n d I I . T y p e I I i s f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d
i n t o I I - F R (fire resistive), I I - l hr, a n d I I - N ( n o resistance rating).
2 . Combustible: T y p e I I I , I V , a n d V . T y p e s I I I a n d I V h a v e n o n c o m b u s t i b l e e x t e r i o r a n d
combustible interior. T h e i n t e r i o r o f T y p e I V has heavy t i m b e r ( H T ) c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
s o l i d o r l a m i n a t e d w o o d w i t h o u t c o n c e a l e d s p a c e s w i t h a m i n i m u m 8 i n . n o m i n a l size.
T y p e I I I , entirely o r partially w o o d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f smaller dimensions t h a n Type I V , is
f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d i n t o I I I - l h r a n d I I I - N ( n o r a t i n g ) . T y p e V has c o m b u s t i b l e exterior
a n d interior. I t is subdivided i n t o V - 1 h r a n d V - N . T h e m a j o r i t y o f private h o m e s fall
i n t o t h e last category.
1.9.2
Fire Area
T h e f i r e area is t h e t o t a l f l o o r area i n s q u a r e feet o f a l l f l o o r levels e x c l u d i n g t h e b a s e m e n t .

F o r T y p e I a n d T y p e I I c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e fire area is t h e area o f t h r e e largest successive
floors d u e t o i n h e r e n t fire resistance.
1.9.3
Fire Flow Requirements a n d Duration
B u i l d i n g s are classified i n t o ( 1 ) o n e - a n d t w o - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s , a n d ( 2 ) o t h e r b u i l d i n g s .
F o r o n e - a n d t w o - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s h a v i n g a f i r e a r e a o f 3 6 0 0 f f ^ o r less, t h e m i n i m u m f i r e
f l o w is 1 0 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e . T h e m i n i m u m f l o w d u r a t i o n is 2 h o u r s . F o r o n e - a n d t w o f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s o f a r e a i n excess o f 3 6 0 0 f f ^ , u s e T a b l e 1.3 t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e d f l o w
and duration. Under the c o l u m n for type o f construction, find the r o w corresponding to
t h e fire area a n d read across t h e last t w o c o l u m n s f o r fire f l o w i n g p m a n d d u r a t i o n i n
h o u r s , respectively.
F o r b u i l d i n g s o t h e r t h a n o n e - a n d t w o - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s , u s e T a b l e 1.3 s i m i l a r l y . I n t h i s
case t h e m i n i m u m o f 3 6 0 0 f t ^ d o e s n o t a p p l y .
I n buildings w i t h sprinkler systems, fire d e m a n d s c o u l d b e reduced u p t o 5 0 % for
o n e - a n d t w o - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s a n d u p t o 7 5 % b u t n o t less t h a n 1 5 0 0 g p m f o r o t h e r
buildings.
F o r m o s t d e v e l o p m e n t projects, t h e b u i l d i n g w i t h the largest fire f l o w determines the
f l o w requirements for the entire project.
E X A M P L E 1.7
A c i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 20,000 has a n average d a i l y usage o f 180 gpcd. T h e fire d e m a n d

is d i c t a t e d b y a t h r e e - s t o r y b u i l d i n g , e a c h f l o o r o f w h i c h h a s a n a r e a o f 2 4 0 0 ft^ o f o r d i n a r y
( V - N ) construction. D e t e r m i n e the fire d e m a n d a n d the design capacity for different c o m p o n e n t s o f a w a t e r s u p p l y p r o j e c t . T h e w o r k i n g s e r v i c e s t o r a g e i s 1.5 m g d .
SOLUTION
1 . F r o m E x a m p l e 1.6
m a x i m u m d a i l y usage = 324 gpcd
m a x i m u m h o u r l y usage = 4 8 6 gpcd
16
Chapter 1
Table 1.3
M i n i m u m Required Fire Flow a n d Flow Duration for Buildings^

Fire Area f t ^ ( x 0 . 0 9 2 9 f o r m^)
11-1 hr..
1, II-FR
III-l hr.
0-22,700
22,701-30,200
30,201-38,700
38,701-48,300
48,301-59,000
59,001-70,900
70,901-83,700
83,701-97,700
97,701-112,700
112,701-128,700
128,701-145,900
145,901-164,200
164,201-183,400
0-12,700
12,701-17,000
17,001-21,800
IV-HT,
II-N,
III-N
V-1 hr.
0-8,200
183,401-203,700
203,701-225,200
225,201-247,700
247,701-271,200
271,201-295,900
295,901-Greater
21,801-24,200
24,201-33,200
33,201-39,700
39,701-47,100
47,101-54,900
54,901-63,400
63,401-72,400
72,401-82,100
82,101-92,400
92,401-103,100
103,101-114,600
114,601-126,700
126,701-139,400
139,401-152,600
152,601-166,500
166,501-Greater
8,201-10,900
10,901-12,900
12,901-17,400
17,401-21,300
21,301-25,500
25,501-30,100
30,101-35,200
35,201-40,600
40,601-46,400
46,401-52,500
52,501-59,100
59,101-66,000
66,001-73,300
73,301-81,100
81,101-89,200
89,201-97,700
97,701-106,500
106,501-115,800
295,901-Greater
295,901-Greater
295,901-Greater
295,901-Greater
295,901-Greater
295,901-Greater
295,901-Greater
166,501-Greater
166,501-Greater
166,501-Greater
166,501-Greater
166,501-Greater
166,501-Greater
166,501-Greater
115,801-125,500
125,501-135,500
135,501-145,800
145,801-156,700
156,701-167,900
167,901-179,400
179,401-191,400
295,901-Greater
166,501-Greater
191,401-Greater
Fire F l o w
0-5,900
5,901-7,900
7,901-9,800
9,801-12,600
12,601-15,400
15,401-18,400
18,401-21,800
21,801-25,900
25,901-29,300
29,301-33,500
33,501-37,900
37,901-12,700
42,701-47,700
47,701-53,000
53,001-58,600
58,601-65,400
65,401-70,600
70,601-77,000
77,001-83,700
83,701-90,600
90,601-97,900
97,901-106,800
106,801-113,200
113,201-121,300
121,301-129,600
129,601-138,300
138,301-Greater
V-N
gpm''
( X 3.785
Flow
f o r 17 d u r a t i o n
min)
(hours)
0-3,600
3,601-4,800
4,801-6,200
1,500
1,750
2,000
6,201-7,700
7,701-9,400
9,401-11,300
2,250
2,500
2,750
11,301-13,400
13,401-15,600
15,601-18,000
18,001-20,600
20,601-23,300
23,301-26,300
26,301-29,300
29,301-32,600
32,601 -36,000
36,001-39,600
39,601-43,400
43,401-47,400
47,401-51,500
51,501-55,700
55,701-60,200
60,201-64,800
64,801-69,600
69,601-74,600
74,601-79,800
79,801-85,100
85,101-Greater
3,000
3,250
3,500
3,750
4,000
4,250
4,500
4,750
5,000
5,250
5,500
5,750
6,000
6,250
6,500
6,750
7,000
7,250
7,500
7,750
8,000
>
^ Types o f construction are based o n NFPA 220.

^ Measured at 20 psi (139.9 kPa).
Note: T h e fire flow requirements in Table 1.3 are based o n buildings w i t h o u t fire sprinkler protection. Buildings w i t h
fire sprinkler protection should receive a fire sprinkler credit t o t h e required fire flow.
Source: Reprinted w i t h permission from t h e Uniform Fire Code Handbook (2006). Copyright 2006 National Fire Protection Association. All rights reserved.
A -i A H 1 8 0 ( 2 0 . 0 0 0 )
,
,
2. A v e r a g e d a i l y d r a f t =
= 3.6 m g d
1,000,000
3. M a x i m u m d a i l y d r a f f = ^ 2 4 ( 2 0 , 0 0 0 ) _
1,000,000
S e c t i o n 1.9
Fire D e m a n d s
17
,
, . r
486(20,000)
,
4. M a x i m u m h o u r l y d r a f t =
= 9.72 m g d
1,000,000
5. Fire flow
"
T o t a l floor area = 3 ( 2 4 0 0 ) = 7200 ff^

F r o m T a h l e 1.3,
'
fire f l o w = 2 2 5 0 g p m o r 3 . 2 4 m g d
duration = 2 hours
6 . M a x i m u m d a i l y + fire f l o w = 6 . 4 8 + 3 . 2 4 = 9 . 7 2 m g d
7. P u m p s : A s s u m e t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d f l o w is h a n d l e d h y t h r e e u n i t s a n d t h a t o n e r e s e r v e
u n i t is i n s t a l l e d .
4
4
a. L o w - l i f t p u m p s = J ( m a x i m u m d a i l y ) = ( 6 . 4 8 ) = 8.64 m g d
4
4
b . H i g h - l i f t p u m p s = ( m a x i m u m h o u r l y ) = (9.72) = 12.96 m g d
8. S e r v i c e r e s e r v o i r :
a. Fire f l o w d u r a t i o n = 2 h r
2
b . T o t a l q u a n t i t y o f fire f l o w =
(3.24) = 0.27 m g d
c . W o r k i n g s t o r a g e ( g i v e n ) = 1.5 m g d
d . F m e r g e n c y storage = (days) (average d a i l y d r a f t ) = 3 ( 3 . 6 ) = 10.8 m g d
e . S e r v i c e s t o r a g e = 0 . 2 7 + 1.5 + 1 0 . 8 = 1 2 . 5 7 m g d
9 . D e s i g n capacities:
1.10
Capacity
(mgd)
Structure
Basis
River f l o w
M a x i m u m daily
6.48
Intake conduit, conduit t o

treatment
M a x i m u m dally
6.48
Low-lift pumps
M a x i m u m daily plus reserve
8.64
High-lift p u m p s
M a x i m u m h o u r l y plus reserve
12.96
Treatment plant
M a x i m u m daily
6.48
Service storage
W o r k i n g s t o r a g e p l u s fire p l u s e m e r g e n c y
12.S7
Distribution system
M a x i m u m d a l l y p l u s fire o r m a x i m u m
h o u r l y , w h i c h e v e r Is g r e a t e r
9.72
INDUSTRIAL REQUIREMENTS
T a b l e 1.2 i n c l u d e d a t y p i c a l i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r c o m p o n e n t f r o m a p u b l i c w a t e r s u p p l y syst e m . T h i s is n o t a d e q u a t e f o r a c o m m u n i t y w i t h large w a t e r - u s i n g i n d u s t r i e s . L a r g e i n d u s -
18
Chapter 1
tries a r e u s u a l l y served b y separate supplies. A b o u t 5 % o f t h e industries use 8 0 % o f t h e

