History of India

Indias history and culture is ancient and dynamic, spanning back to the beginning of human
civilization.
Indian History in Short:The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which spread through in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, from 3300 BC to 1300 BC. This Bronze Age civilization
collapsed at the beginning of the second millennium BC and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic
period, which extended over much of the Indo-Gangetic plains and
which witnessed the rise of kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas.

In the fifth century, large parts of India were united under Ashoka. He
also converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism
spread to other parts of the Asia. In the reign of Mauryas, Hinduism
took shape fundamentally.
In the eight century Islam came to India and by the 11th century it
firmly established itself in India. The North Indian dynasties of the
Lodhis, Tughlaqs, and numerous others, whose remains are visible in
Delhi and scattered elsewhere around North India, were finally
succeeded by the Mughal empire, under which India once again
achieved a large measure of political unity.
The European presence in India date to the seventeenth century, and
it is in the latter part of this century that the Mughal empire began to
disintegrate, paving the way for regional states.
During the first half of the 20th century, a natiowide struggle for independence was launched by the
Indian National Congress, and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained
independence from Great Britain in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of India and
Pakistan.

The History of India can be broadly divided into following three categories.

Ancient India

Starting from Harappa Civilization in 3000 BC till Chola Dynasty in 985 AD.

Medieval India

Starting from Ghazni sacks Somnath Temple in 1026 AD till Siraj-ud-daulah captures Calcutta
(Now Kolkatta) in 1756 AD.

Modern India

Starting from Battle of Plassy in 1757 Till Partition of India and Independence on 15 August
1947.
See Also:-

Imp. Dates of Indian History

Imp. Battles of Indian History

Ancient India

Introudction
The ancient civilization of India grew up in a sharply demarcated sub-continent bounded on the north
by the world's largest mountain range-the chain of the Himalayas, which, with its extensions to east
and west, divided India from the
rest of Asia and the world.
The long sea coasts of India
facilitated the growth of maritime
trade and a large number of
harbours were established through
which trade relations with Rome,
China, Malaya, South East Asian
archipelago were set up. India's
centralised position in Indian Ocean
is also of great strategic and
economic importance.
India is a curious meeting place of
diverse religions, races, manners
and customs. From the point of
religion, India is the home of the
Hindus,
Muslims,
Buddhists,
Christians, Jains, Sikhs and the
Paris. Diversity is also to be seen in
the languages of the Indian people.
From the points of view of race, religions, language, manners and customs, the Indians constitute a
composite population.
In ancient literature, mention is found of five natural divisions of India:1.

Madhyadesa,i.e. Indo Gangetic plain stretcing from the valley of the river Saraswat to the
Rajmahal Hill. This division has been known as Aryavarta from the ancient times.

2.

Uttarapatha or Udichya i.e. North-West India

3.

Pratichyaor Aparanta i.e. Western India

4.

Dakshinapatha or Dakshinatya i.e. the area south of Madhyadesa

5.

Prachya or Purvadesa, the region east of Madhyadesa

The course of history is also shaped through geographical factors, such as geology, climate, etc. The
study of Indian physiography, therefore, can be classified into three territorial compartments, such as
the northern plains of the Indus and Ganga basin, the Deccan plateau lying to the south of the
Narmada and to the north of Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers and the far south Tamil states. Rivers
made the irrigation easier by continuous supply of perennial water to this tract which includes the
states of Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan.
The horizontal and vertical excavations have helped uncover the period-wise sequences of cultres and
of ancient remains. Excavations have brought to light the cities which the people established around
2500 BC. They also reveal the layouts of the settlements in which people lived, the types of pottery
they used, the form of house in which people dwelt, the kind of food they ate, and the types of
implements they used. The vast variety of rich vegetation and congenial regular weather chain suited
the human habitat and the pages of history and replete with the stories of their linux.
The Mahajanapadasattracted the risings of smaller states. As early as in 5th century
BC, Herodotus observed that "of all the nations, that we know, it is India has the largest population."

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Pre Historic Period

Indus Valley Civilisation

Vedic Age

Rise of Mahajanapadas

Age of Religious Movements

The Mauryas (321 BC - 185 BC)

India after Mauryas

The Sangam Age

The age of Gupta

Transformation From Ancient Phase to Medieval Phase

Points to Remember

Father Hameleden was the first to master Sanskrit language and compile a grammer book.

Father Coeurdoux recognised the kinship of Sanskrit and languages of Europe in 1767.

Alexander Hamilton (1762-1824), a French, was the first person to teach Sanskrit in Europe.

Freidrich Schlegel was the first German Sanskritist.

Franz Bopp (1791-1867) succeded in reconstructing the common ancestor of classical

languages of Europe and Sanskrit in 1816.

Friedrich Max Muller (1823-1900) edited the translation of Rig Veda

Otto Bohtlingk and Rudolf Roth produced the Sanskrit-German dictionary known as the StPetersburg Lexicon

James Prinsep successfully interpreted for the first time the earliest Brahmi script in 1837. He
was able to read the edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.

William Jones translated in 1789 Kalidasa's masterpiece Abhijnana-Shakuntalam into English.

Wilkins translated the Bhagwat Gita into English in 1785.

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Sources of ancient Indian History can be described under the following five headings:1.

Literary Sources: The ancient Indian literature were mostly religious in nature and contains no
definite date for events and kings eg. the Puranas and the epics. Vedic literature has no trace
of political history but has a reliable glimpses of culture and civilisation of the age. The epics
like Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Jaina and Buddhist religious texts supply us with some
important historical material with doses of religious messeges.
Upanishadas: Main source of Indian philosophy; also called "Vedantas"
Jaina Parisistapravana, Buddhist Dwipavamsa and Mahavamsa contain traditions which supply
us
some
historical
materials. Gargi
Samhita ,
a
book
on
astronomy,
the grammer of Panini and Patanjali also contain materials that help us in the recontruction of
the history of the ancient period of India.
From the second half of the ancient period of Indian history, there are not only panegyrics of
kings and emperors but also political treatises dealing with the principles of administration.
Kautilya's Arthasastra and Manusmriti may be mentioned in this connection. It was a work of
the Maurya period. Vishakhadatta's Mudrarakshasa gives a glimpse of Maurya society and
culture. Similarly, events of the Pushyamitra Sunga's reign are mentioned by Kalidasa
inMalvikagnimitram. Among
the
personal
accounts
of
ancient
period,
Banabhatta's Harshacharita , dealing with the character and achievements of Harshvardhana
as also history of his times, Bakpatiraja's Gaudabaho describings how Yasovarman conquered
Gauda deserves special mention. Poet Bilhana described the history of the reign of Chalukya
king Vikramaditya VI in his Vikramanka Charita . Sandhyaakar Nandi's Ramacharita is a
description of the reign of Rampal, a king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal.
Kalhana's Rajatarangini is a valuable book on the history of the kings of Kashmir. Likewise,
Padmagupta's Nabasahasanka
Charita, Hem
Chandra's Dwasraya
Kavya ,
Nyaya
Chandra's Hammir Kavya , Ballal's Bhoja Prabandha contains important historical materials.

2.

Archaeological Evidence :The archaeological evidence is obtained by the systematic and skilled
examination of building monuments, and work of art. The credit for excavating the pre-Aryan
past goes to Sir William Jones of Asiatic Society of Bengal (established on 1st January 1784).
General Sir Alexander Cunningham, one of its Royal Engineers, dugged out the ruins of ancient
site of pre-Aryan culture. From his arrival in India in 1831, Cunningham,the Father of Indian
Archaeology devoted every minute he could spare from his military duties to the study of
material remains of ancient India, until in 1862, the Indian government established the post of
Archaeological Surveyor, to which he was appointed. Until his retirement in 1885, he devoted
himself to the unravelling of India's past with complete single-heartedness.
In 1901, Lord Curzon revived and enlarged the Archaeological Survey and appoint John
Marshall its Director General. The discovery of India's oldest cities dating back to the second
Inter-Glacial period between 400,000 and 200,000 BC in 1921 by Daya Ram Shahni was the
biggest achievement of Archaeological Survey of India under Marshall, the first relics of which
were noticed by Cunningham. The cities discovered were named Harappa and Mohenjodaro
and the civilisation as the Indus Valley Civilisation.
In 1922, an Indian officer of the Archaeological Survey, R.D.Banerjee, founded further seals at
Mohenjodaro in Sindh, and recongnized that they were remains of a pre-Aryan civilisation of
great antiquity. Under Sir John Marshall's direction, the sites were systematically excavated
from 1924 until his retirement in 1931.

3.

Inscriptions : Inscriptions are the most reliable evidence and their study is called epigraphy .
These are mostly carved on gold, silver, iron, copper, bronze plates or stone pillars, rocks
temple walls and bricks and are free from interpolations. Inscriptions again are mainly of three
types:- royal eulogy, official documents like royal rescripts, boundary marks, deeds, gift, etc.
and private records of votive, donative or dedicative type.
Inscriptions in Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Telgu, Tamil and other languages have been discovered.
But most of the inscriptions are in Brahmi and Kharosti scripts.
James Prinsep, the Secretary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal succeeded for the first time in
deciphering the Brahmi script. Among the inscriptions of ancient past, those of emperor
Ashoka are by far the best historical evidence about his reign. Inscriptions of Kharvela, king of
Kalinga, Saka rular Rudradamana, Allahabad Prasasti by Harisena, the court poet of
Samudragupta, are important evidences for the reconstruction of the history of India.

4.

Coins : The study of coins is known as numismatics. Thousands of ancient Indian coins have
been discovered from which idea about the contemporary economic condition, currency
system, development of the matallurgical art has been obtained. The image of Samudragupta
playing on a lyre gives us an idea of his love of music. From the dates on the coins, it has
been
possible
to
understand
the
contemporary
political
history.

Samudragupta's Aswamedha coins and Lion-slayer coins gives us an idea of his ambition and
love of hunting.
5.

Accounts of the Foreigners : A great deal of our knowledge of ancient Indian History are
supplemented by the writing of foreigners.
The below table gives a brief survey of important literary works of foreign scholars, mentioning
the subjects their works deals with.

Literary Works of Foreign Authors

Author

Book

Subject

Magasthenes(G) Indica

Valuable information on administration and

socio-economic of Mauryan India

Ptolemy(G)

Geography

Geographical
Century AD

Pliny(G)

Naturakus Historia

Accounts trade relations between Rome and

India in 1st Century AD

Anonymous(G)

Periplus of the Erythrean Sea

Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in

80 A.D.

Fa-Hien(C)

Record of the Buddhist Countries

Records the
Century AD

Hiuen Tsang(C)

Describes the social, economic and religious

Buddhist Records of the Western
conditions of India in the 5th and 7th
World
Century AD.

I-tsing(C)

A record of the Buddhists religion as

Studies the Gupta period under Sri Gupta in
practised
in
India
and
Malay
the 7th Century AD.
Archipelago.

Hwuili(C)

Life of Hiuen Tsang

G-Greek,C-Chinese

Pre Historic Period

treatise

Gupta

on

India

Empire

in

in

the

Accounts Hiuen Tsang's travel in India.

2nd

5th

Introduction
Earth is very old and so is the antiquity of man. The earliest human fossils have been found in Africa
dating about 4.2 million years. The primitive man was shorter in height and had a smaller brain. Homo
sapiens evolved over a period of these years about 50,000 years ago. Humans have been using stone
tools and their life story is, therefore, divided into
Paleolithic,Mesolithic and Neolithic age.

Evolution of Man

First

Fossile

--

Male

-Ramapithecus

Female - Shivapithecus
(10-14 million years ago)

These fossils were found in Shivalik and Salt

range

Homoerectus:

Found

in

Hathnora

(Lower

Palaeolithic) 10 lakh B.C.

Homo sapiens : Found in Upper Palaeolithic

Regions

The designation of the cultural past of man was done by P.F. Suhm in as early as
1776. C.J.Thomsen, in 1836, followed the same to arrange the exhibits in Danish
museums. Lubbock in France divided the stone age further into Paleolithic and Neolithic. In
1930, Gabriel de Mortillet, a French investigator, started the practice of naming cultural divisions in the
manner of compartments or stages. Yet, it is generally classified as follows:-

Palaeolithic Age

Mesolithic Age

Neolithic Age

Chalcolithic Age

Copper Phase

Iron Age

Pre History

Palaeolithic Age or
Old stone age
(500,000-10,000 BC)

Mesolithic Age or
Late Stone Age
(10,000-4,000 BC)

Neolithic Age or
New Stone age
(6,000-1,000 BC)

Palaeolithic Age cab be further divided into following:Palaeolithic Age

Lower Palaeolithic Culture

Middle Palaeolithic Culture

Upper Palaeolithic Culture

(5,00,000 - 100,00 BC)

(100,000 - 40,000 BC)

(40,000 - 10,000 BC)

Pre Historic Phases

Stone Age

Lower
Palaeolithic

Middle
Palaeolithic

Primary Culture

Major Site

Importance

Flakes,Chopper
Chopping Culture

Kashmir, Punjab, Whole India except

Sind
and
Kerala.
Main
:Sohan(Punjab), Singrauli basin (U.P.),
Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Assam,
Narmada, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.

- Head axe and pebble

tools,
Fossil
ofHomo
Erectus from Hathnaura
(Narmada
basin)
- Represented by Sohan
Culture
(now
in
Pakistan.)

Scraper/Booer
Culture

- Varieties of Blades,
Points, Borer and Scraper
Navasa
(Maharashtra),
Didwana
made
of
Flakes.
(Rajasthan), Bhimbetka (MP), Bankura
- 200 rock shelters and
and Purulia (West Bengal), Narmada
caves are located on
Valley etc.
Bhimbetka hills having
thousands of paintings.

- The age of Neanderthal

Man
A.P. (Kurnool, Chittor) Karnataka, - Earlier "Homo Sapiens"
Burin
Central MP, Jharkhan Plateau, U.P., - Harpoon, blade tools
Rajasthan, Gujrat
from Renugunta (A.P.)
Bone
tools
from
Kurnool.

Upper
Palaeolithic

Blade and
Culture

Meslithic
Age

Microliths Culture Karnataka, Rajasthan (Bagor, Tilwara), Microlith

(a
or
Fluting
& Gujrat
(Langhanj),
M.P.,
Tamil technological
Gometrical tools
Nadu,West Benal (Birbhanpur), U.P. development,

great

(Sarai Nahar Rai)

Neolithic
Ate

Polished
culture

introduction of compound
tools)
- Man still a savage but
pottery maing (Tilwara)
and permanent habitation
found, still a hunder,
fisher.

Earlies
Farming
community
- Kinship became the
basis
of
social
organisation
- Pit dwelling houses
Kashmir (Burzahom, Gufkral), Assam - Food begain to be
tool (Daojili Hading), Garohill Meghalaya, cooked
by
fire
Bihar (Chirand), Peninsular India, Amri, -Evidence
of
dogs,
Kotdiji, Mehargarh etc
circular huts made of
bamboo,
bone-tools,
hand made pottery etc
- Also called "Neolithic
Revolution"
-Boat making, spinning
cotton and wool.

Palaeolithic Age (50,000 - 1,00,000 BC)

It was basically a hunting and food gathering culture 'Palaeo' means 'old' and 'lithic' means 'stone'.
Palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases:

1.

Early or Lower Palaeothic (50,000 - 100,000

BC) : It covers the greater part of the Ice Age
and its characteristic feature is the use of
hand-axe, cleaners and choppen

2.

