RESULT

Substituting K=-0.01, to=2.5 and =12.5 into each process, yields;

Controller
Type

Proportional
only, P

Proportional Gain

Integral Time

Kc

1 2.5

0.01 12.5

Derivativ
e Time

Integral
Gain

Derivative
Gain

(Kc /I)

(Kc *D)

3.33 2.5 8.325

450

8.325

= -500
Proportional
integral, PI

0.9 2.5

0.01 12.5

=
-54.054

= -450
Proportional
integral
derivative,
PID

1.2 2.5

0.01 12.5

2.0 2.5

=5

1
2.5
2

600

6001.25
= -750

= 1.25

= -600

= -120

Table 2.1 Tuning Formulas for Quarter Decay Ratio Response

Controller
Type

Proportional Gain

Integral Time

Derivative Time

Kc

Integral
Gain (Kc /I)

Derivat

Gain

(Kc *
Proportional
integral, PI

0.758 2.5

0.01 12.5

0.861

12.5
1.02 0.323(0.2)

303.028

13.084

= 13.084

= -23.16

= -303.028
Proportional
integral
derivative,
PID

1.086 2.5

0.01 12.5

0.869

12.5
2.5

0.740 0.130(0.2) 0.348(12.5)

12.5

0.914

439.779

17.507
= -25.12

439.
0.9999

= -439.779

= 17.507

= -439.

= 0.9999

Table 2.2 Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas for Set Point Changes

Controller
Type

Proportional
Gain

Integral Time

Derivative Time

12.5
1.03 0.165(0.2)

Kc
Proportiona
l integral,
PI

0.586 2.5

0.01 12.5

0.916

= -255.949
Proportiona
l integral
derivative,
PID

0.965 2.5

0.01 12.5

0.855

= -382.073

Derivative Gain
(Kc*D )

255.949

12.538

= -20.414

= 12.538
12.5
0.796 0.147(0.2)

Integral
Gain
(Kc/I )

2.5
0.308(12.5)

12.5

= 16.306

0.9292

= 0.863

382.073

16.306

382.07316.30

= -23.431

Table 2.3 Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas for Set Point Changes

Controller Type

Proportional
integral
derivative, PID

Proportional
Gain

Integral
Time

Derivativ
e Time

Kc

12.5
0.01(2.5 12.5)

= -83.333

= 12.5

2.5
2

=
1.25

Integral
Gain
(Kc/I )

Derivative
Gain
(Kc*D )

83.333

12.5

83.3331.25
= -104.166

= 6.667

Table 2.4 Controller Modes &Tuning Formulas for Dahlin Synthesis

= -329.729

Controller
Type

Proportiona
l only, P

Proportional Gain

Integral Time

Kc

Derivative
Time

1
5 1 25
0.01
312.5

Integral Gain
(Kc/I)

Derivative
Gain
(Kc*D)

458.333

3.385

= -533.333
Proportiona
l integral, PI

30 3(0.2)
1
5 9 2.5 2.5 22 3(0.2)
0.01 10 1212.5
= -458.333

Proportiona
l integral
derivative,
PID

1
5 4 2.5
0.01 3 412.5
= -691.667

= 3.385

2.5

32 6(0.2)
13 8(0.2)

= 5.685

= -135.401

2.5

4
11 2(0.2)

= 0.877

691.667

5.685
= -121.665

Table 2.5 Tuning Formulas for Cohen Coon controller settings

691.667 0.877
= -606.591

Tuning Formulas for Quarter Decay Ratio Response

P-controller

Tuning Formulas for Quarter Decay Ratio Response

PI-Controller

Tuning Formulas for Quarter Decay Ratio Response

PID-Controller

Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas for Set Point Changes
PI-Controller

Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas for Set Point Changes
PID-Controller

Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas for Set Point Changes
PI-Controller

Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas for Set Point Changes
PID-Controller

Controller Modes & Tuning Formulas for Dahlin Synthesis

PID-Controller

Tuning Formulas for Cohen Coon controller settings

P-Controller

Tuning Formulas for Cohen Coon controller settings

PI-Controller

Tuning Formulas for Cohen Coon controller settings

PID-Controller

Tabulation of Overshoot Percentage, Settling Time & Integral of absolute error (IAE)
Tuning Formulas for Quarter Decay Ratio Response
P
PI
PID

Offset
0.025
0
0

OS
0.496
0.513
1.067

Ts
20.06
24.13
INFINITY

IAE
7.3
1.2
22.9

Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas for Set Point Changes
PI
PID

Offset
0
0

OS
0.12
0.60

Ts
16.40
97.73

IAE
0.8
3.8

Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas for Set Point Changes
PI
PID

Offset
0
0

OS
0.04
0.47

Ts
15.07
43.87

IAE
0.8
1.6

Controller Modes & Tuning Formulas for Dahlin Synthesis

PID

Offset
0

OS
0

Ts
47.8

IAE
2.2

Ts
237.11
235.87
INFINITY

IAE
6.9
7.9
20.7

Tuning Formulas for Cohen Coon controller settings

P
PI
PID

Offset
0.024
0
0

OS
0.49
0.913
0.993

5.1 Determine the best controller for each method

A control loop is a feedback mechanism that attempts to correct discrepancies between a
measured process variable and the desired set point. The controller applies the necessary
corrective actions via an actuator that can drive the process variable up or down. The art of
tuning a PID loop is to have it adjust its output to move the measured process variable as quickly

as possible to the set point (responsive), minimize overshoot, and then hold the process variable
steady at the set point without excessive output changes (stable).
There are five methods of tuning available in this project. The evaluation of the best
controller for each respective method will be done based on the IAE value obtained when using
different controller systems.