i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r d e m a n d ; 7 0 % o f i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s u s e as l i t t l e as 2 % o f t h e d e m a n d . T h e r m a l p o w e r stations are t h e heaviest w a t e r users, w i t h a r e q u i r e m e n t o f 7 0 0 gpcd o r 2 0 gal/
k W h o n t h e average. O t h e r m a j o r w a t e r - u s i n g i n d u s t r i e s a r e steel, paper, chemicals, textiles, a n d p e t r o l e u m r e f i n i n g . T h e average i n d u s t r i a l r e q u i r e m e n t f o r t h e entire c o u n t r y
( e x c l u d i n g t h e r m a l p o w e r s t a t i o n s ) i s 1 0 0 g p c d . T a b l e 1.4 l i s t s t h e w a t e r i n t a k e o f m a j o r
industries, w h i c h is t h e a m o u n t o f water p u m p e d i n t o t h e establishment per u n i t o f prod u c t i o n . T h e a c t u a l c o n s u m p t i o n b y u n i t o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l i n d u s t r y is a n y w h e r e f r o m 2 t o 2 0 % ; t h e balance is discharged. T h u s , b y recycling wastewater, industries
can substantially reduce t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f fresh w a t e r r e q u i r e d . I n t h e foreseeable f u t u r e ,
i m p r o v e d p l a n t efficiencies d u e t o n e w t e c h n o l o g i e s i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l sector, increased
w a t e r recycling, higher energy prices, a n d changes i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l regulations w i l l c o n tribute t o a decline i n i n d u s t r i a l water use.
Table 1.4
R e q u i r e m e n t s of Major Industries
Industry
Thermoelectric power
1.11
Average Water Use

2 0 gal/kWh
Steel
3 8 , 0 0 0 gal/ton
Paper
3 9 , 0 0 0 gal/ton
Organic chemicals
5 5 , 0 0 0 gal/ton
Woolens
1 4 0 , 0 0 0 gal/ton
Coke (coal byproduct)
3 , 6 0 0 gal/ton
Petroleum refining
7 7 0 gal/barrel
WASTE DILUTION REQUIREMENTS

I n earlier t i m e s i t w a s a c o m m o n practice t o d u m p r a w m u n i c i p a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l wastes
i n t o t h e s a m e r i v e r t h a t s e r v e d as t h e s o u r c e o f s u p p l y , t h u s r e l y i n g o n t h e s e l f - p u r i f i c a t i o n
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s t r e a m . A s l o n g as t h e s t r e a m f l o w i s a t l e a s t 4 0 t i m e s t h a t o f t h e w a s t e f l o w
a n d there is a sufficiently l o n g reach o f river t o t h e n e x t city, b o t h nuisance a n d unsafe cond i t i o n s c a n b e avoided. B u t w i t h t h e r a p i d g r o w t h o f cities a n d i n d u s t r i a l activities a n d
w i t h increased d e m a n d placed o n w a t e r supplies, t h e d u m p i n g o f r a w wastes i n t o rivers is
n o longer p e r m i t t e d . T h e p r o b l e m n o w is t o w h a t extent t h e m u n i c i p a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l
wastes s h o u l d b e treated before discharge i n t o t h e river ( i n d u s t r i a l wastes have t o b e considered even i f t h e i n d u s t r i a l supplies are developed f r o m a different source t h a n t h e
m u n i c i p a l supplies). T h e a m o u n t o f streamflow required f o r sufficient natural treatment
o f m u n i c i p a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e f l o w is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p o l l u t a n t characteristics o f t h e
waste a n d streamflow properties w i t h regard t o oxygen content, dissolved minerals, water
t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d l e n g t h o f t h e available d o w n s t r e a m reach. T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p is depicted i n
m a n y m o d e l s , t h e m o s t c o m m o n b e i n g t h e o x y g e n sag curve. F o r average c o n d i t i o n s i t has
b e e n f o u n d t h a t t h e r a w (fully untreated) waste f r o m m u n i c i p a l a n d i n d u s t r i a l sources,
excluding t h e r m a l power plants, requires a ratio o f streamflow t o wasteflow o f 40, a n d
t h o r o u g h l y t r e a t e d w a s t e r e q u i r e s a r a t i o o f 2 , w i t h a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n i n b e t w e e n as s h o w n
i n F i g u r e 1.6 ( K u i p e r , 1 9 6 5 ) .
I f w a t e r s u p p l y is b e i n g p l a n n e d f r o m a r e s e r v o i r project, t h e r e are t h r e e a n n u a l cost
c o m p o n e n t s t o b e considered: ( 1 ) cost o f storage t o p r o v i d e t h e m u n i c i p a l ( a n d i n d u s t r i a l )
S e c t i o n 1. U
Waste Dilution Requirements
19
Figure 1.6
Requirements for w a s t e dilution.
r e q u i r e m e n t s , ( 2 ) cost o f storage t o p r o d u c e t h e r e q u i r e d q u a n t i t y f o r waste d i l u t i o n , a n d

(3) cost o f w a s t e t r e a t m e n t . I t e m s ( 2 ) a n d ( 3 ) act o p p o s i t e t o each o t h e r ; t h a t is, w h e n t h e
degree o f t r e a t m e n t is increased, t h e cost o f t r e a t m e n t rises b u t t h e cost o f w a s t e d i l u t i o n
storage decreases, a n d v i c e versa. T h e v a r i o u s degrees o f t r e a t m e n t a n d t h e a n n u a l costs
associated w i t h t h e m are c o n s i d e r e d u n t i l t h e l o w e s t cost is f o u n d t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h e m o s t
e c o n o m i c t r e a t m e n t o f the city's waste.
E X A M P L E 1.8
A c i t y h a d a t o t a l w i t h d r a w a l ( e x c l u d i n g i n - s t r e a m d i l u t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s ) o f 140 m g d i n
1 9 9 7 d i s t r i b u t e d as f o l l o w s : m u n i c i p a l u s a g e , 3 0 m g d ; m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s , 3 5 m g d ;
a n d t h e r m a l p o w e r , 7 5 m g d . T h e c i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , w h i c h is e x p e c t e d t o r i s e
to 2 2 0 , 0 0 0 i n t h e year 2 0 1 0 . A n i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s i o n o f 2 0 % a n d a t h e r m a l p o w e r increase o f
8 0 M W is expected i n t h e c i t y b y 2 0 1 0 . E s t i m a t e t h e t o t a l w i t h d r a w a l i n t h e year 2 0 1 0 . I f t h e
w a s t e is t o be discharged after 8 0 % o f t h e t r e a t m e n t , d e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s .
SOLUTION
30(10^
20
1.
E x i s t i n g per capita m u n i c i p a l usage =
= 1 5 0 gpcd
->
2.
I n the year 2010:

AT ,
A (220,000) (150) _
,
Municipal requirements =
= 33 m g d
1,000,000
3.
Manufacturing industry requirements = j ^ ( ^ ^ - ' ~
^^'^ ( 2 0 % e x p a n s i o n )
Demand forWater
Chapter 1
4. T h e r m a l p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s :
a . A s s u m i n g a p l a n t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r o f 0 . 6 , t h e a d d i t i o n a l e n e r g y p r o d u c e d p e r d a y is
( 8 0 M W ) ( 1 day)(0.6)
"(24 h r )
(lOOOkW)
(1 d a y )
(l M W )
= 1.15x10^ k W h
b . F r o m T a b l e 1.4, w a t e r u s a g e = 2 0 g a l / k W h
c. A d d i t i o n a l w a t e r r e q u i r e d = ( 2 0 ) ( l . 1 5 x 1 0 ^ ) vld
=23 mgd
/
d. T o t a l t h e r m a l p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s = 7 5 + 23 = 98 m g d (existing plus n e w )
5. T o t a l f o r m u n i c i p a l a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g usage = 3 3 + 4 2 = 75 m g d
6. M a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d t h e r m a l ( t o t a l i n d u s t r i a l ) = 4 2 + 98 = 140 m g d
'"
7. W a s t e d i l u t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s :
a . F r o m F i g . 1.6, f o r 8 0 % t r e a t m e n t t h e s t r e a m f l o w / w a s t e f l o w r a t i o ( e x c l u d i n g t h e r m a l
plant effluent) = 9
b. S t r e a m f l o w requirement = 9(75) = 675 m g d
c. W a s t e d i l u t i o n = 6 7 5 - ( 3 3 + 4 2 + 9 8 ) = 5 0 2 m g d
8. C i t y w a t e r s u p p l y r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w s :
Sector
1.12
mgd
Municipal requirements
33
Industrial (including thermal)