Middle Palaeothic (100,000 - 40,000 BC): The

Middle Palaeothic culture is characterised by
flakes. The principal tools are variety of
blades, points and scrappers made of flakes.

3.

Upper Palaeolithic (40,000 - 10,000 BC) : It

marks the appearance of Homo Sapiens and
new flint industries; widespread appearance of
a figurines and other artifacts reflecting art
and rituals; the appearance of wide range of
bone tools, including needles, fishing tools,
harpoons, blades and burin tools.

Palaeolithic Age People :

Earliest Palaeolithic man lived on hunting and food gathering. The hunting and gathering pattern was
dependent upon the season. The nature of stone tools also varied according to the climate. Not
knowing how to grow his food, he ate fruits, birds, raw animal flesh etc. The people were wanderers
and moved from places to place. They took refuge under the rocks in caves and hollow tree trunks.
Facts to Remember

The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period.

Robert Bruce Foot was the first to discover a Palaeolithic stone in India in 1863.

The Palaeolithic research in India got a boost only with the coming of Yale Cambridge
Expedition in 1935 led byDeterra and Patterson.

The tools were usually made of hard rock 'quartzite' and therefore Palaeolithic man in India is
also called"Quartzite Man"

Rock paintings and carvings have been numerously founded in Bhimbetka from different periods. The
animals depicted in these paintings were mostly bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinocerous, boars etc. and
were based on their hunting lives. The upper Palaeolithic art is characterised by red and green
colours.

Mesolithic Age (10,000 - 4,000 BC)

It was the transitional between Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages. Its characcteristic tools are microliths
all made of stone. The microliths were first discovered by Carlyle in 1867 from Vindhyan Rock
Shelters. This age is also known by various names like Late Stone Age or Microlithic Age. The
Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. Earliest domestication of animals has
alo
been
witnessed
from
Madhya
Pradesh
and
Rajasthan.
Mesolithic Tools : Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of
fine-materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally one to five
centimeters
long.
Paintings : At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been
discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes have been found.
Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in large and small groups and shown
in various poses.
Depiction of human figures in rock paintings is quite
common. Dancing, running, hunting, playing games
and quarrelling were commonly depicted scenes.
Colours like deep red, gree, white and yellow were
used in making these paintings.

Neolithic Age (New Stone

Age)(6,000-1,000 BC)

The word 'neolithic' was first coined by Sir John Lubbock in 1865.Miles Burkit enumerated four
characteristics of neolithic culture

1.

Animal domestication

2.

Agricultural practice

3.

Grined and Polished stone tools and

4.

Pottery manufacture

The discovery of the tools and implements of the

neolithic age was made by Le Mesurier in Uttar
Pradesh in 1860. Later on, Frasher discovered such
objects in Bellary in South India. The people of this
age used tools and implements of polished stone.
Neolithic People : The civilisation and culture of the
Neolithic age shows distinct traces of progress. The
Neolithic men had a settled life. They practised
agriculture and grew fruits and corn. Animals, such as the cow, dog, ox, goat etc. were domesticated.
The art of producing fire by the friction of bamboos or pieces of stones was known to them. Instead of
eating the uncooked flesh of various animals, they now started roasting it. Besides this, bows and
arrows were invented and were used for the purpose of hunting. They also learnt pottery, at first by
hand and then with the potter's wheel. They painted and decorated their pots. They lived in caves, the
walls of which were polished and painted with the scenes of hunting and dancing. The also learnt the
art of spinning and weaving clothes. They used to bury their dead and construct tombs over them
which were known as Dolmens, Menhirs etc.s
Neolithic Tools : The stone tools of the Neolithic age bear unmistakeable signs of polish either all over
the tools or at the buttend and working-end, or only at the working end. They fashioned their tools out
of fine-grained dark-green trap, though there are examples of the use of diorite, basalt, slate, chlorite,
schist, indurated shale, gneiss, sand stone and quartzite.
Occupation : Neolithic settlers were cattle-herders and agriculturists. They produced ragi, wheat,
barley, rice, masoor, moong, kulthi etc. Hand-made pottery is also found in the early stage. Elephant,
rhino, buffalo, ox, stag remains are also found in plenty. But there is no specification of these
domesticated. The pottery were well made but were coarse in nature, not that much polished.
Red, Grey, Black and Red Ware, Black Burnished Ware and Mat-impressed Wars are associated with
this
culture.
Tools making was another important occupation which included a variety of picks, scrapers, eyed
needles, bodkins and pierced batons.
Facts to Remember

Sir John Lubbock coined the term Neolithic in his book Prehistoric Teme , first published in
1865. The term refers to an age in which stone implements were more skillfully made and

more varied in form.

It was V. Gardon Childe who defined the Neolothic-Chalcolithic culture as a self sufficient food
economy

Miles Burkit put forward the following four characteristics a culture should fulfil to be called a
Neolithic Culture
1.

Agriculture practice

2.

Domestication of animal

3.

polished and grined stone tools

4.

pottery manufacture

Chalcolithic Age

Towards the end of the Neolithic period began the use of metals. Firt metal to be used was copper and
the culture of that time is calledChalcolithic cultre. The earliest settlements belonging to this phase are
extended from the Chhotanagpur plateau to the copper Gangetic basin. Some sites are found at
Brahmagiri near Mysore and Navada Toli on the
Narmada.
The transition from use of stone to the use of metals is
slow and long drawn. There is no doubt that there was
an overlapping period when both stone and metals
were used. This is proved by the close resemblance of
metallic tools and implements with those made of
stone. The Chalcolithic i.e. copper bronze age or
stone-copper age of India produced a splendid
civilisation in the Indus Valley which spread in the
neighbouring regions.
Occupation: Their economy was based on subsistence
agricultre, stock-raising, hunting and fishing. Their
tools consisted of a specialised blade and flake of
silicious material like chalcedony and chert. Copper
and bronze tools were present in a limited number. The culture shares the common characteristic of
painted pottery.

Burial Practices: Another striking feature was the burial practice of the dead. The dead were buried in
north-south position in Maharashtra but in east-west position in south India. In eastern India, only a
fraction of population buried their dead.
Chalcolithic Settlement Pattern

Largest - Diamabad

Town features at Diamabad and Inamagaon

Town Planning - Inamgaon

Fortification - Nagada, Inamgaon, Diamabad, Balathal

Baked Brick Evidence - Gilund

Stone Dwellings - Ahar

Chiefly circular and rectangular houses have been found

Microliths have been found from Ahar

Flat, Rectangular copper axe have been found frm Jorwey and Chandoli

Chief Crop Barley

Evidence of Rice has been found from Inamgaon

Fire Altars and Fire Worksip were prevalent

Inner Funeral System

North South direction of burials

East West direction of burials were prevalent in South India

About Pottery and Types

Pottery

Type

Ahar

Red Ware

Kayatha

Deep Red Ware

Malwa

Deep Brown & Black

Saalda

Pictographic (Red & Black)

Jorwe

Pictographic (Red & Black)

Prabhas

Pictographic (Red & Black)

Rangpur

Polished Red

The Copper Phase

More than forty hoards consisting of rings, celts, hatches, swords, harpoons, spearheads and humanlike figures have been found in a wide area ranging from West Bengal and Orrisa in the East to Gujrat
and Haryana in the West, and from Andhra Pradesh in the south to Uttar Pradesh in North. The largest
hoard comes from Gungeria in Madhya Pradesh; it contains 424 copper tools and weapons and 102
thin sheets of silver objects. But nearly half of the copper hoards are concentrated in the GangaYamuna
doab.
All the implements of the copper hoards supplemented by stone tools led a settled life, and were one
of the earliest Chalcolithic agriculturists and artisans to
settle in a good portion of the doab.
Copper Hoard

Stretched from North-West to East and upto

Tamil Nadu

Black copper has been found at these sites

It continued upto 1500 BC

Chief Area - Gangetic Valley

Chief Sites - Gungeria (MP), Saibia (UP),

Bithur (UP), Visauli (UP), Rajpur Parsu (UP)

Pottery : This period was marked by two types of

pottery: Ochre-Coloured Pottery which can be roughly placed between 2000 BC-1500 BC on the
scientific dating and Black and Red pottery from about 1000 BC.
Ochre-Coloured Pottery (OCP): A new pottery type was discovered during excavatings at Badaun and
Bijnor in Uttar Pradesh in 1950. It was called Ochre Coloured (OCP) as it contained a wash of ochre.
The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red. The Chalcolithic sites with such type of ware are

ascribed to OCP culture. The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed between 2000 BC
and 1500 BC. The Black and Red Ware (BRW) followed the OCP.
Black and Red Ware (BRW) : Excavations of Atranjikheda in Uttar Pradesh in the 1960s brought to
light a distinct pottery. The pottery, called the BRW, is sandwiched between the OCP and the Painted
Grey Ware (PGW) of Iron Age or the Early Vedic Age.

Iron Age

In Southern India, use of iron came after the use of stone. In any case, there were periods of
overlappongs in the use of stone, copper, bronze and iron. Our only evidence of the transition from
copper-bronze age to the iron age is the monuments like dolmens, cairns, cremolechs. These have
been found in wide areas all over India such as Assam, Bihar, Orrisa, Central India, Gujrat and
Kashmir. But by far the largest number has been found in south India, in Karnataka and the Decan.
These iron monuments appear to have belonged to both pre-historic and historic periods.
Monuments discovered in Hyderabad, Mysore, Tinnevelly district, Coimbatore, Malaba, Penumbur etc.
also show varied stages of development. Neolithic, Microlithic tools along with copper, bronze and iron
implements have been discovered, making it difficult to identify the actual period of transition from
copper-bronze age to iron age. At this stage of our limited knowledge, no definite conclusion in this
regard can be arrived at. Iron age is usually associated with the Painted Grey Ware.
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) :It referes to the ceramics which have been fired grey and then painted with
black designs. The name chosen is highly misleading and can lead many beginners to think this, as a
type, which is painted with grey colour. The grey colour, it is believed, is obtained by firing thin clay
pots to as high as at temperature as 800 degree
celcius.
Pre Historic Findings

Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens' Cave 500 painted

Rock Shelters

Nevasa - Evidence of cotton

Atranjikheda - Textile printing

Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane

Inamgaon - Statue of mother goddness

Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture

Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice

Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal

Chirand - Serpant cult

Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-dwelling

Indus Valley Civilisation

In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian
aides, particularly R.D.Banerjee , discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of
Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilisation, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles
towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the
Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. That the civilisation was not confined to the limits
of the Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilisation at the
Sutkagendor on the sea board of the south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh
in the east.
Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilisation, it was believed by scholars that the history
of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the
pre-historic civilisation of India, that is, the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Controversial Period

Economic Life

Geographical Extent

Political Life

Social and Religious Life

Town Planning

Indus Valley Facts

Name of
Sites

Year of
Excavation

Excavators

Region/River

Montgomery district of
Punjab (Now in Pak) on
the left bank of Ravi

Harappa

Mohenjodaro

1921

1922

Daya
Sahni

Features

1.

City
followed
planning

2.

Row of six granaries

3.

Only
place
having
evidences of coffin
burial

4.

Evidence of fractional
burial and coffin burial

5.

Cemetery-H
people.

of

alien

1.

City
followed
planning

grid

2.

A large granary and

Great Bath, a college

3.

Human
skeletons
showing invasiona and
massacre.

4.

Evidence
of
Horse
come from superficial
level.

5.

A piece of woven
cotton
alongwith
spindle whorls and

Ram

R.D.Banarjee

Larkana district in Sind

on the right bank of
Indus(Now in Pak)

grid

needles

Chanhu-daro 1931

Kalibangan

1953

N.
Gopal
Situtated in Sind on the
Majumdar,
bank of Indus
Mackey

A. Ghosh

6.

Town
more
times.

1.

The city has no citadal

2.

Famous
for
makers shop

3.

A small pot, possibly

an inkpot

4.

Foot prints of a dog

chasing a cat

5.

Three different cultural

layers,
Indus,Jhukar
and Jhangar

1.

Shows
both
Harappan
Harappan phase

2.

Evidence of furrowed
land

3.

Evidence of seven fire

altars
and
camel
bones

4.

Many houses had their

own well

5.

Kalibangan stand for

black bangles

6.

Evidence
furrow

Situated in Rajasthan
on
the
Bank
of
Ghaggar

was
then

of

flooded
seven

bead

Pre
and

wooden

Lothal

Banwali

1953

1974

S.R. Rao

R.S. Bisht

Situated in Gujarat on
Bhogava river near Gulf
of Cambay

Situated
in
Hissar
district of Haryana

1.

A titled floor which

bears
intersecting
design of circles

2.

Remains of rice husk

3.

Evidence
from
a
figurine

4.

A ship designed on a
seal

5.

Beads & trade ports

6.

An
instrument
for
measuring
angles,pointing
to
modern day compass

1.

Shows
both
Harappan
Harppan phase

2.

Good
quantity
barley found here

of
horse
terracotta

Preand

of

3.

Surkotada

Sutkagendor

1964

1927

J.P. Joshi

Stein, R.L.

Situated
(Bhuj)
Gujarat

in
Kutch
district
of

1.

Bones of horses, Bead

making shops

1.

Trade point between

Harappa and Babylon,
belong
to
mature
phase

2.

Evidence of horse

Situated in Baluchistan
on Dast River

Amri

Dholavira

Rangpur

Kot Diji

Ropar

Balakot

1935

1985-90

1953

1953

1953

1963-76

N.G. Majumdar

R.S. Bisht

Situated in Sind on the

bank of Indus

Situated in Gujarat in
Rann of Kutch

M.S. Vats, B.B. Situated on the bank of

Lal & S.R. Rao Mahar in Gujarat

Fazal Ahmed

Y.D. Sharma

1.

Evidence of antelope

1.

Seven cultural stages

2.

Largest site

3.

Three party of city

4.

Unique
management

1.

Rice was cultivated

1.

Wheel made painted

pottery

2.

Traces of defensive
wall and well aligned
streets

3.

Knowledge
metallurgy,
toys etc

1.

Evidence of burying a
dog below the human
bural

2.

One
example
of
rectangular mudbrick
chamber was noticed

3.

Five fold cultures Harappan, PGW, NBP,

Kushana - Gupta and
Medieval

1.

Remain

Situated on the bank of

Indus

Situated in Punjab of
the banks of Sutlej

George F Dales Situated on the Arabian

Sea

water

of
artistic

of

pre

Harappan
and
Harappan civilisation

Alamgirpur

1958

Y.D. Sharma

Situated on Hindon in
Ghaziabad

2.

The mounds rise to

the height of about
9.7mts and are spread
2.8 sq hectare of area

1.

The
impression
of
cloth on a trough is
discovered

2.

