CLEMENTE, Pearl Iris L.

Pearl

BAMC3A
HIGHLIGHT
CHAPTER 1
ASSUMPTION OF ETHICS
Three Imperatives
1. The existence of God or a Supreme Being
2. The existence of human freedom
3. The existence of an afterlife

November 28, 2015

INSIGHT

Imperative/s
of vital importance; crucial;
A thing that is very important and
needs immediate attention or action.
(Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary)
The assumption with the existence of God or
a Supreme being is very crucial for the whole
concept and study of ethics to make sense.
Whats the point of contemplating over what
is morally good or bad if we do not believe
that there is someone higher than any of us
could fathom, upholding the most supreme
and divine authority, who could see anything
and happening around us? And it is because
in that belief and assumption wherein our
concept of divine retribution takes place. The
idea that God, being the Supreme being,
exercises the judgment between those who
did good and bad here on earth.
The second Imperative, the existence of
human freedom, implies that without
freedom, no one is held responsible for every
action one does. It is said that with great
amount of freedom one has, there is also a
weighted amount of great responsibility
attached to it. If we are not free to do
anything, we are not accountable to our own
and anyones actions.
The Third Imperative highlights the existence
of afterlife to the study of ethics. It is in
connection to the first imperative, that is, the
assumption that there is the existence of a
Supreme being having the perfect authority
to cast justice to someone with regards to the
life hereafter, the question How well did we
live? comes into the picture.

An Alternative Perspective
German philosopher Hans Jonas proffers the sacredness of life
as a protonorm, establishing the idea of a universal norm free
of static Newtonian cosmology (Christians and Traber 1997)

In our systematic reflection on this primordial generality, we

discern basic ethical principles such as human dignity, truth
and nonviolence. (Christians and Traber)

Protonorm
The first principle that is a belief about what
is best for the world that different cultures
may express and practice in different ways.
(Christians and Cooper, 59)
We, as humans living in this world, follow
and share a common ground as a basis for
human actions.

CHAPTER 2
NATURE AND DEFINITIONS

Ethics is not a descriptive science is a normative science.

Descriptive Science is a science that deals

with formal experimentation, concerning
observable facts using factual approach to
define and state something. While Normative
Science, in nature, is more of assessing and
evaluating or prescribing norms, layouting
the way it should be if certain principles,
ideals are to be realized.

Definition of Ethics

Other than ethics, many sciences investigate human

behavior (e.g., sociology, psychology, political
science) Ethics, however, differs from each of these
in its standpoint or in the particular aspect of human
acts with which it is particularly concerned. Ethics
deals with the morality of human acts (Felix
Montemayor, 1983)

Ethics differ from any other sciences that

deal with human behavior because of its
scope specifically inclined to the moral
quality of human acts, that is, what one
thinks of what is good and bad.

Ethics is not an experimental science but

philosophical science.

It is considered philosophical science

because it is a study that deals with the
different assumptions, foundations and
principles as a basis to the understanding of
the nature of human actions in the moral
perspective. It is not experimental because,
ethics is not used to test and prove the
validity of something through different forms
of experiments.

Divisions of Ethics
The science of ethics is divided into the following:
a. General ethics/theoretical ethics
-deals with the general principles and concepts of
moral philosophy
b. Special Ethics
-focuses on the application of the general principles
and concepts in individual human actions.

Theoretical Ethics
-Major questions include the nature of ethical
language, the objectivity of ethical beliefs,
and the nature of ethical reasoning.
-understanding the nature of ethics
Special Ethics
howexistingprinciplesapplytonewissues,
therankingofcompetingprinciples,the
standardsofbestpracticeinaprofession
onwhatshouldbedoneinaparticular
situation,andethicaldecisionmakinginthe
field.

practicalinnature

Ethics and other Sciences

Ethics as a study of the morality of mans conduct is related to
other sciences, especially those that deal with the investigation
of human nature,
1. Sociology
2. Economics
3. Psychology

Sociology
-deals with the human social relationships
and institutions
Economics
-"Economics is the science which studies
human behavior as a relationship between
given ends and scarce means which have
alternative uses."
-- Lionel Robbins, An Essay on the Nature
and Significance of Economic
Science (London: MacMillan, 1932)
Psychology
-the study of the nature and structure of the
human mind and behavior.