requirements
140
Waste dilution requirements
502
DEMAND FORIRRIGATION WATER

T h e d e m a n d f o r i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r depends o n several factors, i n c l u d i n g the m e t h o d o f i r r i gation, t y p e o f crop t o h e g r o w n , soil c o n d i t i o n s , a n d p r e v a i l i n g climate. T h e gross i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t is i n d i c a t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e d e p t h o f w a t e r over t h e i r r i g a h l e area.
T h e hasic q u a n t i t y o f interest is the c o n s u m p t i v e u s e o f the crop, f r o m w h i c h the w a t e r
a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h r a i n f a l l i s s u b t r a c t e d a n d v a r i o u s l o s s e s a r e a d d e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e gross
irrigation demand.
A considerable quantity o f water applied to f a r m l a n d returns to the river system. T h i s
i n c l u d e s surface r u n o f f d u r i n g i r r i g a t i o n , w a s t e d w a t e r , canal seepage, a n d deep p e r c o l a t i o n . T h i s m a y h e 3 0 t o 6 0 % o f t h e gross r e q u i r e m e n t . A b o u t o n e - h a l f o f this reaches the
r i v e r t h r o u g h g r o u n d w a t e r f l o w . T h e r e m a i n d e r r e a c h e s t h e r i v e r as s u r f a c e r u n o f f d u r i n g
t h e i r r i g a t i o n season a n d , t h u s , b e c o m e s available f o r use t o d o w n s t r e a m projects.
I r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s m u s t i n c l u d e s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e f a c i l i t i e s as a m e a s u r e a g a i n s t
w a t e r l o g g i n g a n d s a l i n i t y . D r a i n a g e aspects are d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 14.
S e c t i o n 1.12
D e m a n d for Irrigation Water
21
1.13
C O N S U M P T I V E U S EO F C R O P S
T h e c o n s u m p t i v e use a n d e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n f r o m a c r o p p e d area are considered s y n o n y m o u s . N u m e r o u s p r o c e d u r e s have h e e n devised t o e s t i m a t e t h e c o n s u m p t i v e use o f water.
T w o m e t h o d s c o m m o n l y a p p l i e d t o c r o p p e d areas are descrihed here. T h e data f r o m actual
f a r m experience o r e x p e r i m e n t a l hasins, w h e r e v e r availahle, are g i v e n preference over the
c o m p u t a t i o n a l procedures hecause o f t h e e m p i r i c a l constants i n v o l v e d i n the latter.
1.13.1 P e n m a n - M o n t e i t h M e t h o d
C u r r e n t l y t h i s i s a v e r y p o w e r f u l t o o l u s e d i n h y d r o l o g i c p r a c t i c e t o assess e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n . T h e m e t h o d is descrihed i n detail i n Section 2.12.2 a n d s h o u l d h e studied along w i t h
the Blaney-Griddle method.
1.13.2 B l a n e y - C r i d d l e M e t h o d
F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e a r i d w e s t e r n r e g i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d States, B l a n e y a n d G r i d d l e
( 1 9 4 5 ) p r o p o s e d a r e l a t i o n t h a t d e t e r m i n e d c o n s u m p t i v e u s e as t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
m e a n m o n t h l y temperatures, m o n t h l y percent o f a n n u a l d a y t i m e h o u r s , a n d a coefficient
for i n d i v i d u a l crops t h a t v a r i e d m o n t h l y a n d seasonally. T h e coefficients presented o r i g i nally w e r e the seasonal values f o r the entire g r o w i n g season o f crops. Suhsequently, m o n t h l y
coefficient values w e r e suggested ( B l a n e y a n d G r i d d l e , 1962). H o w e v e r , these coefficients
d i d n o t i n c l u d e t h e effects o f h u m i d i t y , w i n d m o v e m e n t , a n d o t h e r c l i m a t o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s .
T h e m o d i f i e d B l a n e y - C r i d d l e m e t h o d [U.S. SCS, 1970; n o w the N a t u r a l Resources Conserv a t i o n Service ( N R C S ) ] split the coefficient i n t w o parts t o consider these factors indirectly.
T h e m o d i f i e d f o r m u l a is
U =l K , K t ^ ^
[unbalanced]
(1-18)
where
U = c o n s u m p t i v e use i n . / m o n t h
- climatic coefficient related to m e a n m o n t h l y temperatures
= g r o w t h stage coefficient
t,^ = m e a n m o n t h l y t e m p e r a t u r e , F
p - m o n t h l y p e r c e n t a g e o f a n n u a l d a y t i m e h o u r s ( T a b l e 1.5)
T h e values o f
are based o n t h e f o r m u l a
K , =0.0173r-0.314
[unbalanced]
(1.19)
For
< 3 6 F, u s e K , = 0 . 3 0 .
T h e m o n t h l y values o f a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e 1.6(a) f o r a p e r e n n i a l crop w i t h a
y e a r - r o u n d g r o w i n g s e a s o n . F o r o t h e r s e a s o n a l c r o p s . T a b l e 1 . 6 ( b ) is u s e d , b a s e d o n t h e p e r centage o f the g r o w i n g season covered b y the m o n t h i n question. T h e m o n t h l y c o n s u m p t i v e
a m o u n t s are s u m m e d o v e r t h e g r o w i n g season t o o b t a i n t h e seasonal c o n s u m p t i v e use.
22
Chapter 1
Table 1.5
Monthly Percentage of Daytime Hours of the Year

Latitude (degrees north of equator)
Month
Jan.
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
7.58
7.49
7.40
7.30
7.20
7.10
6.99
6.87
6.76
6.62
6.49
6.33
6.17
50
5.98
6.79
6.73
6.65
6.58
6.50
6.42
6.32
Feb.
7.17
7.12
7.07
7.03
6.97
6.91
6.86
Mar.
8.40
8.40
8.39
8.38
8.37
8.36
8.35
8.34
8.33
8.31
8.30
8.29
8.27
8.25
8.90
8.95
9.00
9.05
9.12
9.18
9.25
9.92
10.02
10.14
10.26
10.39
10.53
10.69
10.38
10.54
10.71
10.93
Apr.
8.60
8.64
8.68
8.72
8.75
8.80
8.85
May
9.30
9.38
9.46
9.53
9.63
9.72
9.81
June
9.20
9.30
9.38
9.49
9.60
9.70
9.83
9.95
10.08
10.21
July
9.41
9.49
9.58
9.67
9.77
9.88
9.99
10.10
10.22
10.35
10.49
10.64
10.80
10.99
9.70
9.79
9.89
10.00
Aug.
9.05
9.10
9.16
9.22
9.28
9.33
9.40
9.47
9.54
9.62
Sept.
8.31
8.31
8.32
8.34
8.34
8.36
8.36
8.38
8.38
8.40
8.41
8.42
8.44
8.44
7.63
7.58
7.51
7.43
Oct.
8.09
8.06
8.02
7.99
7.93
7.90
7.85
7.80
7.75
7.70
Nov.
7.43
7.36
7.27
7.19
7.11
7.02
6.92
6.82
6.72
6.62
6.49
6.36
6.22
6.07
6.04
5.86
5.65
100.00
100.00
100.00
Dec.
Annual
7.46
7.35
7.27
7.14
7.05
6.92
6.79
6.66
6.52
6.38
6.22
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Table 1.6(a)
Crop-Growth-Stage Coefficient
(Modified Blaney-Criddle Method) Perennial Crops (Northern Hemisphere)

Average
Jan.
Crop
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
values by months
July
June
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Alfalfa
0.63
0.74
0.86
0.99
1.09
1.13
1.11
1.06
0.99
0.90
0.78
0.65
Grass pasture
0.48
0.58
0.74
0.85
0.90
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.87
0.79
0.67
0.55
Grapes
0.20
0.23
0.32
0.49
0.70
0.80
0.81
0.76
0.66
0.50
0.35
0.25
Citrus orchards
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.68
0.66
0.64
Deciduous, with cover
0.63
0.74
0.86
0.98
1.09
1.13
1.12
1.06
0.99
0.90
0.78
0.65
Deciduous, no cover
0.17
0.25
0.39
0.63
0.87
0.96
0.95
0.82
0.53
0.30
0.20
0.16
Avocados
0.27
0.42
0.58
0.71
0.78
0.81
0.78
0.71
0.63
0.54
0.43
0.36
0.68
0.92
0.98
0.88
0.69
0.49
0.31
0.15
Walnuts
0.10
Table 1.6(b)
0.14
0.23
0.43
A n n u a l Crops
values at listed % of growing season
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Field corn (grain)
0.44
0.49
0.58
0.71
0.93
0.44
0.48
0.55
0.65
0.80
1.05
0.97
1.08
Field corn (silage)
1.06
1.06
1.08
1.01
1.06
0.93
1.02
0.85
0.96
Crop
Grain sorghum
0.30
0.38
0.60
0.83
1.01
1.07
0.99
0.88
0.76
0.65
0.56
Winter wheat^
1.46
1.44
1.42
1.39
1.35
1.30
1.23
1.15
1.03
0.86
0.78
Spring grains
0.29
0.45
0.67
0.89
1.09
1.28
1.31
1.17
0.90
0.55
0.20
Cotton
0.20
0.25
0.33
0.50
0.79
0.97
1.02
0.95
0.81
0.65
0.29
Dry beans
0.50
0.59
0.71
0.87
1.02
1.10
1.12
1.06
0.94
0.81
0.67
1.20
1.25
1.21
1.13
1.04
Sugar beets
0.45
0.50
0.61
0.79
0.95
1.10
Potatoes
0.33
0.40
0.51
0.72
0.98
1.17
1.31
1.37
1.36
1.31
1.23
Tomatoes
0.45
0.45
0.47
0.56
0.75
0.95
1.03
0.99
0.90
0.80
0.70
Melons and cantaloupe
0.44
0.48
0.56
0.65
0.76
0.81
0.81
0.78
0.75
0.71
0.67
Small vegetables
0.29
0.40
0.57
0.69
0.77
0.81
0.82
0.79
0.72
0.58
0.38
" Data given only for springtime season of 70 days prior to harvest (after last frost).
Source: Davis and Sorensen (1969).
Increases from 0.50 at seeding to 1.46 during period with average temperature below 32F.
EXAMPLE
1.9
F o r t h e g r o w i n g s e a s o n o f s u g a r h e e t s a t F i m h e r l y , I d a h o , l o c a t e d a t l a t i t u d e 42.4 N , t h e
l o n g - t e r m m e a n m o n t h l y a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e g i v e n i n c o l u m n 2 o f T a h l e 1.7. T h e c r o p i s
p l a n t e d A p r i l 1 1 a n d h a r v e s t e d O c t o b e r 15. F s t i m a t e t h e s e a s o n a l c o n s u m p t i v e use o f w a t e r .
S O L U T I O N T h e m o n t h l y c o n s u m p t i v e v a l u e s a r e a r r a n g e d i n T a h l e 1.7.
U s i n g v a l u e s f r o m c o l . 8 o f T a h l e 1.7, t h e s e a s o n a l c o n s u m p t i v e u s e i s :
{7 = ( 0 . 8 9 ) + 2.15 + 4 . 0 1 + 7.06 + 7.13 + 3.96 + ( 2 . 0 3 )
30
31
= 25.92 i n .
Table 1.7
C o n s u m p t i v e Use C o m p u t a t i o n
(2)
(1)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Number
of Days
In Period
Midperiod
Percent
of Total
Season^
from
Table 1.6(b)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Period
Mean
Monthly
Temp.
(F)
Apr. 11 -30
44.5
20
0.48
0.46
9.01
0.89
May
55.2
31
19
0.60
0.64
10.16
2.15
June
60.8
30
35d
0.87
0.74
10.24
4.01
July
69.5
31
51
1.10
0.89
10.38
7.06
Aug.
68.6
31
68
1.24
0.87
9.64
7.13
Sept.
57.9
30
84
1.18
0.69
8.40
3.96
47.9
15
96
1.08
0.51
7.69
2.03
Oct.
1-15
Total
Percent p
from
Kf
Table 1.5
(In./
month)
188
a Number of days up to middle of the period