Usually considered to
be
the
eastern
boundary of the Indus
culture

Controversial Period

We cannot fix a precise date for the beginning of this civilisation, but certain indications synchronize it
roughly with the village cultures of Baluchistan. The site of Rana Ghundai produced a stratification
which showed, in the third phase of the village's history, a type of pottery with bold designs in black
on a red background. From evidence discovered by Sir R.E. Mortimer Wheeler in 1946, it seems that
city of Harppa was built on a site occupied by people using similar pottery. There is no evidence of the
date of the foundation of the other great city of Mohenjo-daro, for its lowest strata are now below the
level of the Indus, whose bed has slowly risen with the centuries; though diggings have reached 30
feet below the surface, flooding has prevented the exacavation of the earliest levels of the city. From
the faint indications which are all the evidence we have, it would seem that the Indus cities rose in the
first half, perhaps towards the middle, of the third millennium BC.
Difference between Pre Harappan and Proto Harappan Cultures : Cultures that preceded Harappan
culture are pre Harappan, while proto Harappan cultures are those pre Harappan cultures which have
some close similarities with the Harappan culture or which may be said to have anticipated certain
essential elements of Harappan culture. In short, all proto Harappan cultures are necesssarily pre
Harappan cultures, but all pre Harappan cultures are not necessarily proto Harappan cultures.
Periodization of Indus Valley Civilization
Date Range

Phase

Era

5500-3300

Mehargarh II-IV

Regionalization Era

3300-2600

Early Harappan (Early Bronze Age)

3300-2800
2800-2600

Harppan
I(Ravi
Phase)
Harappan 2(Kot Diji Phase,Naisharo 1, Mehrgarh VII)

2600-1900

Mature Harappan (Middle Bronze Age)

2600-2450

Harappan 3A (Nausharo IIO)

2450-2200

Harappan 3B

2200-1900

Harappan 3C

1900-1300

Late Harappan (Late Bronze Age)

1900-1700
1700-1300

Harappan
Harappan 5

Integration Era

Localization Era

Economic Life

The discovery of granaries and the urban lifestyle of the people proves that the Harappan people were
undoubtedly "comfort loving" and were prosperous. It also shows great knowledge of crop-pattern and
seasons.
Currency : Thousands of seals have been discovered not only from the Harappans sites but also from
the remains of other world civilisations. Every merchant and his family had a seal bearing and emblem
and a brief inscription. But it is still unknown whether they used these seals as currency or not. In
absence of evidence, it is safe to assume that the Harappans practised barter system and got goods
they need in exchange of their articles.
Agriculture : The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plain in November, when the flood water
receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood.
The Harappans probably used the wooden plough with wooden or copper ploughware.
The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi, etc. They produced
two typles of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali. In addition
to this, they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce
cotton.

Domestication
of
Animals: Although
the
Harappans practised agriculture,
animals were kept on a large
scale Oxen, buffaloes, goats,
sheeps domestic fowls and pigs
were domesticated. The humped
bulls were regarded as pets.
Cats were also domesticated and
signs of the feet of both dogs
and cats have been noticed.
They also kept asses and
camels, which were possibly
used as beasts of burden.
Elephants were well known to
the Harappan, who were also
acquanited with the rhinoceros,
spotted dear, sambhar deer, hog
deer, wild pig etc. Therefore
there is ample evidence to show
patrolism of Harappan people.
Trade
and
Commerce
:The
thriving agriculural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the northern and western areas
of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian and Gulf and
Mesopotamia. The products of Indus have been found in Mesopotamia. It seals and produce were also
discovered at Sumer. The findings of Indus seals suggest that merchants from Indus actually resided
in Mesopotamia. Their chief merchandise were probably cotton exported from probably Lothal harbour.
The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the
ancient name given to the Indus region.
Major Imports by the Harappans
Material

Source

Gold

Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka

Silver

Afghanistan, Iran

Copper

Baluchistan and Khetri(Rajasthan)

Tin

Afghanistan, Central Asia

Agates

Western India

Lead

Rajasthan, South India, Afghanistan, Iran

Coins

Copper seals from Lothal and Desalpur

Jade

Central Asia

Crafts and Industies : Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial center. Weaving was probably the chief
industry. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry.
We should not forgot that harappan pictographical scripts are mainly found on potteries. Harappans
used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to nearby areas but alo
to the far-flung places. The art of smelting metals were well-known to the people of Harappa. They
also attest to a class of mesons. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and
terracotta manufacturing.
Weights and Measures : The regulations of weights and measures forms the basis of trade and
Harappans were very accurate in this respect. The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were
known to the Harappans. The weights were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert,
jasper and agate and sometimes of grey stone and were in series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64
then going to 160, 320, 640 and so forth.
Communications : Transport and communications are a major part of trade and commerce. Harappans
also had good transporting system for their internal and external trade. Representation of ships and
boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery. For onland journey and transport, they relied
upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts. They practicsed navigation on the coasts of the Arabian
Sea. Mohenjo-daro seals bear the picture of ship.
Arts : The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. They were
well-acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. Bronze smiths produced images and utensils.
They also made several kinds of tools and weapons, namely axes, knives and spears. Jewelleries of
Silver, gold and copper were also made on a large scale.
The most notable artistic achievement of the Harappans was in their seal engravings, especially
those of animals. The pots were beautifully painted in several colours such as red, black, green and
rarely yellow. The terracotta figuries, both human and animal, and toys prove that the Harappa
people, enojoyed the work of art. Status made of bronze, stone and sandstone repsresent their high
sense of art.

Geographical Extent

The Harappan culture was the most extensive of the ancient civilisation in area(geographical extent),
including not only the Indus plain (the Punjab and Sind), but also northern Rajasthan and the region
of the Kathiawar in western India. It was essentially a city culture and among the the centers of
authority were the two cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The 1400 settlements, discovered so far
are distributed over a very wide geographical area. Its known extent in the west is upto Sutkagendor
in Baluchistan; Alamgirpur in Merrut district (Uttar Pradesh) in east; and Manda (Akhnoor district,

Jammu and Kashmir) in north, covering an area of almost 1600 km, east-west and 1400 km in north
south. The total geographical area over which this civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the
area of Egytian and more than 12 times of the area of about 12,50,000 sq.km. Harappan settlements
are mostly located on river banks of Indus
and Saraswati.
Some New Findings

Site

Discovered
by

Location

Ganveriva
Pakistan
la
Rakhi
Garhi

Jind
India)

Rafeeq
Mughal
(Haryana, Rafeeq
Mughal

Political Life

There is no idea about the political

organization of the Harappans. Perhaps the
Harappan rulers were more concerned with commerce that with conquests, and Harappa was possibly
ruled by the a class of merchants. Accroding to Amaur De Riencourt : "All the evidence points to a
high degree of standardization and organization, implying strong centralisation with full control over
production and distribution and probably a high efficient system of taxation". Evidences, like drainage,
town planning, trading items suggests that there was an organisation like a municipal corporation to
look after the civil amenities of the people.

Relation
with
other
Civilizations
The indus valley civilization had a direct contact
with many of the contemporary world civilizations:
Mesopotamia, Egypt, Turkmenia, Oman and
Bahrain. Harappan shells and carnelian beads have
been found iin Mesopotamian royal burials,
Mesopotamian clay tahlets refer to wood, gold and
lapis lazuli coming from Meluha, the ancient
Akkadian name for the Indus region. Harrapan
Seals and other objects have been excavated in
several Mesopotamian cities, such as Sura, Kish,
Nippur and Ur. Evidence of a direct relationship
between
Harappan
culture
and
Egypt
in
fragmentary and inconclusive. There are evidences
of Harappan artfacts, such as etched carnelian
beads and ivory, in Bahrain.
Decline
and
Disappearance
The Harappan culture flourished until about 1800
BC. Afterwards, the culture began to decline. There
is no unanimity among historian on the exact
reason of the decline of this urban civilization.
Different
theories
of
decline
have
been
put
forward
by
different
scholars.
The following table gives the important theories and their profounders as regards decline of the Indus
culture.
Decline of Indus Valley
Theorists

Reasons of decline

Gorden Childe, Stuart Piggot

External Aggression

H.T.Lambrick

Unstable river system

K.U.R.Kenedy

Natural calamity

Orell Stein and A.N. Ghosh

Climate change

R. Mprtimer Wheeler

Aryan invasion

Robert Raikes

Earthquake

Sood and Aggarwal

Dryness of river

Walter Fairservis

Ecological imbalance

Social And Religious Life

The social life of the Harappans

can be arranged into following
categories :1.

Class : It is not proved if

there
existed
any
classes or caster as the
Aryan's verna system.
Based upon the mounds
we can assume that
there were classes if not
castes according to the
occupation
of
the
people, probably priestly
class
and
general
people.

2.

Dress and Oranments : As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely,
because all information about theri dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of
materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of status
and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both
men and women.

3.

Religion : Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harappans:
o

The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a
yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four
animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction, and tow
deers appear at his feet

The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various
forms to please fertility Goddess.

There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous stone
symbols of femals sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of phallus, have been
discovered. Fertility cult was main feature.

The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and
Harappa.

Indus people who worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals
(unicorn etc)

They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used amulets as protection against them.

4.

Script : The script of the Harappans people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic
but was logosyllablicwriting system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered,
overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from
left to right and from right to left in alternate lines.

5.

Games : The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music
were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities
show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles
our modern chess. Marbles dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro
were well supplied with playthings. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of
entertainment.

6.

Disposal of the Dead : No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies
yet. It is believed that the dead were either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of
ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beasts. But R-37 of
Harappa suggests grave burial as a large practice.

Town Planning

The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the town planning and urbanisation.
Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each a citadel
built on a high platform suggest division in society or some upper class existence. It was defended by
walll and on it were construced the public buildings. Below this citadel was the town proper.
Everywhere, the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main
streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and
Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln-burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses
were made of sun-dried bricks. An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living
rooms. Large houses with thity rooms and staircases suggest that there were large two or three
storyed buildings. Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste
water to the main underground drain of the steet.

Town Associated with Different Industries

Levan

Stone tools factory

Sukar

Stone tools factory

Lothal

Stone
Factory for metallic finished goods

Balakot

Factory for pearl finished goods, Bangle's factory

Chanhudaro

Beads
Pearl
Metallic
Bangle's factory

tools

finished
finished

factory

goods
goods

Evidence from Chief Sites

Cemetery H & R-37

Harappa

Prepared Garments

Mohenjodaro

Lower fortified town

Kalibangan

Port town

Lothal

Evidence of Rice

Lothal, Rangpur

Coffin Burial

Harappa

Horse Bone

Surkotada

Fire Altar

Kalibangan & Lothal

Temple like palace

Mohenjodaro

Horse's Tooth

Rana Ghundai

Pashuptai Seal

Mohenjodaro

Factory
factory
factory

Goddesses

Mohenjodaro

Copper Rhino

Diamabad

Copper Chariot

Diamabad

Copper Elephant

Diamabad

Granery

Mohenjodaro & Harappa

Bronze Female Dancer

Mohenjodaro

Granery outside fort

Harappa

Beads Factory

Chanhudaro, Balakot

Copper ox

Kalibangan

Bangles Factory

Chanhudaro, Balakot

Graveyard

Harappa, Lothal

Phallur Worship

Harappa

Bronze Bufallo

Diamabad

Evidence of Earthquake

Kalibangan

Evidence of Plough

Kalibangan

Copper dog

Lothal

Camel's Bone

Kalibangan

Stone Covered Grave

Surkotada

Canals

Malavan

Woodenn Drainage

Kalibangan

Indus Valley Facts

Indus Valley Facts at a Glance

The state which has accounted for highest

number
of
Harappan
independence : Gujarat

sites

after

Three Harappan sites that have yielded

three stages of Harappan Civilization (PreHarappan,
Harappan
and
postHarappan
: Rojde,
Desalpur
and
Surkotada )

Most

commonly

engraved

animal

Evidence of cultivation of peas. Till has

been traced from Harappa, paddy from
Lothal

Harappans

had

trade

relations

with

Mesopotamians around 2300 BC.

Largest Harappan site in India is situated

in Haryana Rakhigarhi, second largest is
Dholavira in Gujarat.

on

Harappan seals :Humpless bull or unicorn

Dimension of Brick-length 11 inches, width

-5.5 inches, depth -2.75 inches, ratio 4
2:1

Site which have yielded evidence of a preHarappan settlement: Kot-Diji, Kalibangan

and Harappa

Harappan wheels were axeless

Major

as

Mohenjo-daro had 10.5 mt wide road.

ports : Lothal, Balakot, Suktagendor and

Allahdin (Pakistan)

In Harappa, perhaps because of river Ravi

Harappan

cities

that

acted

the Granery is outside the fort.

The Harappan city with most impressive

drainage system : Mohenjo-daro

In the Lothal Port, there was a dockyard

which is 216 meters in length and 37
meters in breadth

The geometric shape of the region covered

by the Indus civilisation : Triangle

Wheeler said: Indus Valley is the colony of

remains of a horse have actually been

found.

Sumerians

Lions have not been found anywhere in

Harappa.

Mother goddess was not worshipped at

Sukotada is the only Indus site where

Terracoota seals found at Mehargarh were

the earliest precussors of Harappan seals.

Wider road of Harappa was 30 foot.

Most

Rangpur.

A Kushana period Stupa has been found

common

materials

used

for

the

Harappan stone sculpture : Limestone and

steatite

from Mohenjo-daro

Time span of the Harappan civilization as

fixed on the basis of radio-carbon dating:

2300 BC - 1750 BC.

Vedic Age

Early Vedic Age: The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC and extend upto 6000 BCE with the
coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains of northern India. Max Muller believes it an
anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically Aryan connotes nothing but language. The
relationship between the race and language of these people with the classical languages of Europe was
established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas.
The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge",
the best of all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus. It
is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies
and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas,
namely, Rig
Veda,
Sam
Veda,
Yajur
Veda and Atharva Veda.

Vedic Civilisation

Origin

of

Indian Music Samveda

Mention

of

India - Aiteraya
Brahamana

Word 'Shudra'
Rigveda
10th Mandala

Five divisions of

Wife and Husband

are
complementary Satapathabrahma
na

Gayatri
Mantra
Rigveda

Mention

of

Battle

of

Ten

kings - Rigveda
(7th Mandala)

word 'Yajna' Brahmana

Superiority
Brahmins
Aiteraya

of
-

Somaras

(drink)

Rigveda

(9th

Brahmana

Mandala)

Varna - Rigveda

Four fold division of Society - Rigveda

10th Mandala

Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala

Upanishada

War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda

Transmigration

of

Soul

Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Origin of Aryans

Aryans arrival in India

Rig Vedic Polity

Socio-Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Rig Vedic Gods

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Later Vedic Society

Religion in Later Vedic Period

Vedic Literature

Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala

Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana

Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada

Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda

Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana

Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha

Upanishada

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

Origin of Aryans

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar, believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have
lived somewhere in the area east of Alps, in the region known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian
Sea and the southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a number of tribes migrated in
search of pasture, to Greece and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India. By that time, they came to be
known as Aryans. This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite inscriptions of 1600
BC and the Mitanni inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC, found in Iraq which suggest that from
Iran a branch of the Aryans moved towards the west.

Original Home of Aryans

Region

Theorist
Asia

Central Asia

Max Muller

Tibet

Dayanand Saraswati

Pamirs

Mayor

Turkistan

Hurz Feld

Bactria

J.C. Rod

Steepes

Brandstein
Europe

Germany

Penka and Hert

Hungry

Giles

Southern Russia

Nehring

West Baltic

Mach

Arctic Region

B.G. Tilak

Russian Steppes

Prof. Belfy
India

Central India

Rajbali Pandey

Kashmir

L.D. Kala

Sapta Sindhu

A.C. Das

Himalayan Foothills

Pt. Laxmidhar Shastri

Other Scholars, such as Ganganath Jha, A.C. Das, Dr. Sampurnanand etc established the SaptaSindhu theory of Rig Veda which believe that Aryans were not foreigners but were indigenous people
residing in the region comprising modern Punjab and Sindh. This theory has met with criticism, as the
historians argue over the vast differences of culture between the Harappans and the Aryans.
Another theory propounded by Lokmanya Tilak suggests the Polar region as the regional homeland of
Aryans, Zend Avesta and Rig Veda. Shows peculiar similarities in the terms used for religion and socioeconomic context.