Quarter Decay Ratio Response

From the computed table provided in excel, the IAE for P controller is 7.3, 1.2 for PI Controller
and 22.9 for PID controller. Thus, it is indicated that PI Controller has the lowest IAE value
whereas PID controller has the highest IAE value. The IAE of P controller is in between P
controller and PID controller.
PID controller has the highest value of peak overshoot ratio which is 1.0667 followed by PI
controller and P controller. For settling time, P controller has the fastest settling time whereas
PID controller has infinity settling time. P controller has an offset of 0.025 while the other two
controllers do not have offsets. Thus, the best controller for this method would be PI controller.

Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE

From the computed table provided in excel, PID controller has higher IAE value than PI
controller with a difference of 3.0. It is found out that PID controller has higher value of peak
overshoot ratio compared to PI controller. Besides that, PID controller has much more longer
settling time than PI controller with a difference of 81.33 minutes. For the aspect of offset, both
controllers do not have any offsets thus this parameter is not considered as a parameter in
deciding the best choice of controller for this method since it is a constant for both controllers.
Thus, PI controller would be the best controller for this method.

Minimum Error Tuning

From the computed table provided in excel, PI controller has lower IAE value compared to PID
controller. It is shown that PI has a lower value of peak overshoot ratio compared to PI

controller. Moreover, PI controller settles faster than PID controller. Again, just like in Minimum
Error Integral Tuning IAE, both type of controllers do not have any offsets. Due to higher IAE
value, peak overshoot ratio and longer settling time, PID controller is eliminated as the option
and PI controller is chosen as the best controller suited for this method.

Dahlin Synthesis
There is only one choice of controller available for Dahlin Synthesis Method which is PID
controller. Thus, no comparison could be made to choose the best controller for this method.

Cohen Coon
From the computed table provided in excel, P Controller has the lowest IAE value whereas PID
controller has the highest IAE value. The IAE of PI controller is in between P controller and PID
controller. PID controller has the highest value of peak overshoot ratio followed by PI controller
and P controller. Among the three controllers, PID has the longest settling time whereas PI
controller has the shortest settling time. P controller has an offset of 0.024 while the other two
controllers do not have offsets. Thus, the best controller for this method would be P controller.

5.2 Determine the best tuning for each P, PI and PID controller from five methods
P Controller
The P-Only controller computes a CO action every loop sample time T as:
CO = CObias + Kce(t)

Where:
CObias = controller bias or null value
Kc = controller gain, a tuning parameter
e(t) = controller error = SP PV
SP = set point
PV = measured process variable

Time constant, Tp, and dead time, p, cannot affect the sign of Kc because they mark the
passage of time and must always be positive. The above tuning correlation thus implies that Kc
must always have the same sign as the process gain, Kp. When CO increases on a process that
has a positive Kp, the PV will increase in response. A process with a positive Kp is direct acting.
With negative feedback, the controller must be reverse acting for stable control. Conversely,
when Kp is negative (a reverse acting process), the controller must be direct acting for stable
control. Since Kp and Kc always have the same sign for a particular process and stable control
requires negative feedback, then:

Direct acting process (Kp and Kc positive) use a reverse acting controller
Reverse acting process (Kp and Kc negative) use a direct acting controller

In our project, P controller of Quarter Decay Ratio Response and Cohen Coon Controller
Settings are both reverse acting controller due to both having negative Kp values.
In feedback control system, it is best that the error, e(t), between any variable and its
demanded value is zero. However, in both the Quarter Decay Ratio Response and Cohen Coon
Controller Settings, the value of IAE is not zero, with P controller in Quarter Decay Ratio
Response having an error value of 0.025 and P controller in Cohen Coon Controller Settings
having an error value of 0.024. By comparing Cohen Coon and Quarter Decay Ratio Response
method, the value of Integral of Absolute Error (IAE) in Quarter Decay Ratio Response is
slightly larger compared to in Cohen Coon Controller Settings with a difference of 0.001. Due to
the e(t) not equal to zero in both of the controllers, there are areas between the set point line and
the process variable line. For the Cohen Coon graph, the area between the set point line and the