Total days in growing season
''/<-, = 0.0173(col.2)-0.314.
c ^ _ (col. 2)(col. 5}(col. 6)(col. 7)
100
d 20 + 31 + 15
188
1.14
EFFECTIVE RAINFALL
T h e p o r t i o n o f the rainfall d u r i n g t h e g r o w i n g season that is utilized i n m e e t i n g t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f c r o p s is t e r m e d t h e effective rainfall. T h e r e m a i n d e r is l o s t t h r o u g h s u r f a c e
r u n o f f a n d deep p e r c o l a t i o n . I n h u m i d areas, t h i s m a y p r o v i d e a m a j o r p o r t i o n o f the
r e q u i r e m e n t s , w h e r e a s i n a r i d areas i t m a y c o n s t i t u t e o n l y a s m a l l part. T h e necessity o f
i r r i g a t i o n i n h u m i d regions m a y arise due to the u n b a l a n c e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f rainfall.
S e c t i o n 1.14
Effective Rainfall
25
Effective rainfall is influenced b y m a n y factors relating t o (1) soil m o i s t u r e , (2) cropp i n g pattern, (3) application o f i r r i g a t i o n , a n d (4) rainfall characteristics. Based o n t h e
study o f extensive data, t h e Soil C o n s e r v a t i o n Service ( 1 9 6 4 ) suggested the relationship
s h o w n i n T a h l e 1.8. T h e l i m i t a t i o n o n u s e is g i v e n a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a h l e .
W h e r e a s the crop consumptive-use r e q u i r e m e n t s v a r y f r o m year t o year h y a s m a l l
m a r g i n , t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n rainfall are large. A s such, t h e frequency analysis o f effective r a i n fall is m a d e as f o l l o w s :
1. F o r t h e r e g i o n u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , a v a i l a h l e d a t a o n m o n t h l y r a i n f a l l are collected.
2 . U s i n g T a h l e 1.8, t h e e f f e c t i v e r a i n f a l l f i g u r e s f o r e a c h m o n t h o f r e c o r d a r e d e t e r m i n e d .
3. F o r each y e a r o n r e c o r d , t h e t o t a l effective p r e c i p i t a t i o n f o r a l l t h e m o n t h s o f t h e g r o w i n g season is d e t e r m i n e d .
4. F r o m t h e resultant v a l u e s o n e for each year o n r e c o r d a
b y t h e m e t h o d o f S e c t i o n 8.8.
frequency
c u r v e is p r e p a r e d
5. I f a n i r r i g a t i o n s u p p l y i s d e s i r e d t h a t w i l l b e a d e q u a t e 9 0 % o f t h e t i m e ( 9 o f 10 y e a r s ) ,
t h e e f f e c t i v e r a i n f a l l c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e 9 0 % v a l u e o f t h e frequency c u r v e is o b s e r v e d .
6. T h e t o t a l effective r a i n f a l l i s d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e m o n t h s o f t h e g r o w i n g season i n t h e
ratio indicated b y the 10 driest years o n record.
Table 1.8
A v e r a g e M o n t h l y Effective Rainfall Related to M e a n M o n t h l y Rainfall a n d
Average Monthly C o n s u m p t i v e Use

Average monthly consumptive use, (7 (in.)
Monthly mean
rainfall (In.)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
0.5
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.35
1.0
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.70
0.75
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.50
0.80
0.85
0.95
1.00
2.0
1.00
1.25
1.35
1.55
1.55
1.55
1.60
3.0
1.00
1.85
1.95
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
1.70
1.85
2.00
2.55
2.70
2.90
4.0
1.00
2.00
2.55
2.70
2.90
2.95
3.15
3.30
3.50
3.80
5.0
1.00
2.00
3.00
3.25
3.50
3.60
3.85
4.05
4.30
4.60
6.0
1.00
2.00
3.00
3.80
4.10
4.25
4.50
4.80
5.10
5.40
7.0
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
4.60
4.80
5.05
5.40
5.70
6.05
8.0
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
5.30
5.60
5.90
6.20
9.0
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
5.75
6.05
6.35
Average monthly effective rainfall (in.)^
^ Based on 3-ln. net depth of application for irrigation. For other net depths of application, multiply by the factors
shown below.
Net depth
of application
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Factor
0.72
0.77
0.86
0.93
0.97
1.00
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.07
Note: Average monthly effective rainfall cannot exceed average monthly rainfall or average monthly consumptive
use. When the application of the factors above results in a value of effective rainfall exceeding either, this value must
he reduced to a value equal to the lesser of the two.
Source: U.S. SCS (1964), now the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).
26
Chapter 1
1.15
FARM
LOSSES
T h e l o s s e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e f r o m t h e w a t e r d e l i v e r e d t o t h e f a r m a r e m e a s u r e d h y t h e onfarm efficiency. T\ms

o n - f a r m efficiency =
water utilized i n crop growth

water delivered to f a r m
(1-20)
T h e p r i n c i p a l factors t h a t affect efficiency i n c l u d e ( 1 ) t h e m e t h o d o f a p p l y i n g t h e water,

( 2 ) t h e t e x t u r e a n d c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s o i l , ( 3 ) t h e s l o p e o f t h e l a n d , (4) t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e
l a n d ( i . e . , d i t c h e d o r b o r d e r e d ) , (4) t h e r a t e o f i r r i g a t i o n f l o w i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f a r m size,
a n d ( 5 ) t h e m a n a g e m e n t practices o f t h e i r r i g a t o r . F a r m losses take place d u e t o ( 1 ) deep
p e r c o l a t i o n b e y o n d t h e r o o t z o n e o f crops, (2) surface wastes f r o m the fields, a n d (3) o n f a r m d i s t r i b u t i o n losses a n d n o n p r o d u c t i v e c o n s u m p t i o n .
For deep percolation, a m i n i m u m allowance o f about 2 0 % o f the applied water is
made. T h i s ensures adequate leaching i f the applied water does n o t contain m o r e t h a n
1 3 0 0 p p m o f d i s s o l v e d sa lts a n d t h e d r a i n e d w a t e r c a n b e a c c e p t e d w i t h 6 0 0 0 p p m o f d i s s o l v e d salts. I t m a y be necessary t o pass a d d i t i o n a l w a t e r f o r l e a c h i n g i f t h e a p p l i e d i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r is m o r e saline, t h e d r a i n e d w a t e r has t o h a v e a l o w e r s a l i n i t y , o r t h e s o i l r e q u i r e s
r e c l a m a t i o n . Refer t o H a n s e n et al. (1980) f o r the leaching requirements.
S u r f a c e w a s t e o r r u n o f f is i n h e r e n t i n m o s t i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s . T h i s q u a n t i t y i s , h o w ever, r e c o v e r e d a n d b e c o m e s available f o r use w i t h i n a p r o j e c t o r e l s e w h e r e i n t h e b a s i n
d o w n s t r e a m . Surface wastes usually a m o u n t t o 6 t o 1 0 % o f the q u a n t i t y delivered t o the
fields. D i s t r i b u t i o n losses v a r y f r o m a v e r y s m a l l q u a n t i t y i n pipelines t o a b o u t 1 5 % i n
u n l i n e d ditches.
O n - f a r m e f f i c i e n c y , w h i c h is a p r o d u c t o f t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f e a c h o f t h e i t e m s a b o v e , c a n
be achieved i n the range o f 40 t o 7 0 % f o r a p r o p e r l y designed efficient i r r i g a t i o n system.
T h e h i g h e r v a l u e i n t h e r a n g e a b o v e is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s p r i n k l e r s y s t e m .
1.16
CONVEYANCE LOSSES AND WASTE

C o n v e y a n c e losses a n d waste relate t o t h e w a t e r l o s t b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t o f d i v e r s i o n f r o m a
s t r e a m o r r e s e r v o i r t o t h e p o i n t s o f d e l i v e r y t o f a r m s a n d i s m e a s u r e d b y t h e off-farm efficiency. T h e l o s s e s c o m p r i s e t h e e v a p o r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e c a n a l s y s t e m , t h e w a t e r s e e p e d
t h r o u g h the canal system, a n d the o p e r a t i o n a l wastes discharged i n t o drains o r streams.
E v a p o r a t i o n l o s s e s f r o m t h e c a n a l w a t e r s u r f a c e a r e n o t t o o l a r g e u n l e s s t h e c a n a l is v e r y
s h a l l o w a n d w i d e . U s u a l l y , t h e s e a r e less t h a n 1 % o f t h e c a n a l f l o w .
Seepage losses f r o m canals d e p e n d o n ( 1 ) t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e soil, ( 2 ) t h e w e t t e d
surface o f t h e canal, a n d (3) t h e difference i n level o f w a t e r i n t h e canal a n d the adjacent
g r o u n d w a t e r table. T h e average u n i t seepage rates f o r t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d States are s i m i l a r
t o t h o s e c i t e d b y H a r t ( W o r s t e l l , 1 9 7 5 ) ; see T a b l e 1.9.
T h e l o s s r a t e s f r o m l i n e d c a n a l s a r e b e t w e e n a b o u t 0 . 1 a n d 1.0 f t / d a y ( W o r s t e l l , 1 9 7 5 ) .
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f seepage f r o m a canal s y s t e m , t h e data r e q u i r e d are ( 1 )
t h e p r e d o m i n a n t soil t e x t u r e t o ascertain t h e average seepage rates, ( 2 ) t h e w i d t h s , a n d ( 3 )
t h e l e n g t h s o f t h e c a n a l s . T h e c h a r t d e v e l o p e d b y W o r s t e l l ( 1 9 7 5 ) , i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1.7,
c a n b e u s e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e s e e p a g e l o s s i n cfs p e r m i l e f o r d i f f e r e n t c a n a l w i d t h s . B r o a d l y ,
t h e s e e p a g e l o s s e s r a n g e f r o m 15 t o 4 5 % o f d i v e r t e d flow o n u n l i n e d c a n a l s a n d f r o m 5 t o
1 5 % o n l i n e d canals.
Sectionl.l6
Conveyance Losses a n d Waste
27
Table 1.9
Average S e e p a g e Loss from Canals in Southern Idaho
Type of Soil
Seepage Loss (ft/day)
1. Medium clay and loam
0.5-1.5
2. Impervious clay
0.5
3. Medium soils
1.0
4. Somewhat pervious soils
1.5-2.0
5. Gravel
2.5-5.0
Source: Hart (1963).
O p e r a t i o n a l w a s t e s a r e u n a v o i d a h l e . T h e s e r e s u l t from t h e i n a h i l i t y t o release i n t o t h e
c a n a l s y s t e m t h e q u a n t i t y t o m a t c h exactly a l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s , o p e r a t i o n o f t h e canals a t
h i g h l e v e l s t o r e d u c e s i l t a t i o n , u n e x p e c t e d r a i n f a l l s , a n d b r e a c h e s i n t h e s y s t e m . T h e s e losses
r a n g e from 5 t o 30% o f d i v e r s i o n s o n p r o j e c t s w i t h a m p l e s u p p l i e s a n d f r o m 1 t o 10% w i t h
l i m i t e d supplies.
O f f - f a r m e f f i c i e n c y , c o m p r i s i n g t h e f o r e g o i n g i t e m s o f c o n v e y a n c e losses, r a n g e s
b e t w e e n 50 a n d 90%. I n cases w h e r e w a t e r o r i g i n a t e s o n t h e f a r m i t s e l f , s u c h as from a
w e l l , t h e o f f - f a r m e f f i c i e n c y i s 100%. T h e a v e r a g e i r r i g a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y f o r t h e e n t i r e U n i t e d
S t a t e s i s i n d i c a t e d i n T a h l e 1.10.
Figure 1.7
Chart to estimate the seepage losses from a canal (from Worstell, 1975).
Seepage rate (ft/day)
28
Demand for Water
Chapter 1
Table 1.10
A v e r a g e Irrigation Efficiency In t h e United States