Aryans arrival in India

The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people
who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came into conflict with the indigenous
inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the
defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda
represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called
Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term
dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Some of the chief tribes of the
Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru,
and Tritsu. Among the interimportant was the 'Battle of the

period
were
Yadu,
Kuru, Panchala, Bharata
tribal conflicts the most
Ten Kings.'

Dravidians

It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater part of Northern and
North-Western India was inhabited by a group of people known as Dravidians.

On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually moved southwards.

Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and irrigation
Aryans

The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known to Aryans

The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.

The arrived in India around 1500 BC, though there is an on going debate.

The region where the Aryans settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the
Brahmavarta)

The

Aryans

established themselves

in

India

by defeating the

natives

whom

they

called Dasas or Dasyus

The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic Period (1500 BC to
1000 BC)

The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and this region came to
be known as Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC)

The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and brought horses along
with them

Rig Vedic Polity

The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the
centre. He was called rajan. Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election by
the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the protector of his tribe. He protected its
cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its behalf.

Several
tribal
assemblies,
such
as sabha,
samiti,
vidatha, and gana mentioned in the Rig Veda exercised
deliberative, military and religious functions. Even women
attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But from
the
political
point
of
view
important
were
the sabha and samiti
In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a
few functionaries. The most important functionary seems to
have been the purohita. The two priests who played a major
part in the time of Rig Veda were Vasishtha and Visvamitra.
The next important functionary seems to be the senani.
Princes received from the people voluntary offering
called bali.
There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we
hear of the theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an
eye on such unsocial activities. The officer who enjoyed
authority over the pasture ground was called vrajapati.He
led to the heads of the families called Kulapas. or the heads of the fighting hordes called gramanis to
battle. The king did not maintain any regular or standing arymy, but in times of war he mustered a
militia whose military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama,
sardha.
Tribal Polity

The chief was the protector of the tribe or Jana

However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with the tribal assemblies

Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these, Vidhata was the
oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military and religious functions.

The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti was general in nature
and less exclusive than Sabha.

Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times.

A few non-monarchical states (ganas), are described whose head was Ganapati or Jyestha.

Socio Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organizatoin: Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty to the
tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands for the tribe in the Rig Veda
is vis.Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for fighting. When the
gramas clashed with one another, it caused samgrama or war. The term for family (kula) is mentioned
rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems that family in early Vedic Phase was indicated by
term griha. Differentiation in family relationship leading to the setting up of seperate households had
not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint unit. It was obviously a patriarchal family
headed by the father. Since it was a
patriarchal society, the birth was
desired again and again.
Marriage and Status of Women: The
institution
of
marriage
was
established, although symbols of
primitive practices survived, We also
notice the practice of levirate and
widow remarriage in the Rig Veda.
The status of women was equal to
men and they received Upanayana
and education, studied Vedas and
some of them even rose to the rank
of seers composing Vedic hymns.
Monogamy was established, though
polygamy and polyandry were also known.
Varna System: Varna was the term used for colour, and it seems that the Aryans were fair and the
indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion. The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans,
were treated as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three groups-warriors,
priests and the people. The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig
Veda period. In the age of Rig Veda, divisions based on occupations had started. But this division was
not very sharp.
Occupation: Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary
occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although they used several animals, the horse
played the most significant role in their life. The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of
agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some consider it an
interpolation. The term for war in the Rig Veda is gavisthi or 'search for cows'. The Rig Veda mentions
such artisans as the carpenter, the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the potter, etc. This
indicates that they practiced all these crafts. The term, ayas used for copper or bronze shows that
metal working was known.
Metals Known to Rig Vedic People
Gold

Hiranya

Iron

Shyama

Copper

Ayas

Diet: The Indo-Aryans, while sharing the ancient Iranian veneration for the cow, felt no scruple about
sacrificing both fulls and cows at weddings or on other important occasions. The persons who took
part in the sacrifice ate the flesh of the victim, whether bull, cow, or horse. But meat was eaten only
as an exception. Milk was an important article of food, and was supplemented by cakes of barley or
wheat (yava), vegetables and fruit.
Strong
Drinks:
The
people
freely
indulged
in
two
kinds
of
intoxicating
liquor,
called soma and sura. Sura probably was a kind of beer. Soma juice was considered to be particularly
acceptable to the Gods, and was offered with elaborate ceremonial. The Sama Veda provides the
chants appropriate for the ceremonies.
Amusements: Amusements included dancing, music, chariot-racing, and dicing. Gambling with dice is
mentioned so frequently in both the Rig Veda and the later documents that the prevalence of the
practice is beyond doubt.
Rivers Mentioned in Rig Veda
Rig Vedic Name

New Name

Gomati

Gomal

Krumi

Kurram

Kubha

Kabul

Suvastu

Swat

Sindhu

Indus

Drishadvari

Ghaghar/Chitang

Satudri

Satluj

Vipas

Beas

Parushni

Ravi

Asikni

Chenab

Vitasta

Jhelum

Frequency of Important Words Mentioned in Rig Veda

Word

Times Mentioned

Word

Times Mentioned

Pita

335

Rajya

Ashva

315

Kulpa

Jana

275

Ganga

Mata

234

Samudra

Indra

250

Sabha

Gau

176

Samiti

Vish

171

Grama

13

Vidata

122

Vidatha

122

Brahmana

14

Yamuna

Surya

10

Rashtra

10

Kshatriya

Krishi

33

Yamuna

Sena

20 Approx.

Raja

Rudra

Sudra

Vrihaspati

11

Vaishya

Prithavi

Rig Vedic Gods

The early Vedic religion was naturalistic. Evidently, there were neither temples nor idols. The mode of
prayer was recitation of mantras. Sacrifice was offered for Praja(children), Pasu (cattle)
and Dhana (wealth) and not for spritual upliftment or misery.

Early Vedic Religion

Believed in one Supreme God

Did not believe in idol worship

Worshipped the forces of nature as the manifestation of one Supreme God

Vedic Gods have been classified into 3 categories - Terrestrial, Atmospheric and Celestial

Indra, Agni, Varuna, Surya, Rudra, Yama, Soma, Marut, Dyaus, Vayu and Prajanaya. Prithvi,
Saraswati, Usha, aditi were female deities. They were not given the same position as male
Gods.

People did not worship for spiritual reasons but for the welfare of Praja & Pashu

Recitation of prayers, chanting of Vedic hymns and sacrifices or yajnas were an important
part of the worship.

Rig Vedic Gods

Indra

He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan
soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are devoted to him in the Rig Veda.
He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various
names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam

Agni

He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men.
200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.

Varuna

He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.

Soma

He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.

Yama

He was the guardian of the world of dead.

Surya

Similar to that of the Greek God Helios

Savitri

The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri

Pusan

Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.

Vishnu

A relatively minor God at that time.

Vayu

Wind God

Dyaus

Father of Heaven

Aditi

Goddess of Eternity

Maruts

Storm Spirits

Gandharvas Divine Musicians

Ashvins

Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art

Ribhus

Gnomes

Apsaras

Mistresses of Gods

Rudra

An archer of God, whose anger brought disease

Vishvadeva

Intermediate Deities

Aranyani

Goddess of Forest

Usha

Goddess of Dawn

Prithvi

Goddess of Earth

Later Vedic Polity and Economy

Political
Organisation:
In
later
Vedic
times,
the vidatha completely
disappeared.
The sabha and samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed. Women were no
longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now dominated by nobles and Brahmanas. The
formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful. Tribal authority tended to become
territorial. The term rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed
the rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme power to him. He performed the
asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an area in which the royal house ran
uninterrupted. He also performed the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was
made to win the race against his kinsmen. During this period collection of taxes and tributes, the king
officer
called sangrihitri.
Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal units were mustered in times
of war, and, according to one ritual for success in war, the king had to eat along with his people from
the same plate.
Regions and Kings
Eastern King

Samrat

Western King

Suvrat

Northern King

Virat

Southern King

Bhoja

King of middle country

Raja

Imp Ratnins/Officials in Later Vedic Period

Purohita

Chief Priest, in also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa

Senani

Supreme Commander of army

Vrajapati

Officer-in-Charge of pasture land

Jivagribha

Police Officer

Spasas/Dutas

Spies who also sometimes worked as messengers

Gramani

Head of the village

Kulapati

Head of the family

Madhyamasi

Mediator on disputes

Bhagadugha

Revenue collector

Sangrahitri

Treasurer

Mahishi

Chief Queen

Suta

Charioteer and court minstrel

Govikartana

Keeper of games and forests

Palagala

Messenger

Kshatri

Chamberlain

Akshavapa

Accountant

Sthapati

Chief Justice

Takshan

Carpenter

Kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age

Kingdom

Location

Gandhar

Rawalpindi and Peshawar districts of Western Punjab

Kekaya

On the bank of River Beas, east of Gandhar kingdom

Uttar Madra

Kashmir

Eastern Madra

Near Kangra

Southern Madra

Near Amritsar

Kushinagar

Nothern region of modern Uttar Pradesh

Panchal

Bareilly, Badayun and Farrukhabad districts of modern Uttar Pradesh

Kashi

Modern Varanasi

Koshal

Faizabad region of today's Uttar Pradesh

Occupation: The Aryans now lived a sedentary life, domesticated animal and cultivated on a greater
scale than earlier suger-cane. Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants
were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually began to crystallize. Wheat was
also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is mentioned in sources but was not an
important crop at this time. Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known.
New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e. smelters, ironsmiths, carpenters, weavers, leather
workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade was also boosted.
Pottery: The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery- Black and Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware,
Painted Grey Ware(PGW), and Red Ware. The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by
the people of Koshala. The Aryans knew copper or bronze and Iron. The introduced the PGW in
northern India. It consisted of bowls and dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or
both. These were mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.
Currency: A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in SathapathaBrahmana. Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other classes of coins of
circulation. Barter system will continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins. Money-lending was
a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned
as Kusidin.

Later Vedic Society

Social Organisation: The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmanas,
rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas andshudras, each varna was assigned with its duty. Brahmanas
conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for themselves, and also officiated at the festivals
associated with agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in war, and in
return the king pledged not to do any harm to hem. Sometimes, the brahmanas came into conflict
with the rajanyas, who represented the order of the warrior-nobles, for position of supremacy.
Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas shared
one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born), i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or
investiture with the sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras. The fourth varna was deprived of
the sacred thread ceremony, and with its began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside
the caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely, Vratyas and Nishadas.
According to the Aitareya Brahmana, in relation to the prince, the brahmana is described as a seeker
of livelihood and an acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A vaisya is called tribute-paying, meant for
being beaten, and to be oppressed at will. The worst position is reserved for the shudra. He is called

the servant of another. Certain section of artisans

such asrathakara or chariot-maker enjoyed a higher
status, and were entitled to the sacred thread
ceremony. The term Nagaraappears for the first time
showing joint beginnings of town life. Women were
generally giver a lower position. Although some
women theologians took part in philosophic
discussions and some queens participated in
coronation rituals, ordinarily women were thought to
be inferior and subordinate to men.
Types of Marriages in the Later Vedic Age
Brahma

Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same varna with Vedic rites and rituals

Daiva

Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as part of fee or dakshina.

Arsa

A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.

Prajapati

Marriage without dowry and bride-price.

Gandharva

Marriage by the consent of two parties, often clandestine. A special form of it

was swayamvara or self choice.

Asura

Marriage by purchase.

Paisacha

It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be
called a marriage.

Rakshasa

Marriage by Capture

Marriage: Eight types of marriage were prevalent in the later Vedic age. Of these, four (Brahman,
Daiva, Arsa and Prajapati) were generally approved and were permissible to Brahmans. These were
religious marriages and were indissoluble.
Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man below his varna was called Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the
sacred texts.
Pratiloma Marriage: Pratiloma marriage was the marriage of a girl or women to one lower than her
own varna. It was not sanctioned by the sacred texts.
Gotra System: The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means the cow-pen or
the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. The gotra has been regarded as a
mechanism for widening the socio-political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto
unrelated people. People began to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place between
persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same ancestor.

Ashrama System: Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic times. In the
post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari or student, grihastha or
householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement andsanyasa or complete retirement from the world. But
only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the fourth stage had not been wellestablished in Later Vedic times. 4th Ashrama only mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.
Food and Drinks: The staple diet was milk and ghee, vegetables, fruit and barely. Wheat was rarely
eaten. On ceremonial occasions at a religious feast or the arrival of a guest, a more elaborate meal
usually including the flesh of ox, goat, sheep and birds were taken after being washed with sura. Fish
and other river animals were also relished upon. The guests were never served vegetarian foods, or at
least one non-vegetarian food was compulsory.
Dress: Clothes were simple. Two piece clothes were normally worn: uttariya or the upper garment
and antariya or the lower garment. There was no difference between the clothes of male and female.
Ornaments were used by both the sexes and bangles were worn by privileged few, Shoes were used.
Use of oil, comb, mirror razors, hair ointment and a few cosmetics was known.
Amusements: Music, both vocal and instrumental, was the major source of amusements. Playing of
veena, drum flute, harp and cymbals were more common, also were dance. Chariot-racing and
gambling were other sources of amusement.
Education: It was for a privileged few. Only Brahamanas and Kshatriyas were allowed to get
education. Even women education was discouraged and the study of Vedic literature were forbidden to
women in spite of the fact that a few gifted women scholars were present at the time and female
teachers
were
also
there.
The subject taught were veda, itihasa, grammer, mathematics etihcs, dialectics, astronomy, military
science, fine arts, music and medical science.s

Religion in Later Vedic Period

The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former importance. On the other hand
Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy the supreme position in later Vedic pantheon. Rudra, the god of
animals, became important in later Vedic times and Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and
protector of the people. In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we notice
signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle, came to be regarded as the god to
the sudras. Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha (goddess of Dawn), Aditi
(Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess), Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity). The
mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but they ceased to be the
dominant mode of placating the gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both
public and domestic character. The guest were known as the goghna or one who was fed on cattle.
The priests who officiated at sacrifices were regarded generously and givendakshinas or gifts.

Chief Priests
The Chief priests who were engaged in performing the sacrifices were:1.

Hotri: The invoker, he recited hymns from Rig Veda

2.

Adhvaryu: The executor, he recited hymns from Yajur Veda.

3.

Udgatri: The singer, he recited hymns from Sama Veda

The Chief Priests received voluntary offering from the people called Bali
Important Vedic Rituals

Rajasuya: The King's influence was strengthened by rituals. He performed this sacrifice,
which was supposed to confer supreme power on him.

Asvamedha: A King performed the Asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over the
area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony laster for three days at the
end of which horse sacrifice was performed.

Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was
made to win the race against his kinsmen. The ritual lasted for seventeen days and was
believed not only to restore the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from
the position to raja of that of samrat

Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception in women

Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child

Semontonayam: It is ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child in the womb.

Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the umbilical cord.

Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in their third year.

Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija(twice horn) status of boys of the

higher varnas in their eight year.

Vedic Literature

FOUR VEDAS
Samveda

Rhthmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda

"Book for Chants" contains 1,549 hymns, meant to be sung at the 'soma' sacrifice by a
special class of Brahmanas called Udgatris. But the Samaveda has very little original value.

Has only 75 fundamental hymns

1.

Karnataka - Jaiminga

2.

Gujarat - Kanthun

3.

Maharashtra - Ranayaniya

Sung by Udgatri
Rigveda

Collection of hymns

Oldest of all vedas

Associated of 1017 hymns or Suktas after adding "Blhilya Sukta" number in 1028

Compiled in 10 'mandalas' & 8 'Akhtaks'.

Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra

II, III, IV, V, VI & VII are oldest mandalas

I, VIII, IX, X are latest mandalas.

The Tenth "Mandalas" or chapter which has the "Purushasukta" hymn, was probably added
later.

Mandala IX is completely devoted to 'Soma'.

Mandala II to VII were created by Grita Samada, Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaj,
Vashistha, VIII Kanwa and Angira, IX Soma

Yajurveda

Book of sacrifical prayers

Rituals of yajnas

Is sung of priest "Adhavaryu"

Its mantras tell us how the sacrifices were to be performed and what part the "Adhvaryus"the Brahmanas who performed the manual work in the arrangement of sacrifice were to play
at the time of sacrifice.

Has been compiled in "fourth path"

Has been divided into, Krishna(black) Yajurveda & Shukla(white) Yajurveda

Prose text
Atharvaveda

The

Mantras for magic spells

Populate ritualistic system & superstitions

Associated with "Saunkiya" and "Paiplad" community

Collection of 711/731/760 hymns

Not included in 'Trai'

Has been divided in 20 "Kandas"

18th, 19th & 20th 'Kandas' are later works

Provides freedom from evils spirits.

Oldest text on Indian Medicine.

vast

literature

of

the

Aryans

is

divided

into

two

parts

- Sruti and Smriti

1. Sruti Literature: The word Veda has been divided from the Sanskrit word Ved, which means
'spiritual
knowledge'.
The
Vedas
are
four
in
number
- Rig
Veda,
Samaveda,
Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rig Veda contains a references only to the first three Vedas, which
suggests that the fourth Veda was composed at some later date.

The Vedic literature is usually divided into three periods:i.

The Mantra period when the Samhitas were composed

ii.

Brahaman period when the Brahamanas, Upanishads and Aranyakas were composed

iii.

the Sutra period.

These three periods succeeded or overlap each other.

Brahmanas are massive prose text which contain speculation of the meaning of the hymns, give
precepts for their application, relate stories of their origin in connection with sacrificial rites and
explain the secret meaning of the later.
Vedas and their Brahmanas
1.

Rigveda

Aitereya and Kaushitaki

2.

Samaveda

Tandya and Jaiminiya

3.

Yajurveda

Tattiriya and Satpatha

4.

Atharvaveda

Gopatha

The Aranyakas are the concluding parts of the Brahamanas. It doest not lay much stress on rites,
rituals and sacrifices, but merely contain the philosophy and mysticism. The lead with the problems of
soul, origin and elements of universe and the creation of universe.
Aranyaka

Literarily, it means 'Jungle'

Provides description of Moral Science and Philosophy

Provides details of hermits and saints who lived in Jungles

Give stress on meditation

Protests the system of 'Yajnas'

It would be appropriate to describe Upanishadas as mystic writings. There are 108 Upanishads in all,
the most prominent of them being Ish, Prasana, Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogaya, Kathoupanishad,
Ishopanishad, Brehadaranyaka, etc.
Upanishada
1.

Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near masters feet) in which Guru offers band of knowledge

to their disciples
2.

Is a combination of Tatva-mimansa and philosophy

3.

They are also called "Vedanta"

4.

Primitive upanishada are "Brahadaranyaka" and "Chandogya"

5.

Later Upnishada like "Katha" and "Swetaswatar" have been written in poetic forms.

6.

Brahma is the summary of philosophy, which is the only a 'truth' in the world.

7.

Knowledge awards salvation says Upanishadas

8.

Oldest possibility Narsinghpurvatapani

9.

Latest possibility Allopanishada in Akbar's reign

2. Smriti Literature: Smriti is traditional knowledge and designates almost the entire body of postVedic classical Sanskrit literature. Smriti literature generally includes the following overlapping
subjects:a.

The Vedangas: They refer to certain branches of post-Vedic studies regarded as auxiliary to
the Vedas. The Vedangas are conventionally divided into six heading namely:- (i) Kalpa or the
ritual canon, including the dharma shastras or legal codes, (ii)Jyotisha or astronomy,
(iii) Siksha or
phonetics,
(iv)Chhanda or
metre
(v) Nirukta or
etymology
(vi)Vyakarana (Grammer)

b.

The Shad-Darsana: Six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, namely Nyaya, 'Vaiseshikha',
Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta.

c.

Itihasa: Legendary or semi-legendary works, specifically the Ramayana and Mahabharata and
often extended to the Puranas.

d.

Puranas: Being a fairly late description of ancient legends, they are heavily coloured with the
superstitions. The Puranas represent the most corrupt form of Hinduism. They are 18 in
number

The Eighteen Puranas

1

Brahma Purana

Vishnu Purana

Shiva Purana

Padma Purana

Shrimad Bhagwat Purana

Agni Purana

Narad Purana

Markandey Purana

Bhavishya Purana

10

Ling Purana

11

Varah Purana

12

Vaman Purana

13

Brahm Vaivertya Purana

14

Shanda Purana

15

Surya Purana

16

Matsya Purana

17

Garuda Purana

18

Brahmand Purana

e.

Upaveda: Also known as the auxiliary Vedas, they deal with medicine, architecture, erotics,
archery and various arts and crafts. These were partly derived from original Vedic texts and
were traditionally associated with one or other of the Vedas.

f.

Tantras: Tantras are the writings of Shakta or Shaivite sects and also of certain antinomian
Buddhist scholars

g.

Agamas: They are scriptures of sectarian Hindus like Vaishnavites, Shaivites and Shaktas.

h.

Upangas: They are a generic name for any collection of treatises although traditionally
confined to the philosophical systems of 'Nyaya' and 'Mimansa' - the 'Dharma Sutras' the
'Puranas' and the 'Tantras'

3. Epics: Some historians regard the Later Vedic Period as the Period of Epics. The Mahabharata and
the Ramayana are
the
two
great
epics
of
this
period.
Ramayana: It is said to have been composed by the sage, Valmiki. The incident related in it precedes
the Mahabharata by about a hundred and fifty years. The story of Ramayana is of indigenous origin
and had existed in ballad form in Prakrit, in more than one version. It was rewritten in Sanskrit and
augmented with many 'Shlokas'. The epic was given a Brahmanical character which was not visible in
the original work. It is also known as Adi Kavya. Evidence places the oldest part of the Ramayana to
before 350 BC. The reference in the epic to the mingled hords of Yavanas and Shakas suggests that it
received accretions in the Graeco-Scythian period and may have acquired its final shape by about AD
250.
Mahabharata: The Mahabharata is the bulkiest epic consisting of 100,000 verses and is divided into 18
paravas (books). This book is usually assigned to Rishi Ved Vyas, but scholars have expressed doubts
if such a great work could have been accomplished by one single person. The story itself occupies only
about one-fourth of the poem. It is a tale about conflict between Aryans-Kaurava and Pandava. The
rest is episodical comprising cosmology, theogony, state craft, the science of war, ethics, legendary
history, mythology, fairy tales and several digressional and philosophical interludes, of which the best
known is the Bhagavad Gita

Vedic Doctrine of Hinduism

By the end of the Later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of Hindu Philosophy had been established.
They are as follows:

Darshans

Authors

Year of
Beginning

Original
Book

Theme

Nyaya

Gautama

6th BC

Nyaya Sutra

It is a logical quest for God. It tells that the

material power Maya, with the help of God,
becomes the universe.

Vaisheshik

Kanada

6th BC

Vaisheshik
Sutra

It aims is to receive happiness in this life and

finally
ultimate
liberation
through
the
attachment of true knowledge of the Divine.

Sankhya

Kapila

6th BC

Sankhya
Sutra

It explains that the aim of Sankhya is to

eliminate all kinds of physical and mental
pains and to receive liberation.

Yoga

Maharishi
Patanjali

2nd BC

Yog Sutra

It has four chapters and accepts three kinds

of evidences for determining the aim of life.

4th BC

Purva
Mimansa
Sutra

It is condensed explanation of Vedic theme

and at the same time, the classification of its
issues.

4th BC

Uttara
Mimansa
Sutra

It explains that Brahama Sutra is for that

person who has a real deep desire to know
God. True liberation could only be attained by
lovingly surrendering to Him.

Purva
Mimansa

Jaimini

Vedanta
(Uttara
Mimansa)

Maharishi
Vyasa

Vedic Civilisation

Origin of Indian Music - Samveda

Five divisions of India - Aiteraya Brahamana

Mention of Word 'Shudra' - Rigveda

Wife and Husband are complementary -

10th Mandala

Satapathabrahmana

Gayatri Mantra - Rigveda

Battle of Ten kings - Rigveda (7th Mandala)

Mention of word 'Yajna' - Brahmana

Superiority of Brahmins - Aiteraya Brahmana

Somaras

Rajanaya - Rigveda 10th Mandala

Marut as Agriculturist - Satpatha Brahmana

Satyameva Jayate - Mundaka upanishada

10th Mandala

Pashupath Shiva - Atharveda

Mention of four Ashrams - Jabala

Vishnu - Satapatha Brahmana

(drink)

Rigveda

(9th

Mandala)

Varna - Rigveda
Four fold division of Society - Rigveda

Upanishada

War between Aryan & Dasas - Rigveda

Transmigration

Conversion between Yam & Nachiketa - Katha

Upanishada

of

Soul

Brahadaranyka Upanishada

Emergence of Mahajanapadas (600-321 BC)

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed its identity and gradually shifted to the
territorial identity, and the area of settlement were now regarded as janapadas or states. In transition
from tribe to monarchy, they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but retained the idea of
government through an assembly representing the tribes. These states consisted of either a single
tribe such as Shakyas, Kolias, Malas etc. The people in the lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were
outside the Aryan pale, were not incorporated. There was, therefore, a strong consciousness of the
pure
land
of
the
Aryans
called
Aryavarta.
Each
janapada
tried
to
dominate
and subjugate other janapadas to
become Mahajanapadas.

The 16 Mahajanapadas
Mahaja
napada Capitals
s

Locations

Gandha
Taxila
ra

Covering the region between

Kabul and Rawalpindi in
North Western Province.

Kamboj
Rajpur
a

Covering the area around the

Punch area in Kashmir

Asmaka

Potana

Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank of

River Godavari

Vatsa

Kaushambi

Covering modern districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur

Avanti

Ujjain

Covering
Pradesh.

Surasena

Mathura

Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the

Uttarapath & Dakshinapath

Chedi

Shuktimati

Covering the modern Budelkhand area

Maila

Kushinara, Pawa

Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern

Uttar Pradesh. Later merged into Maghada Kingdom

Kurus

Hastinapur/Indraprastha

Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west

of River Yamuna

Matsya

Virat Nagari

Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in

Rajasthan

Vajjis

Vaishali

Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar. It was

the seat of united republic of eight smaller kingdoms of
which Lichhavis, Janatriks and Videhas were also
members.

Anga

Champa

Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in

Bihar. The Kingdoms were later merged by Bindusara into
Magadha.

Kashi

Banaras

Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar

Pradesh.

Kosala

Shravasti

Covering the
Bahraich, etc.

Magadga

Girivraja/Rajgriha

Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of

Shahabad.

Panchala

Ahichhatra
(W.
Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in Uttar
Panchala),
Pradesh.
Kampilya (S. Panchala)

Alexander Invasion

Persian Invasion

Effects of Greek Invasion

modern

Malwa

present

(Ujjain)

districts

of

region

of

Faizabad,

Madhya

Gonda,

Rise of Magadha

Socio-Economic Conditions during Mahajanapadas

Important Republics: The kings in these states had the supreme authority. The Mahajapandas of Vriji,
Malla, Kuru, Panchal and Kamboj were republican states and so were other smaller states like
Lichhavi, Shakya, Koliya, Bhagga, and Moriya. These republican states had a Gana-parishad or an
Assembly of senior and responsible citizens. This Gana-Parishadhad the supreme authority in the
state. All the administrative decisions were taken by this Parishad. Again, the republics were basically
of two types: (a) the republics comprising a single tribe like those of the Sakyas, the Kolias and the
Mallas, and (b) the republics comprising a number of tribes or the republics of confederacy like the
Vrijjis.
Difference between Republics and Monarchies

In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from peasants. In the
monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient of such revenues.

In the tribal oligarchy or republic, each raja (tribal oligarch) was free to maintain his own
little army under his senapati. In a monarchy, the king maintaind his regular standing army.
He did not permit any other armed forces within his boundaries.

Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies, while a monarchy
functioned under the individual leadership of the king.

The Brahamanas had a considerable influence on the monarchial administration, while they
were relegated to the background in the republics.

Alexander Invasion

In the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Iranians fought for the supremacy of the world. The
Greek ruler Alexander conquered not only Asia Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Iran, he marched to
India, obviously attracted by its great wealth. Alexander conquered principalities one by one. Among
the rulers of these territories, two were well-known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus whose
kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. After the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to
Kabul, from where he marched India through the Khyber Pass. Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily
submitted to the invader, augmented his army and replenished his treasure. Alexander remained in

India for 19 months (326-325 BC), which were full of fighting. He had barely any time to organize his
of the conquest. Still, he made some arrangements. Most of the conquered states were restored to
their rulers who submitted to his authority. But his own territorial possessions were divided into three
parts, which were placed under three Greek governors.

Alexander Invasion

Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 BC

His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the mutiny of his soldiers

In 325 BC, he began his homeguard journey.

In 324 BC, he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year.

Persian Invasion

The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the Magadhan kings,
took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian ruler, Darius,
penetrated into north-west India in 518 BC and annexed Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.
He divided the province in 20th Straphy, which was considered to be the richest and the most
populous province of the Persian empire. According to Herodotus, Punjab and Sindh satrapy (province)
was the twentieth in the Persian empire. It was considered to be the richest and the most popular
province of the Persian empire. Its annual tribute amounted to 360 Euboic talents of gold-dust. The
Kharosthi script was used on the north-western frontier since then uptil about 4th century AD. On the
eve of Alexander's invasion, the hold of Persian emperors on their Indian provinces had become weak.

Chronology of Foreign Invasions

518-486 BC

King Darius or Darus invaded India

326 BC

Alexander invaded India

190 BC

Indo Greeks or Bactrians invaded India

90 BC

Sakas invaded India

Ist century AD

Pahalavas invaded India

45 AD

Kushanas or Yue-chis invaded India

Effects of Persian Invasion

Introduction into India the Araminc form of writing, which later developed into the Kharoshthi
alphabet.

Promotion of Indo-Iranian trade

Geographical exploration of the Indus and the Arabian Sea, leading to opening of a new water
route.

Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the Mauryan art.

Impact of Buddhism on the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia.

Effects of Greek Invasion

Effects of Greek Invasion

The Greek invasion of India opened the trade route between north west and Wester India

Eastwards trade went through the Ganga delta to the coast of Northern Burma and south
along the east coast.

Guilds (Shreni) came into existence

Money was introduced. Punch-marked coins in gold and silver and of copper cast have been
discovered.

Introduction of money facilitated the trade.

Divided his army during the last expedition at Patala and appointed Niyarkas as head of Navy.

Opening up of four distinct routes between India & Greek by land sea paving way for
increased trade and cultural contacts between the two regions.

Establishments of more Greek settlements in north-western region

Ashokan pillars were also influenced by Greek Art.

Establishment of the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to that of
the Euphrates.

Promotion to expansion of the Mauryan empire in north-west India due to destruction of local
powers by Alexander

India and Greek established trade contact.

Coins of India non inscribed on 'Uluk Model' of the Greeks

Many Greek scholars came to India with Alexander and wrote on Indian history which are
relevant in constructions of contemporary socio-religious aspect.