CHAPTER 3
BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
Morality
Morality refers to the quality of the goodness and badness of
the human act. This quality is not something unreal, nor is it
an imagined quality supposed to be found in human acts
(Montemayor 1983)

Since we are referring to the moral quality of

human acts, the quality that was stated here
means that there is a basis or a criterion that
acts as a standard to know if an action can be
considered moral or not. It is not something
lightly made-up by anyone, there needs to be
common grounds for everyone to conform
and adhere to. It could be a code of conduct
put forward by our society itself, or any other

groups a person is related to or just simply

codes of conduct that an individual accepts as
a guide to his own behavior/actions.

Morality is the general name for a definite property which is

found in connection with the human act. By this property, the
person is responsible for his/her act. For example, he/she
performs the action freely by himself/herself and/is, therefore,
entitled to credit if the act is good or discredit if bad. A useful
term here is imputable, meaning that good or bad, the act
belongs to a definite moral agent.(Bourke 1951)

The norm or standard of morality means that whatever we do

as free agents presupposes a basis, criterion, rule or law by
which one is distinguished from the other.

Human Acts
A human act is an act done with full knowledge and
deliberation. (Quito 1989)
An act, therefore, that is done with some partial
knowledge or deliberation is, strictly speaking, not a
human act. Other moral philosophers define human
acts as simply as an act done with knowledge and
consent (Montemayor 1983)

By definite property, it means the

responsibility attached to the person in doing
something. We are all held accountable of
our own actions, be it good or bad.

Norm/Standard of Morality refers to a

standard in which all human acts are
compared to distinguish if it is morally
accepted or not. It serves as a guide or a basis
that completely separates what is right and
wrong.

An action that is well-thought of, wellplanned, and went into careful considerations
with full knowledge of its effect and
consequences.

It is important to note there that some acts are morally

indifferent. These are acts which are neither good nor bad.

Acts that are either good or bad depending on

how it is used and the circumstances or
situations present.

Voluntariness and Responsibility

Voluntariness refers to the freedom of the human
agent to act or not to act.
Ethics, therefore, clearly studies only human acts
because these are acts that are voluntary and have a
moral bearing. (Montemayor 1983)

Each person upholds the free will to do

something or not. Without the presence of
coercion, control or manipulation. It is
something that a person decides and
deliberates within himself.

The Morality of Human Acts

To fully determine the overall goodness or badness of a
human act, moral philosophers have divided human act into

End
-refers to the purpose of doing something

three constitutive parts. Every human act has an end, means

and circumstances. For a human act to be good, all the
constitutive parts must be good. (Quito 1989)

Means
-refers to the method used to reach a
common goal or end.
Circumstances
-situations that are related in doing the action
or means
According to Quito, these three should be
coordinated with each other in executing an
action to know if the human act is said to be
good or bad.
For example:
BAMC 3A will be having an examination in
BLE, Ja, who is a diligent student, wanted to
pass the exam so bad, however, due to her
obsession to pass, she made a cheat sheet
beforehand. During the exams, as she was
using the cheat sheet she made, Sir Pao
caught her in the act.

Degree or Types of Voluntariness

a. Perfect Voluntariness and Imperfect Voluntariness
b. Direct Voluntary and Indirect Voluntary

Example of Perfect Voluntariness and

Imperfect Voluntariness
Scenario:
John and Jeff are planning to rob a
Convenience Store, but since they lack in
numbers, they asked their friend, Jerry, to
come with them. Jerry asked what their plans
are, to which the two responded that theyll
only be having a boys night-out at the
nearest Convenience Store, Jerry agreed.
Upon arriving at the Convenience Store,
before he could even ask the things they are
planning to do there, John and Jeff are
already holding a gun and pointing it to the
person in-charged to the cashier shouting
Hold-up.
I believe that this one falls under Imperfect
Voluntariness, to which Jerry did not know
the whole plan of his two friends, let alone
the robbery incident. In order for it to fall
under Perfect Voluntariness, we can edit the
scenario and lets make Jerry fully aware of
his two friends plan, to which he knows all
the consequences and the dangers that he
may face upon performing such illegal act.