Trend Efficiency %
High Efficiency %
On-farm
59
66
Off-farm
83
88
System
49
58
System efficiency is t h e overall efficiency o h t a i n e d h y m u l t i p l y i n g the o n - f a r m efficiency h y the o f f - f a r m efficiency. T r e n d efficiency reflects i r r i g a t i o n / w a t e r i m p r o v e m e n t s
f o l l o w i n g t h e p r e s e n t t r e n d i n u p g r a d i n g o f systems. H i g h e f f i c i e n c y c o n s i d e r s a n accelerated p r o g r a m o f i m p r o v i n g i r r i g a t i o n systems a n d w a t e r m a n a g e m e n t u s i n g t h e hest practical technology availahle.
1.17
COMPUTATION OFIRRIGATION DEMANDS

T h e c o m p u t a t i o n f o r gross w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s p r o c e e d s as f o l l o w s i n accordance w i t h t h e
procedure for each i t e m descrihed i n p r e v i o u s sections:
1. C o m p u t e t h e m o n t h w i s e consumptive use or crop requirements or evapotranspiration f o r
the specified crop.
2 . E s t i m a t e t h e irrigation requirements hy s u b t r a c t i n g f r o m t h e c o n s u m p t i v e u s e t h e effective rainfall a v a i l a b l e f o r p l a n t g r o w t h . T o t h i s q u a n t i t y t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s a r e
included ( i f applicable): (a) irrigation applied p r i o r t o crop g r o w t h s h o u l d b e added;
(b) w a t e r r e q u i r e d f o r leaching s h o u l d b e added; (c) miscellaneous r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
g e r m i n a t i o n , frost protection, plant cooling, a n dso o n , should be added; a n d ( d )
decrease i n soil m o i s t u r e s h o u l d b e subtracted.
3. A s s e s s t h e farm delivery requirements b y d i v i d i n g t h e i r r i g a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s o f i t e m 2
b y the o n - f a r m efficiency.
4 . C o m p u t e t h e gross water requirements b y d i v i d i n g t h e f a r m d e l i v e r y r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
i t e m 3 b y the o f f - f a r m efficiency.
EXAMPLE
1.10
A n i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s e r v e s a n a r e a o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 acres. T h e c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n * i s : a l f a l f a , 3 0 % ;
w h e a t , 5 0 % ; rice, 3 0 % ; c o t t o n , 2 0 % . T h e m o n t h l y c o n s u m p t i v e use values f o r these crops,
w h i c h a r e c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e p r o c e d u r e o f S e c t i o n 1.13.2, a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 1 . 1 1 . T h e
m o n t h l y e f f e c t i v e r a i n f a l l v a l u e s , w h i c h a r e c a l c u l a t e d b y t h e p r o c e d u r e o f S e c t i o n 1.14, a r e
also g i v e n i n t h e table. T h e i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r applied p r i o r t o crop g r o w t h a n d the soil m o i s t u r e w i t h d r a w a l i n c e r t a i n cases a r e a l s o i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t a b l e . O n - f a r m e f f i c i e n c y i s 6 0 %
a n d o f f - f a r m e f f i c i e n c y is 9 0 % . D e t e r m i n e t h e m o n t h l y a n d t o t a l i r r i g a t i o n d e m a n d s .
SOEimoN
Refer to Table 1 . I I .
* T h e c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n is d e f i n e d as t h e p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l i r r i g a b l e area d e v o t e d t o each c r o p d u r i n g each o f t h e

t w o p r i n c i p a l g r o w i n g seasons o f a year. E a c h area u s e d f o r c r o p s i n b o t h seasons w i l l b e c o u n t e d t w i c e . T h e
p e r e n n i a l c r o p s u s i n g w a t e r i n a l l 1 2 m o n t h s w i l l also b e c o u n t e d t w i c e . C o m p l e t e u t i l i z a t i o n o f l a n d i n b o t h
seasons w i l l s u m u p t o 2 0 0 % .
S e c t i o n 1.17
Computation of Irrigation Demands
29
Table 1,11
Computation of Monthly Irrigation D e m a n d s
Item
R(ln.)
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Total
0.8
1.0
1.9
2.0
1.4
1.9
3.9
2.3
1.8
1.0
0.8
0.7
19.5
1.71
2.0
2.33
4.14
6.06
7.94
6.65
3.77
3.00
2.10
1.50
42.6
1. Alfalfa (30% of Irrigable area)
U{\n.)
1.40
PP(in.)(+)
SM (in.)(-)
3.77
3.00
4.35
1.97
1.31
0.59
IR, gross (in.)
1.40
1.71
2.0
2.33
4.14
6.06
7.94
6.65
IR, net (in.)
0.6
0.71
0.10
0.33
2.74
4.16
4.04
IR, eff. (in.)
0.18
0.21
0.03
0.10
0.82
1.25
1.21
2.11
3.43
6.29
5.90
2.10
1.50
42.6
2.00
1.30
0.80
23.1
0.60
0.39
0.24
6.93
1.30
1.75
1.50
22.28
2. Wheat (50%)
(7 (in.)
2.10
2.10
PP (in.)(+)
SM (in.)(-)
2.20
2.20
IR, gross (in.)
2.11
3.43
6.29
3.70
2.10
1.30
1.75
1.50
22.18
IR, net (in.)
1.31
2.43
4.39
1.70
0.30
0.30
0.95
0.80
12.18
IR, eff. (in.)
0.66
1.21
2.20
0.85
0.15
0.15
0.48
0.40
6.10
3. Rice (30%)
17 (in.)
PP(in.)(+)
6.80
10.42
12.53
IR, gross (in.)
9.00
6.80
10.42
IR, net(in.)
7.00
5.40
8.52
2.10
39.25
9.00
9.00
2.50
2.50
12.53
7.00
45.75
8.63
4.70
34.25
2.59
1.41
10.28
SM (in.)(-)
IR, eff. (in.)
9.50
1.62
2.56
Item
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Total
4. Cotton (20%)
U{ln.)
1.34
2.82
2.96
5.36
6.86
4.14
24.62
1.14
1.00
1.00
PP(in.)(+)
2.00
1.5
0.5
IR, gross (in.)
1.00
1.34
2.82
2.96
5.36
6.86
2.64
0.64
IR, net (in.)
0.82
1.56
3.46
2.96
0.34
9.14
IR, eff. (in.)
0.16
0.31
0.69
0.59
0.07
1.82
SM (in.){-)
23.62
Total, IR (eff.)(ln.)
0.84
1.42
2.23
3.21
2.75
4.50
4.39
2.79
0.74
0.75
0.87
0.64
25.13
IR for area
3.50
5.92
9.29
13.38
11.46
18.75
18.29
11.62
3.08
3.13
3.62
2.67
104.71
Farm delivery
@ 60% efficiency
(acre-ft xlO^)
5.83
9.87
15.48
22.30
19.10
31.25
30.48
19.37
5.13
5.21
6.03
4.45
174.52
Gross requirements
@ 90% (acre-ft X 10^)
6.48
10.97
17.20
24.78
21.22
34.72
33.87
21.52
5.70
5.79
6.70
4.94
193.91
(acre-ft x 10^)
Abbreviations:
/? = effective rainfall
(J = consumptive use
PP = irrigation applied prior to crop growth
SM = soil moisture withdrawal
IR, gross = gross irrigation required = U+PP - SM
IR, net = net irrigation required = IR(gross) - fi
IR, effective = IR(net) x percent irrigable area
IR for area = Farm area x Total IR (eff.)
, ,.
Farm delivery =
IR for area
farm efficiency
Gross requirement =
farm delivery
off-farm conveyance efficiency
1.18
DEMAND FOR HYDROPOWER

