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Background
Availability of commercially viable and quality electrical energy in a bulk
quantum is the basic need for the survival and evolution of the modern civilization.
This is because electrical energy is the most convenient one for generation,
transmission, distribution, consumption, storage and control.
The phrase quality refers to a target that electricity be delivered to the end users
without exceeding the allowed limits in voltage deviation, frequency drift, wave
shape distortion (i.e. deviation from pure sine wave) and outage. Typical values of
these limits are respectively set at 5%, 1%, 5% and only 32 seconds/year (i.e.
99.9999% availability) in the context of todays world.
Power System: This is a system where a plethora of generation (G), transmission
(T), distribution (D) and utilization (i.e. consumption and storage) apparatus, and
measurement, control, protection and monitoring devices are so interconnected
that it becomes possible to bring power from distant and dispersed generation
units with fuel diversity (fossil fuel, nuclear, hydro, renewable) and deliver it in a
bulk quantum with quality and economy to the consumers who use appliances of
diverse nature ranging from low tech to high tech.
The planning, design and operation of a power system requires a knowledge of its
main control functions .
Fig.: Single Line Diagram of 200-bus grid of Bangladesh Power System (BPS) as of 2012
Since the inception in the late nineteenth century (around the year 1880)
power systems have been traditionally built in a vertically integrated form
comprising generation, transmission and distribution facilities owned and
operated by the same entity.
Since the late twentieth century (around 1996) a conceptual wave termed
restructuring/deregulation/unbundling swept across the world starting from
California of USA. This concept was the brainchild of primarily the economists.
This resulted in separate owners and operators for the three sectors to pave the
way for competition in the generation sector (i.e. many generation entities) and
creation of electricity market from where the distribution agencies will buy
electricity at spot price and/or under long term bilateral contracts.
Needless to say , the operation and control objectives and schemes for a
restructured power system differs to some extent from those for a vertically
integrated one because of the differences in the interests of the owners of the
three primary sectors (G, T, D).
Since the early twenty first century (around 2007), a new vision termed
smart grid was floated mainly by the public bodies and regulators of
electricity utilities in the North America against the backdrop of several
incidents of massive blackouts that occurred in USA and Europe in the years
2003 and 2004.
The smart grid vision is still in the stage of evolution; however, it stems from
an idea that the large power grids interconnecting bulk and centralized
power plants across the world are aging and hence a potential solution
could be to make the system self-healing in the event of blackouts through
embedding (i) distributed small-scale generation resources including
renewable sources, (ii) plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (that use high power
density rechargeable alkaline batteries) and (iii) smart appliances (selfresponsive to system condition) at the consumer end all of which can be
communicated by the grid control centre utilizing the available distributed
communication media such as cell phone network, internet, broadband
wireless systems such as WiMAX, fiber optic networks, and power line
carriers (PLC).
In brief DERs (Distributed Energy Resources including storage devices), two
way communication and DR (Demand Response) are the conspicuous features
of a smart grid.
http://sensorweb.cs.gsu.edu/?q=EnergyWeb
Source 2
Source: 3
RTU
IED
PMU
WAMPC: Wide Area Monitoring, Protection and Control system is another advanced
variant of EMS that uses only PMUs .
Data base
Data
base
incorporates
comprehensive
information about the system. The information can
broadly be classified into three groups such as:
i) on- line data from the RTUs;
ii) fixed data entered through man-machine
interface;
iii)output of state estimator and other application
programs.
State Estimator
The raw telemetered data received from the RTUs is mainly corrupted by two
types of errors- random measurement noise and gross error i.e. bad data.
The first type of error mainly results from current and potential transformer errors,
transducer (meter) inaccuracies, analog to digital conversion, noise in
communication channels or interference noise.
Gross error mainly results from faults or failures in metering and communication
system.
State estimator cleans up the raw data using a redundant set of on-line
measurements through a statistical criterion.
Load Forecasting
Load forecasting is the prediction of future
electricity demand by using some statistical
techniques to adjust past demands to present
weather conditions and other anticipated events.
Depending upon system dynamics e.g. change in
demanded MW/minute, short term forecasting takes
place usually once a day or every hour or few hours to
develop an operating schedule.