Rise of Magadha

Between the sixth and

the
fourth
centuries
BCE,
Magadha (in present
day Bihar) became the most
powerful Mahajanapada. The Haryankas: Magadha came into prominence under the leadership
ofBimbisara (542-493 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He strengthened his position by
marriage alliances. He took three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of Kosala and the
sister of Prasenajit. His second wife Chellana was aLichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife
was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Marriage relations with the different
princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha
westward and northward.
The earliest capital of Magadha was at Rajgir, which was called Girivraja at that time. It was
surrounded by five hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made
Rajgir impregnable.
Bimbisar was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru (492-460 BC). Ajatasatru killed his father and seized
the throne for himself. Throughout his reign, he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion.
Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC), His reign is important because he built the fort
upon the confluence of the Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the centre of
the Magadhan kingdom.
The Sisunagas: Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who temporarily shifted the
capital to Vaishali. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of the Avanti with its
capital at Ujjain. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.
The Nandas: The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be the most powerful
rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not
dare to move towards the east. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by the conquering Kalinga
from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy. All this took place in the reign
of Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling
princes.
The Nandas were the first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler was defeated by Chandragupta
Maurya who founded the Maurya Empire.
Causes for the rise of Magadha

Advantages geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra situated at strategic
locations.

Abudance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled Magadhan rulers to equip with effective
weapons.

The alluvial soil of the Gangatic plains and sufficient rainfall were they conductive for
agriculture produces.

Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The princess could levy
tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.

Use of elephants on a large scale in wars with its proximity to ancient Kalinga.

Unorthodox character of Magadhan society

Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious rulers.

Ambitious rulers and their policies.

Socio
Economic
Mahajanapadas

Conditions

During

Besides, the establishment of big empires, another important feature of the age was increased
prosperity and the growth of towns. The primary reason of increased prosperity of India was its
growth of foreign trade with the countries of the North-West, Western countries and several countries
of Asia.
There were several trade routes and roads connecting different parts of India in all directions. One
trade route was from Kosambi, through Gangetic plain, to Punjab and then Taxila joining the routes to
Iran, Central Asia, European countries and several countries of Asia. Another route started from
Rajagriha and, passing through Kosambi and Ujjaini, was connected with the port of Baroach from
where the trade was carried on with western countries through sea-route. One important route passed
through the entire Gangetic plain and reached the boundary of Burma and yet, another route
connected northern plain with the sea-coast of south-east. These routes developed because of
increased trade and, in turn, helped in enhancing internal as well as external trade.

The increased prosperity of the Indian affected their social structure as well. Towns became not only
the centers of trade but centers of industries as well. Various goods were produced on a large scale to
feed the foreign trade and that could be possible only in town or vice versa. By that time, Indian rulers
had started minting good coins of different metals. It helped in the development of trade and growth
of industries because coins proved to be a good medium of exchange and, thus, facilitated
transactions. The growth of trade and industry formed rich trading and industrial communities which
concentraded themselves in towns. We find existence of different guilds formed by traders and
industrialism during this period. It created various organised and consciously awakened groups in
towns which, finally, resulted in the formations of several sub-castes.

Age of religious movements: Jainism, Buddhism

and others

In Post-Vedic times, society was clearly divided into four varnas:

1.

Brahmanas
2.

Kshatriyas

3.

Vaisyas and

4.

Shudras

Each varna was assigned well-defined functions, through it was emphasised that varnas was based on
birth and higher varnas were given some privileges.
Naturally the varna divided society seems to have generated tensions. TheKshatriyas, who acted as
rulers reacted against the domination of priestly class called brahmanas, who claimed various
privileges. It was one of the causes of the origin of new religions.Vardhamana Mahavira, who
founded Jainism, andGautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, belonged to the kshatriya clan, and
both disputed the authority ofbrahmanas.
But the real cause of the rise of these new religions lay in the introduction of a new agriculture
economy in the North East on India. The further sighted rise of a large number of cities in the north-

eastern India. The earliest coins belong to the fifth century BC and they are called punch marked
coins. The use of the coins naturally fascinated trade and commerce, which added to the importance
of the vaisyas.
The trade of moneylending was established in the Vedic age. The practice of providing loans on
interest was also legal but the trade was generally looked down upon a brahmans. The vaisyas who
practised this trade wanted or raise their social position and in the eyes of religion. So
the vaisyas standard support to both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.
The vedic actness of killing cattle in rituals was inimical to the emerging agriculture economy. Besides
the Sanskrit language was the knowledge of a chosen few while the common masses spoke Prakit.
Significant Persons In World History During The Six Century BC
Zoraster(Persia)

founder of Zorastrianism

Isaiah (Palestine)

the preacher

Confucius(China)

the philosopher

Laotse (China)

the philosopher

Selone (Greece)

the philosopher

Mahavira (India)

24th Thirtankara of Jainsim

Buddha (India)

founder of Buddhism

Jainism Facts

Bhuddism Facts

Jainism Facts

Jainism: The founder: Rishabha, who was the father of king Bharata, the first Chakravarti king of
India, founded Jainism. The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Gita describe Rishabha as an incarnation of
Narayana.
Risabha
was
succedded
by
23
other
Tirthankaras.
Parsvanatha (850 BC) was the 23rd Tirthankara. Jainism became a major religion under Vardhamana
Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara.
Jainism in the past

The name of Jaina Tirthankaras Rishabha is found in the Rig

Veda

The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe

Rishabhu as an incarnation of Narayana.

The mail nude toro discovered from the Indus Valley culture
has something to do with the tirthankaras.

There were 24 tirthankars, all kshtriyas and belonging to the

Royal family. Parsavanath was the 23rd tirthankara.

24 Tirthankaras
Name

Symbol

Name

Symbol

Rishabha

Bull

13

Vimalnath

Boar

Ajitnath

Elephant

14

Ananthnath

Falcon

Sambharanath

Hose

15

Dharmnath

Vakra

Abhiaandam Swamy

Monkey

16

Shantinath

Deer

Sumathinath

Curlew

17

Kuntunath

He-Goat

Padamprabhu

Red lotus

18

Arnath

Fish

Suparaswanath

Swastik

19

Mallinath

Water port

Chanraji Prabhu

Moon

20

Muniswasth

Tortoise

Suvidhinath

Crocodile

21

Naminath

Blue Lotus

10

Shitalnath

Srivatsa

22

Neminath

Conch Shell

11

Shregansnath

Rhinoceros

23

Parswanath

Serpent

12

Vasupujya

Buffalo

24

Mahavir

Lion

Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village Kundagrama near Vaishali. His father who was
the head of a famous kshatriya clan (Inatrika), and his mother a Lichachhavi princess. At the age of
30 he became an ascetic. He kept on wandering for 12 years from place to place. He attained perfect
knowledge for kaivalya at the age of 42. Through kaivalya, he conquered misery and happiness.
Because of this conquest he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina.
Teaching of Jainism Jainism taught five doctrines:
1.

Do not commit violence.

2.

Do not speak a lie.

3.

Do not steal.

4.

Do not acquire property.

5.

Observe continence (brahmacharya).

It is said that only the fifth doctrine was edited by Mahavira, the other for being taken over by him
from Prasavanath.
Three Gems or Ratnas of Jainism
According to Jainism, attainment of moksha or nirvana was the most important human desire. It says
that moksha can be attained through ActiveSync the three following ratnas or gems:
1.

right faith(samyak Vishwas) in the Lord Mahavira

2.

right knowledge (samyak jnan) of the doctrines of Jainism

3.

right conduct (samyak karma)

Jain Sect: Although Parsva, the predecessor or Mahavira, had asked his four overs to cover the upper
and lower portions of their body, Mahavira asked with them to discard clothes completely. On account
of this, in later times, Jainism was divided into two sect:Svetambaras or those who put on white press,
and Digambaras for those who keep themselves naked.
Some More Jaina Sects

Yapaniyan -

Karnataka,

Came
out
Finds mention in inscription of Vikramaditya VI

impact

of
of

Tantricism
Swetambara

Pujiramat - came out of Swetambara

Terapainthi - Came out of Swetambara

Sammiya - Came out of Digambara

Bispanthi - Came out of Digambara - Supported idol worship

According to Svetanvaras, the original doctrine taught by Mahavira was contained in 14 old texts
called Purvas, which were passed orally and were compiled later as twelve Angas.
12 Angas Of Jainism
1

Achranga

Sthananga

Vakyaprainapti

Upaska-Adyananga

Amuttarapada Kanga

Vipakasutranga

Sutrakruthanga

Somavayanga

Dharma-Kathanga

10

Anthakrudasanga

11

Prashnavyakaranaka

12

Drustipravadanga

Jaina Councils by the end of fourth century, there was a serious famine in the Ganges Valley leading to
great exodus of many Jaina monks to the Deccan and South India along with bhadrabahu and
Chandragupta Maurya. They returned to the Gangetic Valley after 12 years. The leader of the group,
which stayed back at Magadha, was Sthalabahu. The changes that took place in the code of conduct of
the followers of Sthalabahu led to the division of the Jainas into Digambaras(sky-clad or naked) and
Svetambaras(white clad)
First Council: First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third century
BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Purvas.
Second Council: Second counselling was held at Valabhi in the fifth century A.D. under the leadership
of Devaradhi Kshmasramana and resulted in the final compilation of 12Angas and 12 Upangas.
Spread of Jainism: in order to spread the teaching of Jainism Mahavira organised and order of his
followers admitted what men and women. It is said that his followers counted 14,000. Since Jainism
did not very clearly marked itself out from the brahmanical religion, it failed to attract masses. Despite
this Jainism gradually spread into South and West India. According to relate tradition the spread of

Jainism in Karnataka is attributed to Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC) the Emperor came in Jaina,
gave up his throne and
spent the last years of his life in
Karnataka as a Jaina
ascetic.

Spread Of Jainism

Jains built stupas with railing, pillars and gateways. The Hathi Gumpha, Udaigiri and
Khandagiri caves of Orrisa contain Jain relics

Mathura became a centre of Jain art during the Kushan period

the statue of Gomatesawara and Karkala testify to the excellence of jain architecture

Dilwara temple at Mt Abu and temples a Ranakpur are example of suberb workmanship

Impact Of Jainism

Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of varna order and ritualistic vedic
religion

the early jaina discarded the Sanskrit language mainly patronized by Brahmans and adopted
Prakit language

their religious literature was written in Ardhamagadhi and the texts were finally compiled in
the sixth century A.D. in Gujrat (Vallabhi)

The Jains composed the earliest important works in Apabhramsha and prepared its first
grammar.

Five categories Of Siddhas

Tirthankara- who has attained salvation

Arhat - who is about to attain Nirvana

Acharya - the head of ascetic group

Upadhyaya, teacher or saint

Sadhu - which includes the rest

Decline of Jainism: Various factors contributed to the decline of Jainism in India. It had to company
treat with both Hinduism and Buddhism. Absence of popular religious preacher after the death of
Mahavira, its division into two important sect, absence of protection by later rulers and the revival of
Hinduism all contributed to the decline of this religion. Besides, it also was unable to spread to any
considerable extent behind the limits of India.

Buddhism Facts

Gautama Buddha: Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a contemporary of Mahavira. He was born in
563 BC in a Shakya(kshtriya) family in Lumbini near Kapilvastu, which is situated in Nepal. Gautama's
father (Shudhodana) seems to have been elected ruler of Kapilvastu, and headed the Republic clan of
the Shakyas. His mother(Mahamaya) was a princess from the Kosalan dynasty. From his early
childhood,
Gautama
showed
a
meditative
kind
of
mind.
Alara Kama was teacher of meditation. He was married early, but married life did not interest him. At
the age of 29 he left home. He kept on, wandering for about seven years and then attained knowledge
at the eight of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree. From this time on words, he began to be called the
Buddha
or
the The
Englightened.
Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermons at Saranath in Banaras. Gautama Buddha passed away at
the age of 80 in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar, identical with the village called Kasia in the district
of Deoria in eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Five Great Events In Buddha's Life And Their Symbols

Birth

Lotus and bull

Great renunciation

Horse

Nirvana

Bodhi tree

First sermon

Wheel (Dharma Chakra)

Parinirvana/Death

Stupa

Teachings Of Buddha: Buddha said that the world is full

of sorrows and people suffer on account of desires. If
desires are conquerred, nirvana will be attained. He
recommended an Eight-fold Path (astangika marga) for the elimination of human misery. It
comprised: Right observation, Right determination, Right speech, Right action, Right livelihood, Right
exercise, Right memory and Right meditation. Buddha also laid down a code of conduct for his
followers. The main items in this social conduct are:
1.

do not take the property of others

2.

do not commit violence

3.

do not use intoxicants

4.

do not tell a lie

5.

do not indulge in corrupt practices.

The Buddha (The Englightened), Dhamma(The Doctrine) and Sangha(The order) are the three jewels
of Buddhism.Buddhism does not recognise the existence of God and soul(atma). It particularly warned
the support of lower orders as attacked the Varna system.
Division in Buddhism : Like Jainism, Buddhism also faced division. It was divided into three main
sects:
1.

Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle :

1.

Its followers believed in the original teaching of Buddha.

2.

Distraught individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.

3.

They did not believe in the Idol worship.

4.

Hinayana is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God.

5.

Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all.

6.

Pali, the languages of the masses, was used by Hinayana Buddhists.

7.
2.

3.

Ashoka Patronised Hinayanaism.

Mahayana or Greater Vehicle :

1.

Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha.

2.

It believes in the Idol worship.

3.

Mahayana had two Chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and Yogachara.

4.

Sanskrit, the language of scholars was used by Mahayana Buddhists.

5.

Kanishka patronised Mahayanism. Later Harsha supported it

Vajrayana or Vehicel of Thunder Bolt :

1.

Its followers believed that salvation be best attained by acquiring the magical power,
which they called Vajra.

2.

The chief divinites of this new sect were the Taras.

3.

It became popular in eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

4.

It was a form of Buddhism, which appeared in eastern India in the eighth century and
was finally established in Tibet in 11th century, as a result of mission sent from the
great Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila.

Buddhist Scriptures:
1.

The Vanaya Pitaka :1. It mainly deals with the rulers and
regulations, which the Buddha promulgated. 2. It describes in
detail the gradual development of theSangha. 3. An account of
the life and teachings of Buddha is also given.

2.

The Sutta Pitaka :1.IT consists of discourses delivered by

Buddha himself on different occasions. 2. Few discourses
delivered by Sariputta, Ananda, Moggalana and others are also
included in it.

3.

The Abhidhamma Pitaka :1. It contains the pro-find philosophy

of Buddha's teachings. 2. Investigates mind and matter, to
help the understanding of things as they truly are.

4.

The Khandhakas :1. They contain regulations on the course for life in the monastic order and
have two sections-the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga. The third part, the Parivara, is an
insignificant composition by a Ceylonese monk.

The Important Buddhist Writers

Asvaghosha : Contemporary of Kanishka. He was poet, dramatist, musician, scholar and debator.
Nagarjuna : He was a friend of contemporary of Satvahana king Yajnasri Gautamiputra of Andhra.
Asanga and Vasubandhu : Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab region in the fourth century
A.D. Asanga was the most important teacher of Yogachara or Vijnanavada school founded by his guru
Maitreyanatha. Vasubandhu's greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is still considered an important
encyclopaedia of Buddhism.
Buddhaghosa : Who lived in the fifth century A.D. was a great Pali scholar.
Dinnaga :The last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, also well known as the founder of the
Buddhist logic.
Dharmakirti : Lived in the seventh century A.D.; was another great Buddhist logician, a subtle
philosophical thinker and dialectician.