W a t e r p o w e r involves t h e n o n c o n s u m p t i v e use o f water. T h i s feature m a k e s t h e w a t e r utilizat i o n d i s t i n c t i n t w o respects: ( 1 ) h y d r o p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n can r e a d i l y h e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h o t h e r
d e v e l o p m e n t o b j e c t i v e s , a n d ( 2 ) a l l r e s o u r c e s ( s t r e a m f l o w s ) a v a i l a h l e at a site a r e e v a l u a t e d
f r o m the consideration o f power-producing potential. W i t h proper planning, a very high
percent o f the total availahle streamflow i n a river basin m a y he used for h y d r o p o w e r t h r o u g h
a series o f p o w e r p l a n t s . T h e c h a l l e n g e l i e s i n l o c a t i n g p o t e n t i a l h y d r o p o w e r sites t h a t a r e
w i t h i n a reasonable t r a n s m i s s i o n distance o f t h e p o w e r m a r k e t u n d e r consideration. Since
h y d r o e n e r g y is t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e a v a i l a h l e h e a d a n d t h e a v a i l a h l e f l o w ( m u l t i p l i e d h y a cert a i n c o n s t a n t ) , sites t h a t o f f e r a g o o d c o m b i n a t i o n o f h e a d a n d f l o w a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d .
I n t e r m s o f p r o d u c i n g w a t e r h e a d , rapids, falls, a n d d a m s offer g o o d h y d r o p o w e r
p o t e n t i a l . W h e r e a s t h e h e a d at a site is p r a c t i c a l l y c o n s t a n t , t h e a v a i l a h l e f l o w s are h i g h l y
v a r i a b l e . T h e s t u d y o f m a x i m u m f l o w s is i m p o r t a n t f r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e d e s i g n o r
i n s t a l l e d capacity o f t h e p o w e r p l a n t ; t h e average f l o w s are i m p o r t a n t f r o m the considera t i o n o f t h e e n e r g y o u t p u t , a n d m i n i m u m f l o w s are r e q u i r e d t o predict the dependable
p l a n t c a p a c i t y . S i n c e t h e e n t i r e q u a n t i t y a v a i l a h l e a t a s i t e ( e x c e p t t h e f l o o d f l o w s ) is u t i l i z e d
i n p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n , the s t u d y o f w a t e r d e m a n d s for h y d r o p o w e r a m o u n t s t o the collect i o n o f s t r e a m f l o w data a n d t h e i r analysis. Usually, t h e analysis relates t o the p r e p a r a t i o n o f
the f l o w - d u r a t i o n curve discussed i n Section 7.27.2, w h i c h indicates the m a g n i t u d e o f disc h a r g e a g a i n s t t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e t h a t d i s c h a r g e is e x c e e d e d at a s i t e .
T h e r e are t w o types o f h y d r o p o w e r plants: ( 1 ) a r u n - o f - r i v e r p l a n t uses direct s t r e a m f l o w s , a n d i t s e n e r g y o u t p u t is s u b j e c t e d t o t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s flow o f t h e r i v e r ; a n d ( 2 ) a s t o r age p l a n t w i t h a r e s e r v o i r is a b l e t o p r o d u c e i n c r e a s e d d e p e n d a b l e e n e r g y o n t h e basis o f a
c o n t r o l l e d w a t e r release. I f t h e r e s e r v o i r s e r v e s o n l y t o s m o o t h o u t t h e w e e k l y f l u c t u a t i o n s i n
s t r e a m f l o w s , t h e p l a n t is s a i d t o h a v e a p o n d a g e c a p a c i t y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e s e r v o i r t h a t
serves t o s t o r e w a t e r f r o m t h e w e t s e a s o n t o t h e d r y s e a s o n is s a i d t o h a v e a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y .
1.18.1 P o w e r a n d E n e r g y P r o d u c t i o n f r o m A v a i l a b l e S t r e a m f l o w s
W h e n t h e n u m b e r o f p o u n d s o r N e w t o n s o f f l u i d flowing p e r s e c o n d ( y Q ) is l o w e r e d h y
l e v e l h, i t r e l e a s e s e n e r g y a t a r a t e o f {jQh). I n c l u d i n g t h e e f f i c i e n c y t e r m , a n e q u a t i o n f o r
power (rate o f energy) can he given h y
P = YQhe
[FLT-'l
(1.21)
where
P = plant capacity
Q = discharge t h r o u g h the turbines
h - net head o n the turbines
e = c o m b i n e d efficiency for turbines a n d generators
F l o w - d u r a t i o n curves developed f r o m l o n g - t e r m m o n t h l y s t r e a m f l o w records offer a
convenient t o o l i n plant capacity design. T h e procedure for preparation o f a f l o w - d u r a t i o n
c u r v e i s d e s c r i h e d i n S e c t i o n 7 . 2 7 . 2 . A t y p i c a l c u r v e i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.8.
I n eq. ( 1 . 2 1 ) , w i t h a n average v a l u e o f head, t h e efficiency a n d h e a d are practically
c o n s t a n t f o r a p l a n t . T h u s t h e p o w e r is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e f l o w . I n o t h e r w o r d s ,
t h e c u r v e i n F i g u r e 1.8 i n d i c a t e s t h e p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n w i t h a s u i t a b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
32
Chapter 1
v e r t i c a l scale. T h e d e s i g n o r i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y o f a p l a n t i s h a s e d o n t h e m a x i m u m f l o w ,
w h i c h i s u s u a l l y t a k e n t o h e Q j j ( i . e . , flow e x c e e d e d 1 5 % o f t h e t i m e ) . F l o o d f l o w s a h o v e
this magnitude are allowed t o overflow w i t h o u t producing power. I nmetric units, using
Y = 9.81 k N / m ^ a n d t a k i n g e = 0.84, t h e installed capacity i n k W is g i v e n h y
'
'
Pi3t,l = 8 . 2 4 Q i 5 ? i ( m e t r i c u n i t s )
I n F P S u n i t s , u s i n g y = 6 2 . 4 Ibs/ff
c a p a c i t y is
(English units)
' '
P
înstal
(1.22a)
a n d t a k i n g e = 0.84 a n d converting units, the installed
^nstal = ^
where
[FFT"']
[FFT-> ]
(1.22h)
installed capacity, k W
discharge w i t h 1 5 % exceedance
h-- n e t h e a d
'
I f t h e t i m e s c a l e ( a b s c i s s a ) i n F i g u r e 1.8 i s e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f h o u r s i n a y e a r , t h e
area u n d e r t h e c u r v e w i l l p r o v i d e t h e a n n u a l energy p r o d u c t i o n . M a t h e m a t i c a l l y ,
= 8.240^^1? ( 8 7 6 0 ) ( m e t r i c u n i t s )
= ^2Lî(8760) (Fnglish units)
14
[FF]
[FL]
(1.23a)
(l-23b)
where
E = a n n u a l energy, k W h
Q 3^ = a v e r a g e
discharge
8760 = n u m b e r o f hours i n a year

Q j j y i s t h e a v e r a g e d i s c h a r g e u n d e r t h e c u r v e i n F i g u r e 1.8 t a k i n g Q j j as t h e h i g h e s t m a g n i t u d e o f discharge, s i m i l a r t o eq. ( 7 . 6 2 ) .
A p l a n t capacity factor is t h e r a t i o o f t h e average p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n t o t h e installed
c a p a c i t y . T h i s i s p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l t o t h e r a t i o Q^,,/Qiy a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e h e a d a n d t h e e f f i c i e n c y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t . B y r e s e r v o i r s t o r a g e , b o t h Q^^ a n d Q^y^ a r e i m p r o v e d , a n d
thus t h eannual energy p r o d u c t i o n a n dt h edependable (firm) power are enhanced. T h e
p l a n t capacity factor also increases, r e s u l t i n g i n m o r e efflcient use o f a p l a n t . A p l a n t capacity factor o f 0.6 is c o m m o n f o r storage-type p o w e r plants.
F n e r g y c o m p u t a t i o n s a s s u m e t h a t a n a d e q u a t e n u m b e r a n d a d e q u a t e sizes o f t u r b i n e
u n i t s have been installed t o u t i l i z e t h e m i n i m u m available flow. I f o n l y o n e t u r b i n e u n i t is
p r o v i d e d , i t s operative range is generally f r o m 3 0 t o 1 1 0 % o f t h e t u r b i n e design flow,
w h i c h m e a n s t h a t t h e t u r b i n e w i l l b e i n o p e r a t i v e d u r i n g t h e t i m e s t h e f l o w is less t h a n 3 0 %
o f the design value. T h u s the energy p r o d u c t i o n w i l l be for a shorter period i n a year and
t h e t o t a l a n n u a l g e n e r a t i o n w i l l , a c c o r d i n g l y , b e less.
Similarly, depending o n the t u r b i n e type, there is a n operating l i m i t a t i o n o n the head.
Usually, a t u r b i n e can operate i n the range o f 60 t o 1 2 0 % o f the design head. I t is considered t h a t t h e available h e a d is fairly c o n s t a n t o r t h a t a n average v a l u e o f h e a d is used i n
e n e r g y c o m p u t a t i o n s b y e q . ( 1 . 2 3 ) w h e n t h e r e a r e s m a l l f l u c t u a t i o n s , w h i c h i s t h e case w i t h
S e c t i o n 1.18
D e m a n d for Hydropower
33
F i g u r e 1.8
Flow-duration c u r v e .
run-of-river projects a n d projects w i t h r e m o t e location o f p o w e r plants. I f variations i n

h e a d are substantial, a sequential analysis is m a d e w h e r e the energy calculations are m a d e
i n steps a t d i f f e r e n t i n t e r v a l s .
E X A M P L E 1.11
A t t h e R i m m o n P o n d site o n t h e N a u g a t u c k R i v e r near S e y m o u r t o w n , C o n n e c t i c u t , i n t h e
H o u s a t o n i c b a s i n (drainage area 300 m i ^ ) , t h e f l o w - d u r a t i o n data f r o m t h e m o n t h l y f l o w
r e c o r d s a r e as g i v e n i n F i g u r e 1.8. T h e a v e r a g e h e a d i s 3 0 f t . A s s e s s t h e s i t e f o r i t s h y d r o power potential.
SOLUTION
1 . F r o m F i g u r e 1.8, Q j 5 = 8 1 0 cfs
2. F r o m e q . ( 1 . 2 2 b ) ,
14
3. Q ^ ^ = 0 . 1 7 5 Q i 5 + O . O 7 5 Q 2 0 + 0 . 1 0 ( Q 3 g +Q^^ + Q 5 0
+
Q 6 0 + Q 7 0 + Q 8 0 + Q 9 o ) + 0-05Qioo*
= 0.175(810) + 0.075(705) + 0.10(550 + 430 + 340 + 260 + 180

+ 1 3 0 + 9 0 ) + 0.05(40)
= 3 9 5 cfs
( . .
* A p p r o x i m a t e 1 0 0 % flow.
34
Chapter 1
4. F r o m e q . ( 1 . 2 3 b ) ,
= ^ ^ ^ ( ^ ^ ^
14
= 7.41X10^
kWh
5. P l a n t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r = - ^ ^ L = ^21 = o . 4 9
Qi5
810
1.19
DEMAND FOR NAVIGATION