Examples to Direct Voluntary and Indirect

Voluntary
Scenario:
You despise your neighbor so much because
of a long history between the two of you, you
plotted an immoral act against him and you
ended up killing him by stabbing him at the
back 24times.
We can say that this is a form of direct
voluntary act, since the act is intended for its
own sake.
Scenario 2:
There is a confrontation between you and
your neighbor, and this neighbor attacked
you for no apparent reason. The situation
calls for a life and death situation, you need
to choose between the two. To defend
yourself, you end up killing your neighbor.
This is an example of Indirect Voluntary, to
which the act is not indeed for its own sake,
however follows a regrettable consequence
of an action directly willed. And you did that
act because youre only defending yourself.

Moral Principle of Act with Double Effects

Certain acts cause both good and bad effects.

This principle explains how permissible such

acts that causes serious harm as a side effect
of promoting some good end.
My example (the same on Indirect Voluntary)
There is a confrontation between you and
your neighbor, and this neighbor attacked
you for no apparent reason. The situation
calls for a life and death situation, you need
to choose between the two. To defend
yourself, you end up killing your neighbor.

the end does not justify the means

This universal moral principle states that

ones objective does not in any way outweigh
the method used to attain/achieve the goal.

Factors that Lessen Accountability

The Four Factors that Affect Voluntariness in a Human act:
1. Ignorance
vincible ignorance
invincible ignorance

Vincible Ignorance Example:

You will be travelling in Japan for a twoweek vacation, however, you dont know
anything about their language and culture, in
order to solve this, you bought books with
regards to Nihongo and anything that
concerns their cultureand study all the
materials every night.
Invincible Ignorance
-An ignorance beyond the capability and
control of the individual

2.

3.
4.

Concupiscence
Antecedent
Consequent Concupiscence

Fear
Violence

Antecedent Concupiscence
-something that is not willed
Consequent Concupiscence
-stimulated by the will

Fear and Violence

(Ill use my example to the Indirect
Voluntary Act)
There is a confrontation between you and
your neighbor, and this neighbor attacked
you for no apparent reason. The situation
calls for a life and death situation, you need
to choose between the two. You are afraid of
what might happen to each one of you,
however, you know in yourself that you
didnt do anything wrong, thats why youve
decided to defend yourself, you end up
killing your neighbor.
This is an act with the interference of fear, in
which the victim, as soon as he sensed what
might happen to him, he act with accordance
to his own instinct and defend himself up
though he had committed violence.

PART 2
ETHICS IN MASS COMMUNICATION
CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTING THE MASS COMMUNICATION
PROCESS AND ETHICS
The Dependency Model of de-fleur and Ball-Rokeach
The theory behind this model posits that in modern societies
the mass media are information systems vitally involved in
maintenance, change and conflict processes at the societal as
well as the group and individual levels of social actions. (De
Fleur and Ball-Rokeach, 1989)

According to Mcquail and Windahl (1993) the most important

and original idea of this theory is that in such a society
individuals come increasingly to depend on mass media
information for knowledge and orientation as to what is
happening around them.

Governments in democratic state have less control of the

media than governments in totalitarian states.

Model how the media can also be related/ dependent on either

As information disseminator, it is only

natural that the media become involved in
different processes happening in the society,
not mentioning their role as an agent of
socialization and change. No wonder why the
public, heavily rely on the media, they need
someone who can satisfy their thirst to
information, and that is where medias role
cues in.

We live in a world of information and

technology. Almost every minute, there is
something new happening around us, be it a
trend, social or political issues or anything
that concerns and piques our interests.
Having said that, we need to be updated, to
be in the know in order to cope up. And thats
how we, in time, became largely dependent
on the media. We need them as an outlet, an
outlet that connects us from our own personal
environment to the fast-paced outside world.

In a Democratic State, the media plays an

important role as foundations of democracy,
since freedom of speech, of expression and
of the press is recognized, this is in contrast
with regards to the concept of totalitarianism
wherein the government restricts all
individual freedom and exercise their full
authority to almost every areas of individual
life with the presence of control, coercion
and manipulation.

This only shows how the media, the

government and the public or the media users
are interrelated. Each member is dependent

one or both the government/society and/or the media users:

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upon and has influence over the other.

Each of them can satisfy the needs of the
other, and so, each of them too, can impose a
major influence on their quality of their
actions. Say for example, when the
government fails to do their task to serve the
interests of the common good, the public will
then act based on what they think is morally
right as a part of the social system.