process variable is smaller, which signifies that the tuning system is able to bring the process
variable closer to the set point and gives a smaller offset.
Settling time is the time elapsed from the application of an ideal instantaneous step input
to the time at which the amplifier output has entered and remained within a specified error band,
usually symmetrical about the final value. The settling time of P controller in Quarter Decay
Ratio Response is slower whereas Cohen Coon has faster settling time. This is due to low value
of higher value proportional gain Kc used in Cohen Coon caused less oscillatory response in the
tuning system.
The peak overshoot ratio of P controller in Quarter Decay Ratio Response is also higher
than the one in Cohen Coon Controller Settings. Overshoot refers to an output exceeding its
final, steady-state value and the percentage overshoot (PO) is the maximum value divided by the
step value. Thus, it indicates that P controller in Quarter Decay Ratio Response has higher
maximum value than in Cohen Coon Controller Settings since the step value is constant for the
two controllers. In terms of offset, P controller in Quarter Decay Ratio Response is also higher
than the one in Cohen Coon Controller Settings.
In conclusion, Quarter Decay Ratio would be more ideal since it has faster settling time
and response of higher accuracy could be obtained since it also gives less error.

PI Controller
The PI controller computes a CO action every loop sample time T as:

Where:
CO = controller output signal
CObias = controller bias or null value; set by bumpless transfer as explained below
e(t) = current controller error, defined as SP PV
SP = set point

PV = measured process variable

Kc = controller gain, a tuning parameter
Ti = reset time, a tuning parameter

The PI-mode has an effect on controller output by varying the integral time with respect
to time. The integral time is changed and ultimately it directly affects the output of the controller.
As the integral time was increased the controller output was also changed with respect to time.
This might be due higher oscillations and lesser smoothness in case of PI mode. The PI-mode
also reaches the steady state set point slowly. Like the P-Only controller, the ProportionalIntegral (PI) algorithm computes and transmits a controller output (CO) signal every sample
time, T, to the final control element. The computed CO from the PI algorithm is influenced by
the controller tuning parameters and the controller error, e(t). Integral action enables PI
controllers to eliminate offset, a major weakness of a P-only controller. Thus, PI controllers
provide a balance of complexity and capability that makes them by far the most widely used
algorithm in process control applications.
By comparing four methods of Quarter Decay Ratio Response, Minimum Error Integral
Tuning IAE Formulas, Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas and Cohen Coon
controller settings, it is found out that Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas and
Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas have the lowest value of IAE which is 0.8
followed by Quarter Decay Ratio Response and Cohen Coon controller settings.
In terms of settling time, Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas has the fastest
settling time among the five methods mentioned with the value of 15.07 whereas Cohen Coon
controller settings has the slowest settling time with value of 235.87.
All of the methods do not lead to any offsets, thus offset could not be used as an accurate
parameter to decide on which method is the best for PI Controller.
The peak overshoot ratio of Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas is also the
smallest which is 0.04 compared to Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas of value 0.12,

Quarter Decay Ratio Response of value 0.5133 and Cohen Coon controller settings with biggest
peak overshoot ratio value which is 0.913.
In a nutshell, Minimum Error Integral tuning ITAE is the best PI controller. This because
it has the least Integral of Absolute Error (IAE) and peak overshoot ratio, fastest settling time, no
offset. The Quarter Decay Ratio Response and Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE and Cohen
Coon controller settings method are not pursued because they have high values of IAE, peak
overshoot ratio and settles slower.

PID Controller
The PID controller is a three mode controller. That is, its activity and performance is based on
the values chosen for three tuning parameters, one each nominally associated with the
proportional, integral and derivative terms.

Where:
CO = controller output signal
CObias = controller bias; set by bumpless transfer
e(t) = current controller error, defined as SP PV
SP = set point
PV = measured process variable
Kc = controller gain, a tuning parameter
Ti = reset time, a tuning parameter
Td = derivative time, a tuning parameter

By comparing the 5 PID controllers from 5 different methods which are Quarter Decay
Ratio Response, Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas, Minimum Error Integral Tuning
ITAE Formulas, Controller Modes & Tuning Formulas for Dahlin Synthesis and Cohen Coon

controller settings, it is shown that Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas has the
lowest IAE value followed by Controller Modes & Tuning Formulas for Dahlin Synthesis,
Minimum Error Integral Tuning IAE Formulas, Cohen Coon controller settings and Quarter
Decay Ratio Response.
Among all the five methods, Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas has the
fastest settling time with the value of 47.8 minutes whereas Cohen Coon controller settings and
Quarter Decay Ratio Response has infinite settling time.
Regarding the offset comparison of the five methods, it is found out that all the five
methods do not have offsets. Dahlin Synthesis has no overshoot thus zero peak overshoot ratio
while on the other hand, Quarter Decay Ratio Response has the highest value of peak overshoot
ratio.
It can be concluded that the recommended tuning method for PID Controller is Dahlin
Synthesis as it has no overshoot at all compared to the other four methods despite that it has
higher IAE value than Minimum Error Integral Tuning ITAE Formulas. Minimum Error Integral
Tuning IAE Formulas has overshoot thus it is not chosen. Besides that, Quarter Decay Ratio
Response is not preferable due to its high value of peak overshoot ratio. Cohen Coon controller
settings method is also eliminated because of its infinite settling time.