T h e r e are three different m e t h o d s t o p r o v i d e navigable w a t e r w a y s : (1) river r e g u l a t i o n , ( 2 )
l o c k - a n d - d a m , a n d ( 3 ) a r t i f i c i a l c a n a l i z a t i o n . I n t h e f i r s t m e t h o d , a r i v e r c h a n n e l is
i m p r o v e d b y means o f river t r a i n i n g w o r k s a n d dredging. I n some sections o f the river
c h a n n e l , t h e n a t u r a l d e p t h o f w a t e r o f t e n is n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n n a v i g a b i l i t y , w h i c h
r e q u i r e s release o f w a t e r f r o m u p s t r e a m r e s e r v o i r s . T h i s d e m a n d f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r s is
l i k e l y t o be o n t h e o r d e r o f several t h o u s a n d cubic feet per second successively f o r several
m o n t h s . T h u s h u g e r e s e r v o i r capacities o f several m i l l i o n acre-feet are n e e d e d f o r navigat i o n p u r p o s e s . O n e o f t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h i s m e t h o d is t h a t w a t e r deficiencies are u s u a l l y i n t h e l o w e r reaches o f a r i v e r , w h i l e t h e r e s e r v o i r sites are i n its u p p e r p a r t . T h i s results
i n m a n y technical, operational, a n d legal difficulties i n m a i n t a i n i n g the navigable f l o w i n
d o w n s t r e a m reaches.
I n t h e s e c o n d m e t h o d , t h e d e p t h o f w a t e r f o r l o w s t r e a m f l o w is i n c r e a s e d b e h i n d a
series o f d a m s t h r o u g h a succession o f b a c k w a t e r curves. A t each d a m , a s h i p l o c k is p r o v i d e d t o negotiate t h e difference i n w a t e r levels u p s t r e a m a n d d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e d a m . T h e
w a t e r d e m a n d relates t o t h e ( 1 ) e v a p o r a t i o n losses f r o m t h e r e s e r v o i r p o o l s , ( 2 ) w a t e r
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r l o c k i n g o p e r a t i o n s , a n d ( 3 ) leakages at s h i p l o c k s .
F a c h l o c k i n g o p e r a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e release o f w a t e r i n t h e d o w n s t r e a m d i r e c t i o n
e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e v o l u m e o f t h e l o c k b e t w e e n the u p s t r e a m a n d d o w n s t r e a m levels. T h i s
m i g h t i n v o l v e a f l o w o f o v e r 1 0 0 0 a c r e - f t / d a y ( 5 0 0 c f s ) . T h e w a t e r f o r l o c k a g e s is n o t a c c u m u l a t i v e since t h e w a t e r displaced b y o n e l o c k subsequently can be used b y the n e x t l o c k
d o w n s t r e a m . C o m p a r e d t o t h e l o c k i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e e v a p o r a t i o n a n d leakages are
insignificant.
T h e third m e t h o d provides for an artificially constructed n e w channel w i t h a n u m b e r
o f s h i p l o c k s . T h i s m e t h o d is a d o p t e d e i t h e r t o c o n n e c t t w o d i f f e r e n t r i v e r s y s t e m s o r i n s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e o t h e r t w o m e t h o d s a r e n o t s u i t a b l e . A s r e g a r d s t h e w a t e r d e m a n d , a flow
o f several h u n d r e d c u b i c feet p e r s e c o n d has t o be m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e c h a n n e l . T h i s is
supplied f r o m a stream w i t h a n a t u r a l dependable flow, o r b y a reservoir. I n addition, p r o v i s i o n s m u s t be m a d e f o r t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f e v a p o r a t i o n , lockage o p e r a t i o n , a n d leakage
as d i s c u s s e d f o r t h e s e c o n d m e t h o d . I f a n u n l i n e d c h a n n e l is c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e s e e p a g e l o s s e s
also have t o be i n c l u d e d .
S e c t i o n 1.19
Demand for Navigation
35
PROBLEMS
1.1 A c o m m u n i t y h a d a p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 2 , 0 0 0 i n 1 9 8 0 , w h i c h i s i n c r e a s e d t o 2 0 , 0 0 0 i n 2 0 0 5 .
T h e s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n is 8 0 , 0 0 0 . E s t i m a t e t h e 2 0 1 5 p o p u l a t i o n b y (a) a r i t h m e t i c
g r o w t h , (b) c o n s t a n t p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e , a n d (c) d e c r e a s i n g r a t e o f i n c r e a s e .
1.2
U s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n s u s f i g u r e s , e s t i m a t e t h e p o p u l a t i o n f o r 2 0 1 0 b y (a) t h e g r a p h i c a l
m e t h o d , a n d (b) t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d .
/ F:
1.3
36
Year
Population (thousands)
1970
35.8
1980
38.3
1990
40.8
2000
43.3
F r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n s u s d a t a , e s t i m a t e t h e 1 9 9 5 a n d 2 0 1 0 p o p u l a t i o n b y (a) t h e g r a p h i c a l m e t h o d , a n d (b) t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e m a t h e m a t i c a l m e t h o d .
Year
Population
1970
25,000
1980
30,500
1990
37,250
2000
45,500
1.4
A w a t e r s u p p l y r e s e r v o i r has a n a n n u a l c a p a c i t y o f 25 x 10^ acre-ft. I t is s e r v i n g a c i t y

w i t h a p r e s e n t p o p u l a t i o n o f 6 0 , 0 0 0 , w h i c h is expected t o increase t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n 2 0 years.
H o w m a n y years f r o m n o w w i l l t h e city's needs exceed t h e reservoir's capacity? A s s u m e
a r i t h m e t i c g r o w t h o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d a n average d a i l y draff f r o m the reservoir o f 160
g a l l o n s p e r p e r s o n . D i s r e g a r d t h e losses.
1.5
I t is e s t i m a t e d t h a t a c o m m u n i t y w i l l h a v e a p o p u l a t i o n o f 1 5 , 0 0 0 fifteen years f r o m today.

T h e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y h a s a c a p a c i t y o f 7 . 0 m g d , w h i c h is a d e q u a t e
for 35 years f r o m t h e present, w i t h a n i n p u t rate t o t h e p l a n t o f 175 gallons per p e r s o n per
day. I f t h e c o m m u n i t y is g r o w i n g a t a g e o m e t r i c r a t e , w h a t is t h e c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n ?
1.6
A c o m m u n i t y h a s a c u r r e n t p o p u l a t i o n o f 2 8 , 0 0 0 . I t is e s t i m a t e d t h a t i n 2 0 y e a r s i t s p o p u l a t i o n w i l l b e 3 8 , 0 0 0 . T h e s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n is e x p e c t e d t o b e 8 0 , 0 0 0 . T h e t o t a l
w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n a t p r e s e n t h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t o b e 4 . 0 m i l l i o n g a l l o n s p e r day. T h e
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t has a capacity o f 9.2 m i l l i o n g a l l o n s per day. D e t e r m i n e h o w m a n y years
f r o m n o w t h e c o n s u m p t i o n w i l l reach its d e s i g n capacity w i t h c u r r e n t usage rates i f t h e
c o m m u n i t y has a d e c l i n i n g g r o w t h rate.
1.7
T h e c o n t i n e n t a l U n i t e d S t a t e s r e g i s t e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g p o p u l a t i o n s . D e t e r m i n e (a) t h e
s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n , (b) t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e l o g i s t i c c u r v e , a n d (c) t h e p r o j e c t e d p o p u lation i n the year 2010.
Year
Population (millions)
1840
9.6
1920
76.0
2000
225.1
Chapter 1
1.8
A c i t y h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n s u s d a t a . F i t a l o g i s t i c c u r v e t o t h e d a t a a n d d e t e r m i n e (a) t h e
s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n , a n d (b) t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e y e a r 2 0 2 0 .
Year
1880
15.0
1950
67.8
1890
20.(1
1960
78.0
1900
25.0
1970
83.4
1910
32.0
1980
91.8
1920
40.0
1990
96.6
1930
47.5
2000
103.2
1940
58.8
Year
A c o m m u n i t y l o c a t e d i n t h e c i t y o f P r o b l e m 1.8 h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g c e n s u s d a t a . F s t i m a t e
t h e p o p u l a t i o n f o r 2 0 0 0 b y (a) t h e c o n s t a n t r a t i o m e t h o d , a n d (b) t h e c h a n g i n g r a t i o
m e t h o d using the graphical extension.
Year
1920
6.5
1960
16.0
1930
8.4
1970
17.4
1940
11.2
1980
19.5
1950
13.5
Year
1.10
F s t i m a t e t h e 2 0 0 0 a n d 2 0 2 0 p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i t y i n P r o b l e m 1.9 b y s i m p l e
r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s f r o m t h e d a t a i n P r o b l e m s 1.8 a n d 1.9.
1.11
A v e r a g e d a i l y usage o f w a t e r i n a c i t y is 175 g a l l o n s p e r capita p e r d a y ( g p c d ) , w h i c h

e x c l u d e s t h e f i r e d e m a n d s . D e t e r m i n e (a) t h e m a x i m u m m o n t h l y u s a g e i n g p c d , (b) t h e
m a x i m u m w e e k l y u s a g e i n g p c d , (c) t h e m a x i m u m d a i l y u s a g e i n g p c d , a n d (d) t h e m a x i m u m h o u r l y requirement for water.
1.12
A r e s i d e n t i a l area has t y p i c a l s i n g l e - f a m i l y t i m b e r d w e l l i n g s o f 3 0 0 0 ff^ f l o o r area. D e t e r m i n e t h e fire d e m a n d a n d its d u r a t i o n f o r t h e area.
1.13
T h e f i r e d e m a n d o f a c o m m u n i t y is d i c t a t e d b y a t w o - s t o r y b u i l d i n g o f o r d i n a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h each f l o o r area equal to 2,500 ft^. D e t e r m i n e the daily r e q u i r e m e n t (quantity) for firefighting purposes.
1.14
A n i n d u s t r i a l f o u r - s t o r y b u i l d i n g o f n o n c o m b u s t i b l e fire r e s i s t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n m e a s u r e s
5 0 0 0 f t ^ f o r e a c h f l o o r a r e a . D e t e r m i n e t h e t o t a l fire d e m a n d .
1.15
D e t e r m i n e t h e f i r e flow f o r a f o u r - s t o r y w o o d f r a m e b u i l d i n g w i t h e a c h f l o o r a r e a o f
100 m ^ , w h i c h is c o n n e c t e d w i t h a s i x - s t o r y b u i l d i n g o f n o n c o m b u s t i b l e n o n r e s i s t a n c e
c o n s t r u c t i o n r a t i n g t h a t has each f l o o r area o f 9 0 m ^ .
1.16
T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a c o m m u n i t y is 5 0 , 0 0 0 a n d t h e average d a i l y usage o f m u n i c i p a l s u p p l y i s 1 7 5 g p c d . T h e l a r g e s t b u i l d i n g i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t is a t h r e e - s t o r y t i m b e r f r a m e w o r k d w e l l i n g o f 1-hour r a t i n g h a v i n g a t o t a l f l o o r area o f 5000 ft^. D e t e r m i n e the design

flow for the following:
a. G r o u n d w a t e r source
development
b. Conduit to the treatment plant