Accordingly, the quality of the goodness or the badness of the

action of the three actors will depend on how they live up to
the demands of their relationships with one another.

Constructing a Conceptual Frame for Mass Communication

Ethics
Specific Freedom
The context of specific media freedom is relevant
only in democratic countries.

Social Responsibility Theory of the Mass Media

Working Principles
o 1 Truth in reporting
o Klaidman and Beauchamp (1987) present
four (4) working principles that help ensure
truth in reporting:
Completeness
Understanding
Objectivity and Balance
Accuracy

This context highlights what media freedom

is and its responsibility in our society.
According to the Social Responsibility
Theory, this theory allows certain areas (of
the press) free from censorship; however, lots
of responsibility are attached to the media at
the same time. We all know the complexities
the nature of the media have, they do not
merely exist just to deliver news and timely
information, but their role extends from
educating the public up to exposing the
wrongdoings of the government.
Completeness
-the quality of having all the elements
present; the state of being complete having
all the necessary components
Understanding
-the ability to grasp and comprehend a
concept, an idea or a situation
Objectivity and Balance
-the ability to cast and unbiased judgments
over something, without the influence of
personal preferences and/or emotions
Accuracy
-The quality or state of being close to truth
and free from error

Key Factors
Key factors that affect media presentation as identified by
Klaidman and Beauchamp are:
Situational
Structural
Cultural

Situational
Situational factors are external factors that
are beyond the control of an individual.
Structural
Refers to beyond the literal message the
medium conveys, for example, with regards
to TV news reports, the message is not the
content of the report, but rather the response
or attitude of the public afterwards with
regards to that certain news, it can be a
change on how they assess an issue, a crime
etc.,
Cultural
Lack of knowledge or background with
regards to different cultural orientations may
lead to stereotyping some news stories, only
highlighting the side of whats clear to the
reporter.

Audience
Media ethics scholars deem that the primary audience of the
media is the reasonable media user Of course, specialized
media, by their very nature, are expected to provide more
information, but his is only for their specific audience and not
for the general public.
Reasonable Media User
Special Publics
General Public

Reasonable Media User

-I think it refers to those who have an easy
access in mass media as a way of acquiring
information.
Special Publics
-Special groups or sectors in the society (for
example, religious groups, political groups,
etc.,)
General Publics
-the public in general

Specific Media Contents

Considering the wide and diversified views

of the general public, the special publics and
the reasonable media users have, it is
important to note that we have different
interests on certain matters or topics that will
benefit them. Thats why every individual
adheres to a specific media content.

Success/Failure Indicators

These are indicators that show how the media

users are affected in any way by any means

the media disseminates information.

CHAPTER 5
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND OTHER THEORIES OF
MASS COMMUNICATION
The Social Responsibility Theory has this major premise:
freedom carries concomitant obligations; and the media,
which enjoys a privileged position under the government, is
obliged to be a responsible to society carrying out certain
essential functions of mass communication in our society.
(Fred S. Siebert et al., Four Theories of the Press, 1956)

As the media exercise freedom under the

government, they are expected and required
to serve the society responsibly not only as
information disseminator, but also as
educators, etc.,

Hutchins Commission

The Hutchins Commission was formed due

to Henry Luce and Robert Hutchins concern
regarding the medias proper role and
function in the society. It is because of the
sentiment that journalism is incapable of
regulating itself that time that the
Commission was pushed through.

Alternative Theories of Mass Communication

1. Authoritarianism
Ranks the state higher than the
individual in the scale of social values;
teaches that only by subordination
oneself to the state can the individual
attain his goals and develop his
attributes as a civilized person.
There is a sharp distinction between
leaders and followers.
The source of truth is divine revelation
It is restricted
It is the standard for all members
of the society
The government controls the media in
various ways:
Issues patents or licenses to
the media
Makes use of prior censorship
The government threatens
punishment for treason or
sedition after the broadcast,
showing or publication.

Authoritarianism is in full contrast with

Democracy. In this type of government, there
is no individual freedom of expression.
Everything is governed by a small group of
elite people or authorities in order to protect
a divine ordained social order.
This is also the type of government wherein
if ever that there is a sensitive issue that
needs to be talked about, the government
have the full authority to restrict and control
the media just so peace and order is
maintained.