Unit Commitment
Unit commitment is a procedure to decide which of the
available generators should start up or shut down usually
over a time period of 24 hours in such a manner that the
forecasted demand is met with a spinning reserve which
would satisfy the requirements of both the security as well as
the optimum saving in fuel cost.
Economic Dispatch
Economic dispatch function determines the best allocation
of generation requirements among the committed generating
units so that the total cost of supplying the energy to meet
the demand within the constraints imposed by security
considerations is minimized.
Underlying logics of an
AGC scheme
NOTE
Dispatch), SC (Security Control) and AGC (Automatic Generation Control). While the first two are
performed at an interval of several minutes to one day the latter three are done at an interval of few
seconds to several minutes.
To implement the abovementioned real-time control strategy, a massive volume and a variety of
on-line data are transmitted to the master station or control centre from the remote stations i.e.
individual plants and substations in the system, through what is known as SCADA (Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition). These data are used in a plethora of analyses pertaining to various
functions including the above. The decisions are sent back to the concerned remote sites where again
SCADA implements the same and then sends confirmation back to the control centre. Figure 1
shows a conceptual model of the real-time control scheme what is known as the Energy Management
System (EMS) combining SCADA and application functions.
While frequency deviation is intimately related to the control of mismatch between demand and real
power generation, voltage control needs some additional steps known as VAR management which
includes generator excitation control, local VAR injection, transformer tap changing etc. The
corresponding devices (electromechanical or FACTS) are also interfaced to SCADA so that their
settings can be adjusted under a central command.
Apart from monitoring/metering the data and implementing the decisions related to real and
reactive power control, the SCADA can also integrate in it digital relaying for various types of
system protection. Even, the SCADA associated with a Distribution network Management System
(DMS) can be extended to consumers premises for remote meter reading and implementing DSM
(Demand side Management) actions i.e. to encourage the consumers to change their demand pattern
depending upon the supply side constraints.
Figure 4 Combination of radial (star) and multi-point (party line) master-RTU network
The data coming from RTU is stored in master station database and can be accessed by various
servers and terminals. Power system application functions are assigned with one of the servers or
distributed among more than one server. To allow view-at-a-glance a control centre is equipped
with a Mimic Board (in the form of a large wall map containing the single line diagram of the whole
power system) or an array of multimedia projector continually updating the SLD. The board or
multimedia screen is digitally updated showing violations of various operational data, CB status etc.
in the form of flashing indication using multicolours accompanied by audible alarm which ceases
when the operator acknowledges the indicated changes. Also operators are provided with software
assistance for an easy interpretation of huge alarms and data overloads. The decisions and output of
executing the application software are transmitted from the master station to the concerned RTUs
just in a manner opposite to that of receiving data from RTUs.
Figure 7 Connection of relay and transducers which are interfaced with a RTU
IED: A more recent development in SCADA system is use of IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices)
instead of RTUs. While RTU needs transducers for acquiring various data and got limited
computational power, IED is a transducer less data capturing device with more processing and
decision making power. For monitoring the electrical quantities, it simply receives a voltage and
current signal (waves) from PT and CT at each connection point and then computes all the relevant
data including energy, frequency and even phase angle. This enables the same IED to integrate
monitoring, metering, control and protection functions. Figure 7 shows the way the relay, CB, and
various transducers are connected in a power system. The transducer outputs are communicated to
the RTU and may also be taken to meters. Figure 8 shows how an IED is typically interfaced with a
power system.
The advantage of this measurement algorithm is that, apart from calculating the orthogonal
components of a phasor, it also filters both components using two orthogonal filters based on sine
and cosine functions. Consequently the calculated orthogonal components of the phasor are those of
the first (fundamental) harmonic. The higher harmonics and the DC component are washed out.
current and potential transformer errors, transducer (meter) inaccuracies, analog to digital
conversion, noise in communication channels or interference noise. Gross error mainly results from
faults or failures in metering and communication system. State estimator is a computer program
which uses a statistical criterion for systematically processing a redundant set of raw telemetered
measurements with a view to minimizing the effects of errors present in those. The outcome of state
estimation is a consistent and reliable estimate of a power systems current operating state which is
required by other application functions.