Buddhist Councils
No

First

Venue (Year)

Satparni
Rajagariha(483
BC)

Vaishali
Second
BC)

Presiding Priest

Mahakassapa

King

Major Outcomes

Upali, recited the Vinaya Pitaka, Which

contains the rules of the Buddhist order;
Anand, the other discipline of Buddha, recited
Ajatashatru
Suttapitaka, containing the great collection of
Buddha's sermons on matters of doctrine and
ethical beliefs.
Split
of
Buddhist
border
into
theSthaviravadins or Theravadinsand
mahasanghikas over small points of monastic
discipline.

(383

Mogaliputta
Tissa
(also
Ashoka
known
as
Upagupta)

Third

Pataliputra(250
BC)

Fourth

Vasumitra;
Kundalvana,
Asvaghosha
Kanishka
Kashmir(72 AD) was the deputy
of Vasumitra

Establishment of Sthaviravada School as an

orthodox school.

Division
of
Buddhism
the Mahayana and Hinayana sects

into

Spread of Buddhism: The use of Pali, the language of the people, contributed to the spread of
Buddhism. It facilitated the spread of Buddhist doctrines among the common people. Gautama Buddha
also organised the sangha for the religious order, whose doors work Open to everybody, irrespective of
caste and sex. 200 years after the death of Buddha, the famous Maurya King Asoka embraced
Buddhism. Through his agents, Asoka spread Buddhism into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka ,
and thus, transformed it into a world religion. King Kanishka became its patron in the first century

A.D. Buddhism disappeared from the land of its birth, it continues to hold ground in the countries of
South Asia, East Asia.
Decline of Buddhism: By the 12th century A.D., Buddhism became practically extinct in India. It
became a victim to the evils of Brahmanism against which had fought in the beginning. Gradually, the
Buddhist monks were cut off from the mainstream of peoples life; they gave up Pali, the language of
the people, and took to Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals. The Hinduism was internally reformed
and stressing upon love and devotion. From the first century A.D. Buddhist practised Idol worship on a
large scale and received numerous offerings from devotees. Entry of woman in Buddhist sanghas, and
the attacks of Huna King in the sixth century A.D. and the Turkish invaders in the 12th century A.D.
brought rapid extinction of Buddhism.

The Mauryas Facts(321 BC-185 BC)

There are mainly two literally sources of the Mauryan period.

One is the Arthashastra written by Kautilya or Chanakya, the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya,
which explains how a good government should be organised. The other source is Indica written in
Greek by Magasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nicator head the court of Chandragupta.
Magasthenes wrote not only about the capital city of Pataliputra but also about the Maurya Empire as
a whole and about the society. The history of Ashokareign can
be constructed mainly on the basis of his edicts.
Arthashastra
1. Written by Chankaya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya
2. Divided in 15 Adhikarnas and 180 Prakarnas
3. Is related to money and politics
4. Is divided into 15 parts
5. 6000 sholakas
6. Comment-Pratipada Panchika commented by-Bhataswamy
7. Manuscript discovered by Arya Sharma Shastri in 1904.

Different Views On Origin Of The Mauryas

1.

Buddhist sources : They connect them with the tribe of sakyas whose region was full of
peacocks i.e. Moriyas and they mention Chandragupta as a Kshatriya.

2.

Jain sources : They link Chandragupta to Moriya tribe of Peacock tamers.

3.

Brahmanical sources: They describe Mauryas as Shudra.

4.

Greek sources : They mention that Sandrokottas(Chandragupta) was born of humble origin .

Chandragupta Maurya

Chanakya Facts

Bindusara Facts

Ashoka Facts

Mauryan Administration:
The Mauryan rule was vast and highly centralised bureaucratic rule with the king as the Fountainhead
of all the powers. The king claimed not divine rule; rather it was paternal depotism, Kautilya called the
king dharmapravartaka or promulgator of social order.
Mauryan Administration posts (Mantriparsihad)
Mantrin

Chief Minister

Pirohita

High Priest

Senapati

Commander-in-charge

Yuvraj

Crowned Prince

Samaharta

Collector of revenue

Prashasti

Head of prisons

Sannidata

Head of treasury

Nayaka

Had of city security

Paur

City police

Vyabharika

Chief Judge

Karmantika

Head of industries and factories

Dandapala

Had of police

Durgapala

Head of Royal Fort

Annapala

Head of food grains Department

Rajjukas

Officers responsible for land measurement and fixing its boundary

Pradesika

Head of district Administration

Causes of the Decline of the Mauryans: Following factors are held responsible for the decline of Maurya
Empire

Week successors of Asoka

The partition of the Empire into two. The partition had not taken place, the Greek invasions
could have been held back giving a chance to Mauryas to re-establish some degree of their
previous power

Hari Prasad Sastri contends that the revolt of Pushyamitra was the result of Brahamical
reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Asoka and pro-Jaina policies of his successors.

Militant Brahmanical reactions to Asoka's religious policy which was closer to Buddhism.

Asoka's pacifist policy aiming at Dharamvijay instead of Digvijay.

Financial crisis owing to an enormous expenditure on the Army and large bureaucracy

Highly centralised character of Mauryan government

Mauryan Art Well-known art historian A.K.Coomaraswamy divides Mauryan art into two categories
1.

Indigenous

2.

Official/Court Art
Indigenous

Office Art/Court Art

1. Yaksha image from parkam

Pillars (well builts and polished)

2.

Yakshi
sculpture
Besnagar

from Finest expample Sarnath - Lions which originally supported

Dharma Chakra

3.

Female
Patna

from

4. -

Cauribearer

Animals figure or Maurya period of elephant at Dhauli

Stupas

The age of Mauryas contributed significantly to the development of arts, including architecture,
sculpture, engineering, polishing etc. Chandragupta Maurya fuelled his capital and place at Patliputra.
The wonderful palace was made of wood. Asoka further improved the wooden walls and building of
capital. The 80 pillared hall found at Kumrahar in Patna re-presence the masterpiece of Mauryan
sculpture. Each pillar is made of single piece of sandstone.
Asoka fuelled a large number of Stupas . According to Buddhist tradition, Asoka fuelled as good as

84,000 stupas. These structures were solid and domic, made of rock or bricks. The art of the sculpture
or rock cutting also reached its zenith during Asoka's time.
Seven rock cut santuaries lying about 25 miles north of
Gaya, Bihar - four on the Barabar Hills and three on the
Nagarjuna Hills-belong to the
time of Asoka and his
successors. The caves are also
fine examples of Mauryas art.
They
were
used
for

religious ceremonies and also as assembly halls.

Chandragupta Maurya (321-293 BC)

The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He took advantage of the growing
weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the last days of their rule. With the help of Chanakya,
who is known as Kautilya, he overthrew the nandas and established the rule of Maurya dynasty.
Chandragupta built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and good portions of Bengal, but

also western and North-Western India, and the Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of northeastern India, the Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent. In the north-west, they held
sway over certain areas which were not included even in British Empire.

Chanakya Facts

Chandragupta's advisers, Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) was author ofArthasashtra and is
regarded as the architect of Chandragupta's early rise to power. Chandragupta, according to Jain
literature, in his last days converted into Jainism by Bhadrabahu and abdicating his throne in favour of
his son bindusara became a monk.

Various Names Of Chandragupta Maurya

Name

Source

Palibrothus

Strabo

Androcotus

Arien, Plutarch

Piyadamas

Mudraraksha

Vrishal

Mudraraksha

Chandrasiri

Mudraraksha

Kulihin

Mudraraksha

Bindusara (293-273 BC) Facts

Bindusara
He was son of Chandragupta and
of foes) by the Greek writers. He
Syrin King Antiochus I and is
present of figs and wine together
ambassador,
Daimachos,
from
II Philadephus of Egypt sent an
court.

(293-273

BC):
was known as Amitraghta (slayer
continued his friendly links with
stated to have requested for a
with sophist. He received a great
Antiochus I. Pliny tell that ptolemy
envoy, Dionysios, to Bindusara's

Various Names Of Bindusara

Amitraghat

Sanskrit Literature

Amitchetas

Strabo which was Greek verion of Sanskrit 'Amitraghata'

Seemseri

Rajvalli Katha

Bindupala

Fa-Feenchulin or slayer of foes

The Ashoka Facts (273-232 BC)

Asoka
(273-232
BC):
Asoka was the third and greatest of the Mauryan rulers. He occupies a high position not only in the
history of India but in the world history also. He was coronated four years after the death of his father,
Bindusara
(273
BC).
The
gap
is
interpreted
differently
by
different
historians.
We have unreliable sources to know the early life of Asoka. From the Buddhist traditions we learn that
he was originally called 'Chandasoka' or the fierce Asoka owing to his many evil deeds. From Rock
Edict No. XIII, we learn that after Kalinga War (261 BC) Asoka was thoroughly changed man. He
discarded Digvijay and followed Dharmavijay. Due to this policy is named shines with unique
brilliance.
Like his predecessors, Asoka assumed
andDevanampriya(beloved of God). In the
i.e.Dharmasoka.

the title of Priyadarshi(pleasing to look at)

Sarnath inscription, he adopted the third title,

Asoka's Hellenistic Contemporaries

Antiochus II Theos

Syria

Ptolemy II Philadelpus

Egypt

Magas

Cyrne

Antigonus Gonatas

Macedonia

Alexander

Epirus

Various Names Epithets Of Asoka

Devanamkpriya

Monarchial Epithet

Ashokavardnan

Purana

Piyadassiraja

Barabar cave inscription

Ashoka Maurya

Junagarh Inscription

Piyadasi

Kandhar inscription

According to Asoka, the true spirit of religion and does not lie in or is not fulfilled by keeping fasts for
syncing hymns for reciting prayers. He was, on the contrary, quite sure that true religion consisted in
leading a pure life. Asoka's dhamma compromised all the good qualities of the religion of the world,
which he was convinced, were not exclusively and monopoly of Buddhism alone.

Asoka's Epic and Inscriptions and they are subject

First

First major rock edict

Second

Second
edit

Third

Third major rock edit

Directions to Predeshikas. Yuktas and Rajukas for propagation of

.Dhamma

Forth

Forth major rock edit

Impact of Dhamma on society.

Fifth

Fifth major rock edit

Appointments of Dhammamahamatras.

Sixth

Sixth major rock edit

Welfare majors.

Seventh

Seventh
edit

Propagation of peace, balance of mind and faith

Eighth

Eighth major rock edit Details of visit to Bodhi tree.

Ninth

Ninth major rock edit

Stress on ceremony of Dhamma

Tenth

Tenth major rock edit

Asoka's desire to gain popularity for Dhamma

Eleventh

Eleventh
edit

major

rock

Appraisal of Dhamma

Twlevth

Twlevth
edit

major

rock

Thirteenth

Thirteenth major rock Largest of all, victory over Kalinga's destruction of war, mention
edit
of Greek rulers

major

major

Prohibition on animal slaughter

rock Mention of places of Cholas, Pardayans. Satayaputras and

Keralputras

rock

Promotion to religion of different faiths

Nature
of
all
other
rock
edicts
Inclusion
of
Asoka
into
Sangha
Fourteenth major rock
Fourteenth
It is bilingual. It tells that fishermen and hunters gave up
edit
hunting
Faith of ruler and kingdom in Dhamma.

India after Mauryas Facts

India after Mauryas (200 BC-A.D. 100):

The period which became an in about 200 BC did not witness a large empire like that of Mauryas, but
it is notable for intimate and widespread contacts between Central Asia and India. In eastern India,
Central India and the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by a number of native rulers, such as
Sungas, the Kanvas and the Satavahanas.
In north-western India they were succeeded by a number of ruling dynasties from Central Asia.
In north India the tribal states which had earlier succumbed to Mauryan imperialism, now reasserted
themselves. In Punjab he existence of several people republics is attested by numismatic evidence.
Trigarthas ruled the plane country between the rivers Ravi and Sutlej.Yaudheyas, who were famous
warriors, ruled the territory between Sutlej and Yamuna and parts of eastern
Rajasthan. Arjunayanas, Malavas and Sibis were distributed in different parts of Rajasthan.
Following are some of the major dynasties which came in existence after Mauryas.
The Sunga dynasty (185-71 BC): The founder of Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, the
commander in chief of Brihadratha, the last Mauryan king. According to Puranas, Pushyamitra ruled for
36 years and his reign ended in 149 four 148 BC. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra.
From Kalidasa's drama Malvikagnimitram, we learned that Agnimitra was the governor of Vidisha
during his father's regin. He ruled for eight years. Agnimitra was succeeded by Jyestha. The next
important king of this dynasty was Vasumitra, who was the son of Agnimitira.
The last king of this dynasty was Devabhuti or Devabhumi. According to Puranas, he was an incapable
and is loving ruler. He was put to death by his minister or amatya called Vasudeva Kanva. Thus, the
kingdom of Magadha passed from Sungas to the Kanvas.
The Sunga dynasty's greatest achievement was the safeguarding of India from invasion of Hunas.
They valiantly resisted the Huna's attacks and saved India from being destroyed. The contributed a lot
to the development of culture also. The Sunga kinks greatly encouraged the Brahman religion and
literature.
Hunas
Hunas were only of the fierce tribes from Central Asia. They have been periodically invading India
since Sunga period. They were resisted by the rulers uptil the second half of the fifth century A.D.
But the weakness of the Empire provided them with a chance and by 485 A.D. they were able to
occupy eastern Malwa and a good portion of central India.

Kanva dynasty (72 BC-27 BC): The rule of the Kanvas lasted
for about 45 years. For kings ruled during this period. Vasudeva
ruled for a period of nine years and Bhumimitra for 14 years.
Narayana held the reigns of administration for 12 years
--Susharma was the last of the Kanvas. He was a peek King
wholly devoid of administrative ability. He could roll hardly for 10
years. During the Kanva dynasty, the Brahmanical reaction
persisted.
Cheta (Chetis) dynasty of Kalinga: It is evident that Kalinga
succeded from the Mauryas Empire in the years following the
death of Asoka, though it's history is not known with any degree
of certainty till the first century BC. It records the exploits of
Kharavela belonging to the Cheta or Cheti line of kings, founded
by Maha Meghavahana. He assumed the title of Kalingadhipati or
Kalinga Chakravartin as a mark of his paramountcy. A follower of
Jainism, Kharavela was a liberal patron of Jain monks for whose

residence he constructed caves on the Udayagiri hills, near Bhubaneswar in Orrisa.

Age of Satavahanas (235 BC-100 BC): This Is the most important of the native successors of the
Mauryas in the Deccan and in Central India were the Satavahanas. The Satavahanas are considered to
be identical with the Andhras mentioned in the Puranas. The early Satavahanas kinks appeared not in
Andhra, but in Maharashtra where most of their early inscriptions have been found.Gautamiputra
Satakarni (A.D. 106-130) was the most powerful Satavahana king. The successors of
Gautamiputra rulled till A.D. 200.
Significance of Satavahanas

The rise of Satavahanas signified that the economic revolutions of the Gangetic region was
repeated all over India. Added to this because of peculiar geographical terrain of the Deccan
Peninsula, a number of small kingdoms came into existence but not big Empires

since Satavahanas had controlled part of the Deccan and part of the northern India they
acted as the career of Aryanism to Southern India.