2.

3.

Libertarianism
The offspring of the great revolutions of
the popular mind and the body politic
which characterized Europe during the
16th and 17th countries.
Given a free and open encounter, truth
will triumph over error. John Milton
The Mass communication system is
powered by private enterprise.
Restricted by capital demands
John Lockes phrase enlightened selfinterest

Soviet Communist Theory

Different brand of authoritarianism
Social dialectic key concept which
results not only in a classless society
but also in a stateless society.
Mass Communication is an instrument
of the government
The press is free not to trade in news
but to educate the great mass of the
workers and to organize them, under
the sole guidance of the Partys, to
achieve clearly defined aims. (Lenin
1918)
We must and shall transform the press
into an instrument for the economic reeducation of the masses. (Rivers and
Schramm, Responsibility in Mass
Communication,1969)

Libertarian Theory is considered as one of

the Normative Theories of the Press. This
theory is completely against and composed to
the concept of authoritarianism. It gives life
to the statement information is knowledge,
and knowledge is power.
Libertarianism upholds the idea that man are
rational enough to distinguish what is right
from wrong thus giving everyone the
freedom to do and say anything as long as no
reputation is being defamed..

Also known as the The Communist Media

Theory. a theory based from the principles
of Marxists-Leninists. The government
governs the whole media and communication
operations for the benefit of the citizens by
providing good and positive information to
promote motivation and a more compact and
stabilized society.

CHAPTER 6
TELLING THE TRUTH: FOUR WORKING PRINCIPLES
What is truth?
Truth refers to the degree of correspondence between
our conceptual representation and the object it aims
to represent.

Principle of Completeness

Substantial Completeness
-the point at which a reasonable readers
requirements for information are satisfied. But the

Truth, for me, refers to the actuality of

something, be it circumstances or situations,
statements. No filter, no cover-ups, just the
rawness of it.

The principle of completeness, as Ive

decision where to exactly locate the threshold of

substantial completeness on the continuum depends
on practical, moral, political, human interest and
policy considerations.

Principle of Understanding
Does not necessarily call for all the facts; sometimes
a set of facts or even one single fact could trigger an
understanding of an event.
Substantial Understanding
-involves apprehension of all material or important
descriptions but not all the relevant and certainly not
all possible descriptions.

Principle of Objectivity and Balance

Objectivity demands that the communicators
messages must not be influenced by emotional or
personal prejudice.
Klaidman and Beauchamp observe that its
unrealistic to expect even the most objective person
to be totally uninfluenced by emotional or personal
prejudice.
Objectivity necessarily includes the need for balance.
Balance
-more than the mechanistic measuring of words.
-the use of a fair process to compare different sides
of an account or issues, often weighing different
considerations against each other
Principle of Accuracy
The need for accuracy in communicating the truth
includes both exactitude and meticulousness.
The principle requires that only information that has
sufficient and good evidence should be reported as
facts and that there should also be no question about
the weight of the evidence.
CHAPTER 7
PROBLEM OF BIAS AND OTHERS
Concept of Bias
Bias as an influence in a communicator results in a
value-directed departure from accuracy, objectivity
and balance, and not merely in a distorted
presentation of facts. Many sources of bias have been

defined earlier, is having all the elements,

parts and necessary components present and
intact. However, there is no such thing as
100% complete or perfect, to which it calls
out for Substantial Completeness, a term that
refers to the kind of information substantial
enough to meet the needs of a reasonable
reader.

The principle of understanding means the

ability of the media user to grasp or
comprehend and idea or a situation.
However, like the principle of completeness,
there is no such thing as 100% or complete
understanding, thats why it is not at all
necessary to comprehend every detail laid
out to the media user. Only the necessary and
important descriptions that can support what
youve read/heard are already enough.

Objectivity means the ability to cast

judgments without the interference of
emotions and personal preferences, while the
need for balance, is the ability to check and
analyze both sides of different issues or
stories fairly and unbiasedly.

Exactitude
-is the preciseness or exactness of something.
Meticulousness
-is the paying of attention excessively even to
the minute details.

identified and among them are irrationality, illusion,

greed, ambition, and religious fervor.