4.3 Load Forecasting
Load forecasting is the prediction of future electricity demand by using some statistical techniques
to adjust past demands to present weather conditions and other anticipated events. Depending upon
system dynamics e.g. change in demanded MW/minute, short term forecasting takes place usually
once a day or every hour or few hours to develop an operating schedule.
4.4 Security Control
Security control can be defined as a complex decision making process to initiate correct control
actions for the maintenance of electric power services under all conditions of operation. The power
system operation can be characterised by three sets of constraints, namely operating, load and
security constraints. Mainly the operational limits on system variables and apparatus, for instance
voltage limit, generator loading limit, transmission line thermal limit, tap position limit and so on
constitute the operating constraints. The load constraints mainly refer to customers total power
demand. The security constraints are mainly the minimum reserve margin in generation and
transmission.
The basic conditions of power system operation can be categorized into four states depending upon
the fulfilment or violation of the constraints. These are normal, alert, emergency and restorative. A
system is in the normal state when all the constraints are met such that the occurrence of any credible
but unforeseen disturbances (e.g. loss of line/generator/transformer/load) will not lead the power
system to the emergency state. In emergency state the operating and security constraints are violated
and the load constraints are not necessarily satisfied. A system in normal state can go to alert state
when any of the security constraints are violated. If a sufficiently severe disturbance takes place
before control action can be taken, the system in the alert state enters the emergency state or its
extreme version i.e. blackout state. The restorative state is associated with the period in which
actions (ranging from fast valving, dynamic braking, etc. to load shedding, islanding,
resynchronization etc.) are taken to bring the system from the emergency to the normal state. Figure
9 shows the four states of power system operation.
Basic to the security control of a power system are three functions, namely
1) security monitoring;
2) security analysis;
3) security enhancement
The security monitoring function checks whether the systems present state satisfies the load and
operating constraints. If so, the ability of the system to undergo a disturbance selected from a
predetermined list is tested in advance by the function security or contingency analysis. The two
well-known tools viz. load flow analysis and transient stability analysis are respectively applied for
static (steady state) and dynamic security assessment. If it is found by security analysis that at least
one contingency may bring the system into the emergency state, security enhancement measures
(such as generation rescheduling, line switching, VAR injection etc.) decided through security
constrained optimal power flow (SCOPF) are adopted and if necessary, the systems present
operating condition is altered before the contingency actually occurs.
6. Smart Grid
Smart grid is still a vision that aims at transforming the traditional power system so that it can (a)
accommodate besides the large central power plants dispersed small generations and storage devices
(based on renewable or conventional) including battery, fuel cells, fly wheel, plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles interfaced with the grid through power electronics, (b) deploy two way communication
using IT equipment and smart electrical appliances to transmit server commands to consumers and
receive consumers response (feedback) for more accurate operation and control of the system and
(c) retain the characteristics of a deregulated system or an electricity market.
7. Final Note
The prime requirement for ensuring reliability, quality and affordability of the electricity supply
either in a vertically integrated regulated or a deregulated power system using traditional EMS or
smart grid concept, is an on-line and real-time control system which makes large scale use of
emerging IT and communication technologies. However, the software and hardware cost proportion
in this is approximately 60:40. Development of the customized software for a power system control
centre requires about 20 man-years programming effort. This necessitates involvement of a host of
experts with in-depth knowledge in power system dynamics and modeling, and a few programmers
to assist them in developing interactive and real time computer codes for the models.
Bibliography
1. Jan Machowski, Janusz W. Bialek and James R. Bumby: Power System Dynamics Stability and
Control, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, UK, 2008.
2. Antonio Gomez-Expostio, Antonio J. Conejo and Claudio Canizares, Electric Energy Systems
Analysis and Operation, CRC Presss, New York, 2009.
3. S. Shahnawaz Ahmed: Power System Control, Proceedings of short course Recent Trends in
Power System Operation organized for the professionals in the academic/industrial sectors by the
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, UTM at Johor Bahru, Malaysia, 17-19 September 2001, pp. 2-1 to
2-16.
4. A.J.Wood, B.F. Wollenberg and Gerald B. Sheble, Power Generation, Operation and Control,
John Wiley & Sons, 2013.
5. W.A.Elmore, Pilot Protective Relaying, ABB-Marcel Dekker Inc., 2000.
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