Problems
37
: - c. W a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t
d. P u m p i n g plant
e. D i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m
f. S e r v i c e r e s e r v o i r g i v e n w o r k i n g s t o r a g e o f 2 . 5 m g d a n d t h r e e d a y s o f e m e r g e n c y s t o r a g e
1.17
I n 1 9 9 6 t h e w a t e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a c i t y o f 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 p o p u l a t i o n w e r e as f o l l o w s :
Municipal:
87 m g d
Industries:
Manufacturing
115 m g d
Thermal power
210 m g d
Waste dilution:
6.59 b g d ( b i l l i o n gallons/day)
I n t h e y e a r 2 0 1 0 i t is expected t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n w i l l increase h y 1 0 % , i n d u s t r i e s h y 1 5 % ,
a n d t h e t h e r m a l p o w e r h y 100 M W . D e t e r m i n e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s h y each sector a s s u m i n g
t h e s a m e l e v e l o f w a s t e t r e a t m e n t as a t p r e s e n t . A s s u m e a p l a n t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r o f 0 . 6 .
1.18
A t B o i s e , I d a h o , l a t i t u d e 4354'N, t h e l o n g - t e r m m e a n m o n t h l y t e m p e r a t u r e s are as f o l l o w s :
Month
Temp.
(F)
Month
T e m p . (F)
Jan.
27.9
July
72.5
Feb.
33.6
Aug.
71.0
Mar.
41.4
Sept.
61.2
Apr.
49.1
Oct
50.1
May
56.1
Nov.
39.7
June
64.5
Dec.
30.4
C o m p u t e t h e s e a s o n a l c o n s u m p t i v e u s e o f w a t e r f o r a n a l f a l f a c r o p h a v i n g a g r o w i n g seas o n o f A p r i l 1 t o S e p t e m b e r 15.
1.19
F o r t h e B o i s e , I d a h o , c l i m a t e i n P r o b l e m 1.18, c o m p u t e t h e s e a s o n a l c o n s u m p t i v e w a t e r
u s e f o r p o t a t o e s . T h e g r o w i n g s e a s o n is M a y 10 t o S e p t e m b e r 1 5 .
1.20
F o r t h e B o i s e , I d a h o , c l i m a t e i n P r o b l e m 1.18, c o m p u t e t h e s e a s o n a l c o n s u m p t i v e w a t e r
u s e f o r g r a i n s o r g h u m . T h e g r o w i n g s e a s o n is J u n e 5 t o N o v e m b e r 2 .
1.21
A n i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s e r v e s a n a r e a o f 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 a c r e s . T h e c r o p p i n g p a t t e r n is: w h e a t ,
4 0 % ; potatoes, 3 0 % ; grain s o r g h u m , 3 5 % ; and citrus, 2 5 % . T h e m o n t h l y consumptive
use a n d t h e effective i r r i g a t i o n f o r these crops are g i v e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g tahle. T h e i r r i g a t i o n water applied p r i o r to crop g r o w t h a n d the soil moisture withdrawals for certain
m o n t h s a r e a l s o i n d i c a t e d . T h e o n - f a r m i r r i g a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y is 6 5 % a n d t h e o f f - f a r m
c o n v e y a n c e e f f i c i e n c y is 8 5 % . D e t e r m i n e t h e m o n t h l y d i v e r s i o n s a n d t o t a l d e m a n d f o r
irrigation.
38
Chapter 1
Item
R (in.)
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
08
09
L5
09
FT
Z5
Is
32
2A
04
06
05~
2.1
3.2
5.95
5.70
1.5
1.75
1.40
Wheat
i7(in.)
PP(in.)
2.2
SM(in.)
1.5
Potatoes
[/(in.)
1.52
PP (in.)
3.65
8.58
8.53
4.95
0.50
2.0
3.00
S M (in.)
Grain sorghum
[/(in.)
PP (in.)
2.04
5.36
6.59
3.43
1.39
0.49
5.0
6.8
7.5
5.9
4.9
2.5
1.0
S M (in.)
Citrus
[/(in.)
1.35
1.75
2.75
4.1
4.4
1.6
PP (in.)
SM(in.)
Abbreviations:
R = effective r a i n f a l l
U = c o n s u m p t i v e use
PP = irrigation applied prior to crop g r o w t h
S M = soil m o i s t u r e w i t h d r a w a l
1.22
1.23
1.24
F l o w - d u r a t i o n d a t a f o r t h e H o u s a t o n i c R i v e r n e a r N e w M i l f o r d T o w n , C o n n e c t i c u t , are
i n d i c a t e d b e l o w . T h e a v e r a g e h e a d a t t h e s i t e i s 2 5 f t . A s s e s s t h e s i t e w i t h r e s p e c t t o (a)
p o t e n t i a l c a p a c i t y , (b) a n n u a l e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n , a n d (c) p l a n t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r .
F l o w (cfs)
450
930
1180
1370
1680
1950
2180
2360
Percent o f t i m e f l o w exceeded
100
90
80
70
50
30
20
15
A t t h e H a r r i s v i l l e , N e w Y o r k , site o n t h e W e s t O s w e g a t c h i e R i v e r , t h e f l o w - d u r a t i o n data
a r e as g i v e n b e l o w . T h e a v e r a g e h e a d i s 15 m . Assess t h e s i t e f o r (a) p o t e n t i a l c a p a c i t y , (b)
a n n u a l e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n , a n d (c) p l a n t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r .
Flow (m^/s)
40
30
21
15.5
10
2.2
P e r c e n t o f t i m e flow e x c e e d e d
12
15
19
28
47
85
100
I n P r o b l e m 1.23, i f t h e p l a n t c a p a c i t y f a c t o r is i n c r e a s e d t o 0 . 6 5 h y t h e s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y ,
d e t e r m i n e the percent increase i n the a n n u a l energy generation.
Problems
39

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H y d r o l o g y and

DEVELOPMENT OFW A T E R RESOURCES

DEMAND FOR WATER

Withdrawal uses i n v o l v e d i v e r s i o n o f s u r f a c e w a t e r o r g r o u n d w a t e r f r o m i t s s o u r c e o f s u p p l y , s u c h as f o r i r r i g a t i o n a n d w a t e r s u p p l y . Nonwithdrawal uses a r e o n - s i t e u s e s s u c h as

Waste dilution requirements

Water requirements of a city of 150,000 population.

T h i s m e t h o d considers t h a t the increase i n p o p u l a t i o n takes place at a constant percent o f

U s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m E x a m p l e 1.1, estimate the p o p u l a t i o n a s s u m i n g

I n E x a m p l e 1.1, i f t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c i t y is 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , e s t i m a t e t h e 2 0 1 5 p o p u lation. A s s u m e a declining rate o f g r o w t h .

A city has a present p o p u l a t i o n o f 200,000, w h i c h is estimated t o increase g e o m e t r i c a l l y t o

L o n g - t e r m p r e d i c t i o n s are m a d e u s i n g techniques f r o m a l l f o u r categories. T h e entire past

90 2000 2010 2020

T h e constants are d e t e r m i n e d b y selecting three p o p u l a t i o n s f r o m t h e record: o n e i n

I n t w o 2 0 - y e a r p e r i o d s , a c i t y g r e w from 4 5 , 0 0 0 t o 2 5 8 , 0 0 0 t o 4 3 8 , 0 0 0 . E s t i m a t e (a) t h e s a t u r a t i o n p o p u l a t i o n , ( b ) t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e l o g i s t i c c u r v e , a n d (c) t h e p o p u l a t i o n 4 0 y e a r s

F r o m eq. (1.9) (expressing n u m b e r s i n thousands).

The equation o f the logistic curve:

P ^ = p o p u l a t i o n o f the r e g i o n (larger area)

A p o p u l a t i o n change c a n occur i n o n l y three ways: (1) b y b i r t h , (2) b y death, a n d ( 3 )

c o m p a r i n g t h e a c t u a l c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d t o t h e c h i l d r e n f r o m b i r t h records, is also used f o r

PER CAPITA WATER

Layout of typical w a t e r supply systems (from Fair, Geyer, a n d O k u n , 1966).

Design Periods a n d Capacity Criteria for Constituent Structures

Design Period^ (years)

Maximum dally (requirements)

Average annual demand

b. Conduit to treatment plant

Maximum dally plus one reserve unit

Maximum hourly plus one reserve unit

Working storage (storage capacity

Greater of (1) maximum dally plus fire

PerCapita Water Usage

Typical Average Usage

^ Liter = gallons X 3.8.

Typical variation in usage in a day.

F o r a city h a v i n g a n average daily w a t e r usage o f 180 gpcd f r o m the m u n i c i p a l supply,

1 . M a x i m u m daily usage = 1 8 0 % o f average daily

(180) = 324 gpcd

T h e f i r e area is t h e t o t a l f l o o r area i n s q u a r e feet o f a l l f l o o r levels e x c l u d i n g t h e b a s e m e n t .

Fire Flow Requirements a n d Duration

A c i t y w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f 20,000 has a n average d a i l y usage o f 180 gpcd. T h e fire d e m a n d

M i n i m u m Required Fire Flow a n d Flow Duration for Buildings^

^ Types o f construction are based o n NFPA 220.

T o t a l floor area = 3 ( 2 4 0 0 ) = 7200 ff^

Intake conduit, conduit t o

M a x i m u m daily plus reserve

tries a r e u s u a l l y served b y separate supplies. A b o u t 5 % o f t h e industries use 8 0 % o f t h e

Average Water Use

Coke (coal byproduct)

WASTE DILUTION REQUIREMENTS

Waste Dilution Requirements

Requirements for w a s t e dilution.

r e q u i r e m e n t s , ( 2 ) cost o f storage t o p r o d u c e t h e r e q u i r e d q u a n t i t y f o r waste d i l u t i o n , a n d

E x i s t i n g per capita m u n i c i p a l usage =

I n the year 2010:

Manufacturing industry requirements = j ^ ( ^ ^ - ' ~

Industrial (including thermal)

Waste dilution requirements

DEMAND FORIRRIGATION WATER

D e m a n d for Irrigation Water

Monthly Percentage of Daytime Hours of the Year

(Modified Blaney-Criddle Method) Perennial Crops (Northern Hemisphere)

Deciduous, with cover

Field corn (grain)