Use of Evaluative Language

Evaluative propositions are not easy to confirm or
falsify because they tend to assess or appraise, unlike
a factual statement in which it is supposedly
objective and may either be true or false.

Factors Affecting Media Presentations

1. Situational Factor
Distortions in communication caused by this factor
arise from the nature of the circumstance of the
subject of the report or news story. Skewing in the
message might thus occur due to inherent constraints.
2.

3.

Structural Factor
According to Marshall McLuhan, the medium is the
message. Each medium has distinct characteristics
that determine the way the message is shaped and
transmitted by the specific medium.

Cultural Factor
Distortion or imbalance in communicating about a
subject can result from gaps in historical
knowledge, reliable cultural information, or personal
experience. These shortcomings can lead to
stereotyping or romanticizing of cultures.

CHAPTER 8
THREATS TO MEDIA PUBLIC SEVICE AND TRUST
Threats to Media Public Service Function (as identified by
Georgie Anne Geyer)
The New Diplomats
-born out of the new role of the media professionals
-media communicators are no longer just on-lookers
but participants in the great play of life and no longer
simply the observers on the wingsthey are arbiters

Bias or being biased is when you let

emotions, personal preferences related to
personal experiences, background and
perceptions of things get in the way of
having a sound judgment clean of prejudices.

The use of evaluative language means,

expressing ones opinion or view on things
with the condition that it should go beyond
the facts that will serve as a substantial basis
to support it. Not just merely what can be
seen on the surface level.

Situational factors are external factors that

are beyond the control of an individual.

Refers to beyond the literal message the

medium conveys, for example, with regards
to TV news reports, the message is not the
content of the report, but rather the response
or attitude of the public afterwards with
regards to that certain news, it can be a
change on how they assess an issue, a crime
or etc.,

Lack of knowledge or background with

regards to different cultural orientations may
lead to stereotyping some news stories, only
highlighting the side of whats clear to the
reporter.

of truth in an increasingly complex world where

there are a few absolute truths.

Rampant Careerism
-refers to an unhealthy obsession to advance ones
personal career, especially with the use of
unscrupulous means

Crisis Coverage
-Not a few believe that media is over-covering the
crises of the world and under-covering major trends.
-Coverage does not make people understand the
world better but causes them to view the world as a
very threatening or unnatural place.

It is an undeniable truth that through the

years, the evolution of the role of the media
continues in setting the pace within the
industry. They are no longer just story-tellers,
because at the present time, they now take
part in the making of those stories.

Many media people nowadays only have onthe-surface level idea of what their
profession is all about. Mostly, for the fame,
spotlight, you name it. They are more
attracted to the calling of glamour and
prestige, thats why it is not very surprising if
theyll use any means just to reach that goal.
Example: Cardboard-Bun Hoax (July 2007)

Dishonesty in Style
-manifests itself in various forms
How the media cover news stories have a
major influence in influencing the opinion
and perceptions of everyone. Nowadays, it is
true, that the media do not tell us what we
need, but what we should talk about.

Adversariness
-has historical roots
-the danger in adversariness lies in the tendency by
some media persons to make a simplistic map of
their world: our side and their side, two continually
opposing forces.

CHAPTER 9
ON MANIPULATING AND BEING MANIPULATED
The principal sources of manipulation in mass communication

Dishonesty in all forms is very unethical.

Knowing the sensitive and strict nature of the
media profession, all media people should
always abide the values they uphold as
primary arbiters of truth, not mentioning that
it is their own credibility at stake. At all times
and at all costs, honesty is something that
should be seen in ourselves as we
continuously seek the truth.

Adversarial Journalism or also know as

Gotcha Journalism is a type of Journalism
that seeks the wrong doings of the
government and exposing it to the public. Its
methods are sometimes harsh and very direct,
sometimes, it extends to defaming or
embarrassing a public official or interviewee
using a set of questions that are out of

are the public, the media, and the news source.

Influence, Control and Coercion

Influence
According to Klaidman and Beauchamp, influence
does not necessarily imply constraint, governance,
force or compulsion, although these are essential to
certain kinds of influence. Some of these are said to
be unavoidable, while some might also be desirable.
Not all clearly interfere with our autonomous
deliberation and decision.
Influence by way of manipulation or coercion

Control
Is always executed through some form of influence.

The Moral Standard is to use only those forms of influence

that leave persons free, informed, and generally in command
of their belief and actions.

Coercion

bounds.

The question here is to manipulate or be

manipulated. Which one are we in? Among
the three, we cannot help but agree how they
are interrelated with one another, mainly as
sources of manipulation in mass
communication. Knowing how the media can
be very manipulative, the public, too and
news sources have a certain power that can
control the media. Example: by
printing/reporting what they (sources) give to
the media, the media serve their purpose.
Thats why one should be very careful in
choosing his stories, if its worth it or not,
and most importantly if its relevant and
important, because no one knows what
agenda these sources could be plotting.

Influence
-is anything that can act as a compelling
force that can have an impact to ones
individual, be it in his own choices, decisions
and behaviors. Not all restricts our freedom
to do something out of our own free will.
However, when influence through
manipulation and coercion enters the scene,
this is something that should not be taken
lightly.

Control
-is the exercise of a command over
something accompanied by some form of
influence.

According to this moral standard, it is

Involves a threat or harm, is not to be resorted to

unless, of course, there is an overriding value that
will justify its use.

Informing and Persuading

Selective Disclosure deprives the media users of the
opportunity to examine all the angles or sides of
topic or issue, and apparently violates their freedom
of choice and autonomous decision.

Persuasion
- is a form of influence that appeals to reason.
-an appeal to reason that succeed in getting others to
freely accept the beliefs, values, attitudes or actions
of the persuaders.

Manipulation
Is defined as any intentional and successful influence
of a person by:
1. Non-coercively altering the actual choices
available to a person or
2. Non-persuasively altering the others perception
of those choices.

Manipulating Media
The mass media is one principal manipulator in the mass
communication world, and it is able to do so because of its
immense power, deriving from strategic human and
material/economic resources.

CHAPTER 10
HARMS/BENEFITS CALCULUS

important to exercise any forms of influence

that will not rob the people to do something
out of their own free will. They should
always be, first and foremost, completely the
captains of their own actions, decisions and
beliefs.

Coercion is the act/practice of making

someone do something through the use of
force, or a threat that gives weight to the
consequences if something is not reinforced.

Lets say for example, an executive in GMA

is involved in a scandal for harassing their
talents. The GMA Network discloses only the
partial story, while ABS-CBN, exposes all
the angles of the story, all the sides of the
involved person in the said incident.
May kinikilingan sa parte ng GMA, which
will never ever be right.

Persuasion is the kind of influence that is not

directly stated but appeals and affects the
reasoning of the individual in order to adopt
a certain idea or an action. The persuader
does not really deprive the person from their
own freedom to choose, he just merely use
any forms or any means like using other
peoples emotions, experiences, fear and
knowledge and such to make them relate to
the persuaders point of view.

Manipulation is the act of using any methods

or means to serve ones purpose, goal or
agenda.

There are many ways in which the media

could be manipulated. Included in the long

Despite their (media) access to seemingly unlimited resources,

however, the capitalists cannot always have things the way
they want them, for there are limitations endemic to
capitalism in all its forms. The entire system is fraught, with
structural, ineradicable contradictions (Fred Inglis, Media
Theory, 1990)

list are the giving of gifts, money or any

forms of bribery or personal arrangements
that might influence the way they deliver the
news.

The Harm Principle (derived from John Stuart Mills work,

On Liberty)
The principle states that a persons liberty may
justifiably be restricted to prevent harm that the
persons actions would cause to others.

Since there is a tight and still on-going tough

competition within the media and other
industries due to finite resources, harms are
consciously and unconsciously casted to the
media users which calls for the proper
regulation of the said industry.

Harm
-According to Joel Feinbergs contention, harm
involves the thwarting, defeating, or setting back on
an interest.

Responsibility for Harm

Taking due care is a very helpful and central concept for
assessing moral responsibility for harmful outcomes.

According to the Harm Principle, it is

possible to restrict and control the freedom of
other people if the reason is to prevent the
execution of harm that certain freedom
could possibly do to others.

According to Joel Feinberg, harm is the

invasion of ones interest done by the person
inflicting the harm. Ones interest may
include property, privacy, reputation etc.,

Negligence and/or careless action are equally relevant

concepts in this connection.

Concept of Calculus

It should be reiterated that we live in a world of competing

values.

Taking due care means that a person is

making an effort to consider all the necessary
precautions to avoid/prevent harm to other
people and/or situations or circumstances.
Negligence is the inability of the person in
taking due care.

Calculus
-a system of calculation and/or reasoning

This statement is fully in line with the saying

nothing is ever constant in this world but
change---this means that anything from its
standpoint can be changed, nothing is ever

Other Forms of Harm

1. Harms from falsity and duplicity and;
-caused by false or duplicitous statements

2.

Harms by insinuation and innuendo

-failure to scrutinize what has been stated for hidden
or subtle meanings and consequences.

Inevitable Harm and Retraction of Mistake

Retraction and Restitution

permanent, and nothing from the law is

absolute either. I totally agree from the
example stated on the book, in which the
author relates it to the freedom of speech and
of the media. Yes, we have this so-called
freedom of expression, the right to express
our beliefs and opinions to anyone or
anything as long as we are not degrading
someone elses reputation or threaten the
national security.

The book made mention about the issue

regarding the involvement of the two
reporters from The Washington Post, in
which they made a public statement that a
National Cancer Institute Phase Drug trial
was killing hundreds of patients. Because
they do not have any background with
regards to medicine and science, given the
fact that they did not make any careful
investigation, they did not seem to know and
understand that those patients who had died
are already terminally-ill patients, meaning,
the cause of death was not really the drug.

Innuendos can either be intentional or

unintentional, depending on how a statement
was written, and the reason behind the
writing. However, be it intentional or not,
there will always be a consequence of the
said action. An article pertaining to a TV
personality, for example, may be written for
fun or for entertainment purposes, but the
content of the said article somehow connotes
another context or idea aside from the main
subject and the purpose of the writing, say
for example, to degrade and humiliate him.
Clearly, the harm here has been inflicted
already to the degraded person.

Inevitable Harm
-harm that cannot be avoided example

Retraction

-The act of taking back what has been said,

usually done by journalists or the media
when they said something that was incorrect
Example: The public apology issued by
Rappler for taking a quote with regards to
Mar Roxass stance on the laglag bala
incident out of context.

CHAPTER 11
MEDIA ACCOUNTABILITY AND CRITICISM

Restitution
-the act of restoration
For example, a jeepney driver accidentally
hit a boy at the road. The driver may be
ordered to compensate for the boys medical
expenses.

If there is no freedom, then there is no responsibility.

Concept of Accountability
Being accountable is being defined as being answerable and
being liable to be called for an accounting.

Mechanisms for Accountability

Government and The Fairness Doctrine;
- Based on the theory that the airwaves belong to
the public, not to the broadcasters.
- If issues are important, contrasting views must
be presented.

Ombudsman practice;
- Providing an independent source for receiving
complaints from aggrieve parties in order to
probe the justifiability of the complaint and to
make recommendations for a change.

Types of Criticism
Internal
Refers to the structure and practice within the
organization which guarantees that anyone who has
something to say about the strengths and weaknesses
of the profession is given the space.

How can we be made responsible over

something if we do not have the freedom to
do anything?

Being accountable means being able to

accept the responsibility over ones action.

The Fairness Doctrine states that

broadcasters must present and provide
adequate news to the public which should be
done in an honest and balanced way, and that
when presenting controversial issues, they
should present the different views of both
sides involved.

The Ombudsman exercise independent

authority to investigate the complaints of the
individuals to protect and defend their
citizens against abuse, maladministration of
the government and discrimination within the
society.

External
Also refers to the practice of self-regulation
of the media, thoroughly abiding by their
own rules and codes of ethics.

CHAPTER 12
HUMAN VIRTUES IN MASS COMMUNICATION

What is virtue?

Virtues are those habits that can make a person perform well.
And there are two areas where a person can be said to perform
his functions well as a human being: the will and the intellect
(Quito 1989)

Also refers to the award-giving bodies by

small or independent groups outside the
media. These bodies make sure that the
media is doing their part to better serve the
citizens for the further development of
journalism here in the Philippines

Virtues, for me, are the set of standards and

guiding principles accepted by an individual
within himself to which his actions and
reasoning capability are completely
conforming to enabling him to act on what is
right.

For an individual to perform well, he should

first have a personal disposition that will
fully coordinate with his own will and
intellect.