The Kushanas (45 A.D.-73 A.D.) The Parthians were followed by Kushanas, who are also called
Yuehis or Tocharians. The Kushans were one of the five clans ino which the Yuechi tribe was divided.
There were two successive dynasties of Kushans. The first dynasty was founded by a house of Chief
who were called Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50. It has two Kings the first
Kadphises I, who issued coins South of the Hindukush. Kadphises I was succeeded by his sone
kadphises II or Vima Kadphises. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana king. He spread his kingdom in
and beyond the western Himalayas, including Khotan in Sinkiang. He is credited with popularizing
Buddhism in Tibet, China, Central Asia and other parts of the world.

The Mauryas Facts(321 BC-185 BC)

The Sangam age (first to third century A.D.): 'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word
"Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets
and bards, who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the
Tamil kings. According to tradition, the first Sangam was founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at
Thenmadurai (South Madurai).

The Sangam literature speaks highly of threr South Indian kingdoms-Chola, Pandya and Chera.
The three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandas and the Chera combined with were known as
Tamilakha, or the Tamil realm.

The Three Sangam Kingdoms

Kingdo
ms

Capital

Cholas

Uraiyur,
Puhar

Cheras

Pandya
s

later

Emblem
s

Famous sport

Tiger

Puhar(Kaveripatt
am)

Vanji or Karur

Bow

Muzris,
Bandar

Madurai

Carp
(Fish)

Korkai, Saliyur

Tondi,

The Cholas: the homeland of the Cholas was the

Kaveri delta and the adjoining region of modern
Tanjore and Trichinopoly. They were the first to
acquire ascendancy in the far south with
kaveripattanam, or Puhar as their capital. Its ugly
capital was Uraiyur
Towards the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the power of the Chola's big gain to decline mainly
because of the rise of Pallavas on one hand and the continuous war waged by the Pandyas and the
Cheras on the other.
The Pandyas: The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital at Madurai, compromised the
modern districts of Madura, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern parts of Travancore. The Pandyas were
first mentioned by Megarthanese. According to the Magashense, the kingdom was once ruled by a
woman. According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were independent people living beyond the South
than border of the Maurya Empire. The greatest Pandya king wasNedunchezhian who defeated the
Chera and Cholas.
The Cheras : The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputra) kingdom cards in the Ashokan
inscriptions. It compromised the mordern districts of Malabr, Cochin and Northern Travancore. Its
Capital was Vanji. The greatest Chera king wasSenguttuvan, the red or good Chera. He is credited
with having invaded the north and crossed the river Ganga.
Religion: The people worshipped Murugan, Tirumal, Balram and Indra in the temple known as nagar,
koil, kottam, purai or devalayam. The worship of Vedic deities were also not uncommon. The worship
of kannagi was common. The Vedic practice of Yagna, sraddha and pinda were practised by the
Sangam people. Varanasystem took roots even in the south. The influence of Buddhism, Jainism and
Ajivikas was paramount.

The Age of Guptas

The age of the Guptas(A.D. 320-550)

The classical age:
The classical age referred to the period when most of the north India was reunited under the Gupta
Empire. It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the period of third century A.D. that the Gupta dynasty
emerged. One Sri Gupta, who brought Magadha under his control, was the founder of the Gupta
dynasty. Sri Gupta was succeeded by Ghototkacha Gupta. The first two kings of the dynasty were
described as Maharajas. It is generally believed that first two rulers of the dynasty ruled before 320
A.D. They were followed by some of the rulers of ancirnt Indian history.
Position of woman: In the Gupta period, woman were also allowed to listen the epics and the
Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. But woman of high year orders did not have access to
independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta Times. The main reason for the
subordination of women belonging to the upper varnas was the complete dependence on the men for
their livelihood.
Religion: Since the society was highly materialistic, Hindu revived. Bhagavatism centred around the
worship of Vishnu or Bhagwat, and originated in post-Mauryan times. Vishnu was a minor God in vedic
times. He represented the sun and also the fertility cult. By the second century BC he was merged
with the God called Narayana. He was also called Bhagwat, and his worshippers were called
Bhagavatas.

Chandragupta I

Samudragupta Facts

Chandragupta II

Kumargupta I

Skandagupta Vikramaditya

Gupta Art

Development
period

of

literature

during

Gupta

Important Gupta Officials At The Central Level

Mahabaladhikrita

Commander in chief

Mahadandanayak

Chief Justice

Mahasandhivigrahak or Sandhivigrahak

And facial for post-war conciliation.

Dandapashika

Haed of the police department

Bhandagaradhikreta

Head of the Royal Treasury

Mahapaksha-Patalik

Had of the account Department

Vinaysthitisansathapak

Head of the education Department

Sarvadhyaksha

Inspector for all the central departments

Mahashwapati

Controller of cavalry.

Vinaypura

Official to present different guests at Kings Court

Yuktapurusha

Office to keep account of wat booty.

Khadyatpakika

Inspector of Royal kitchen

Ranabhandagarika

Officer in charge of Army stores

Mahanarpati

Had of foot soldiers(infantry)

Chandragupta I

Chandragupta I(320 A.D.-335 A.D.): Chandragupta I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of
Ghatotkacha Gupta, was the first to great ruler of the dynasty. He increased power and prestige of the
empire to a great extent by matrimonial alliance and conquests. He married Kumaradevi, the Lichchavi
Princess. His empire included modern Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, Tirhut, in addition to Magadha.
He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. He started the Gupta era in A.D. 320, which marked the date
of
his
accession.
Lichchhavi Princess Kumari Devi was the first Indian Queen featured on a coin.

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.)

Samudragupta (335 A.D.-375 A.D.) Samudragupta increased the throne in 335 A.D. The basic
information about his reign is provided by an inscription Prayaga Prasasticomposed by Harisena, the
poet at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at Allahabad Pilair Inscription. The places and the
countries
conquered
by
Samudragupta
can
be
divided
into
five
groups.
Group

include

Princes

of

the

Ganga

Yamuna

doab

who

were

defeated.

Group 2 include the rulers of eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states such as princes of
Nepal,
Assam
and
Bengal.
It
also
covers
some
republics
of
Punjab.
Group 3 includes the forest kingdom is situated in the Vindhya region and known asatavika rajyas .
group 4 includes the 12 rulers of the eastern Deccan and South India, who were conquered liberated.
Group

includes

the

name

of

the

Sakas

and

Kushans.

Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact,Digvijay became the ultimate call of his
life. For his military achievements, he has been aptly complemented by the historian V.A Smith as
the Indian Napoleon. he has described Samudragupta as the Hero of Hundred Battles.

Chandragupta

II

Chandragupta II (380 A.D.-412

A.D.) The reign of Chandragupta II

(Vikramaditya) was the largest

extended the limits of the
conquests.

watermark of the Gupta Empire. He

empire by marriage alliance and

Chandragupta I married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka Prince who belonged to the
Brahmana cast and ruled in central India. The prince died and was succeeded by his young son. So,
Prabhavati became the virtual ruler. Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vikataka
kingdom.
This afforded a great advantage to him. With his great influence in
this area, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat,
which had been under the role of Saka Kshtrapas for about four
centuries.
The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern seacoast, famous for
trade and commerce. This also contributed to the prosperity of
Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the
second capital by Chandragupta II.
Chandragupta II's Nine Gems
Person

(Field)

Famous works

Amarsimha

Lexicography

Amarkosha

Dhanvantri

Medicine

Ayurveda

Harisena

Poetry

Allahabad Inscription

Kalidesa
Kahapanaka

Abhijananashakuntalam
Drama and Poetry

Jyothisyashastra

Sanku

Astrology

Shilpashastra

Varahamihira

Architecture

Brihadsamhita

Vararuchi

Grammer

Vyakarana

Vetalabhatta

Magic

Mantrashastra

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57
BC as a mark of his victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India. The Court of Chandragupta II
at Ujjain was adorned by an numerous scholars such as Kalidasa and Amarashimha.
It was in Chandragupta's regin that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India and
abroad and elaborate account of the life of its people.

Kumargupta I

Kumargupta I, Mahendraditya(415-455 A.D.) Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son,

Kumargupta I. Nothing is known about his political career, but some evidence indicates that the
strength,
unity
and
prestige
of
the
empire
remained
unshaken
in
his
reign.
Towards the close of his reign, the
menaced by the new invaders
died during the war with the

Gupta
power
was
seriously
called the Hunas. Kumargupta
Hunas.

Skandagupta Vikramaditya

Skandagupta Vikramaditya(455-467 A.D.) Skandagupta, the last ruler of the Gupta dynasty,
probably
came
to
the
throne
when
the
war
Pushyamitra
was
still
going
on.
His literary saved the Gupta Empire. He succeeded in defeating the Hunas and in maintaining the
integrity
of
his
ancestral
empire.
Success in repelling the Hunas scenes to have been celebrated by the assumption of the
title Vikramaditya.
The decline of the empire begin
later became the rulers of Punjab

soon after his death. The Hunas

and Kashmir.

Gupta Art

Gupta Art: In art, architecture, sculpture, and painting the period witnessed unprecedented activities
and development all over India. That is why the period is also referred to as the Golden Age of
ancient India.
Famous Temples Of The Got the Age
Vishnu Temple

Tigawa(Jabalpur)

Shiva Temple

Bhumara(Nagaud)

Parvati Temple

Nachria Kuthara

Dasavtar Temple

Deogarh(Jhansi)

Shiva Temple

Koh(Nagaland)

Bhitragaon Temple

Bhitragaon

Lakshman Temple

Kanpur(Brick made)

Lakshman Temple

Sirpur (Raipur)

Mukund Darra Temple

Kota

Dhammekh Temple

Sarnath

Jarasangh's Sitting

Rajgrih (Bihar)

Sculpture : It may be mentioned that the Gupta plastic conception had its birth at Mathura and
spread to Sarnath, Shravasti, Prayag and other places. At Sarnath, the plastic conception of Mathura
School with all its elegance reached perfection in figure of seated Buddha in Dharma-ChakraPravarthana attitudes.
Gupta Architecture

Gupta age marks the beginning of the main styles of temple architecture in India namely
the Nagara style andDravida style.

The finest example of temple architecture is the Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh. It is also
an example of early stone temple with a Shikara.

It has a square grabhagriha with exquisitely carved doorway.

The Bhitragaon temple of Kanpur is made entirely of bricks.

Other examples of temple architecture are Parvati Temple at Nachna Kuthira, Shiva temple at
Khoh, Cave temple at Udayariti etc.

Ajanta Paintings

The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta Times is provided by Ajanta paintings. They
depict the various events in the life of Gautama Buddha and previous Buddhas, of jataka
stories.

Bagh Caves had the folk culture has the basic theme/

The paintings in the cave number 9 and 10 belong to the first and second century BC

Cave number 10 belong to the early Gupta eight, approximately 350 A.D.

Paintings in the cave number 16, 17 and 19 belong to the later period approximately to 650
A.D.

Painting of the cave number 1 and 2 belong to the post Gupta period

The finest example of painting of this period are found in the rock cut cave number 1, 16 and
19 at Ajanta.

The wall painting of the Bodhisattava in cave 1 is the finest example of Gupta art.

The outstanding examples of the frescoes or wall paintings.

Development of literature during Gupta period

Development of literature during Gupta period: During the Gupta period, Sanskrit literature
greatly encouraged. Prose and poetry both were written during the Gupta period. The Allahabad pillar
inscription indicates that Harisena was a great poet. The manner in which, he has described the
samundragupta by Chandragupta indicates that he was a pirate of great calibre.
A list of important literary works during the Gupta period is given in the table below.
Important Literary Works During the Gupta Period

Works

Creators
Epics

Ramayan

Valmiki

Mahabharata

Ved Vyasa

Raghuvansa, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta

Kalidas

Ravanabadha

Batsabhatti

Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita

Dandin

Kiratarjuniyam

Bharavi

Nitishataka

Bhartrihari
Dramas

Vikramovarshiya, Malvikagnimitra and Abhijnansakuntalam Mrichchakatika

Kalidasa

Pratignayaugandharayana

Bhasa

Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam

Vishakhadatta
Eulogy

Pragya-PPrasasti

Harisena
Philosophy

Sankhyakarika

Ishwar Krishna

Nyaya Bhasya

Vatsyayana

Vyasa Bhasya

Acharya Vyasa
Grammmer

Amarakosha

Amarsimha

Chandravyakarana

Chandragomin

Kavyadarsha

Dandin
Narrative Story

Panchatantra and Hitopadesha

Vishnu Sharma
Mathematics and Astronomy

Aryabhattiya

Aryabhatta

Brihatsamhita and Panchasidhantika

Varamihira

Suryasidhanta

Brahmagupta
Miscellaneous Works

Nitisastra

Kamandaka

Kamsutra

Vatsyayana

Kavyalankara

Bhamah

Transformation From Ancient Phase to Medieval

Phase

Transformation from the ancient to mediaeval phases.: Central factors that ultimately
transformed the ancient Indian society into mediaeval society who was the practice of land grants.
This practice came into being because of a serious crisis that affected the ancient social order. The
crucial step to made the situation was too grand land to priests and officials in lieu of salaries and
remuneration. Line grands became frequent from the fifth century A.D. According to this, the
bramhmanas wire granted villages free from taxes.
Trade and commerce: From the sixth century A.D. onwards, there started a sharp decline in trade.
The decline of trade led to the decay of towns. In northern India, from eighth century A.D. onwards,
there are one a period of stagnation and even of decline. The main reason for this was the setback to
trade and commerce.
The decline in trade and commerce was due to collapse in the vast of the Roman Empire with which
India has flourishing and profitable trade. The rise of Islam leading to the collapse of all empires, such
as Sassanid (Iranian) Empire, also affected India's foreign trade, particularly the overland trade. As a
result, there was a remarkable paucity of new gold coins in North India between the eighth and the
10th century.
However foreign trade and commerce in North India became to revive gradually from the 10th century
onwards. Malwa and Gujarat benefited most from the revival of his trade. There was also the decline
of internal trade which led to the languishing trade guild called shrenis and sanghas in north

India. Cultural development: In about the 6-7th centuries started the formation of cultural units,
which later came to known in and as Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan,, Tamil Nadu etc.
The identity of various cultural groups is recognised by both foreign and Indian sources. The Chinese
traveller Hieun Tsang mentions several nationalities. The Jaina books of the late eighth century notice
the existence of 18 major peoples of nationalities.
Original scripts became more prominent in the seventh century A.D. and later. From Maurya to Gupta
Times, although the script underwent changes, more or less the same script continue to obtain
throughout the country. Thus, a person who has mastered the script of the Gupta age can read in
scripts from different parts of the country in that period. But from the seventh century every reason
came to have its own script, and hence one cannot read post-Gupta inscriptions found in different
parts of the country unless he has the knowledge of regional scripts.
Education, Science and Learning: The system of education which developed in the earlier period
continued without much change. There was no idea of mass education at that time. People learnt
learnt what they felt was needed for their livelihood. Sometimes, temples made arrangements of
education at the higher level as well. The main subjects studied were the various branches of the
Vedas and grammar. Education of a more formal kind, with greater emphasis on secular subjects,
continued to be provided at some of the Buddhist viharas. Nalanda in Bihar was the most famous of
these. Kashmir was another important centre of education.
India made an important contribution to fines. In ancient times, religion and science were inextricably
linked together. Astronomy made great progress in the country because the planets came to be
regarded at Gods, and their movements became to be seen closely observed. Their study became
essential on account of their connection with changes in seasons and weather conditions to which were
important for agriculture activities. The science of grammar and linguistics arose because the ancient
Brahma stressed that the every Vedic prayer and every mantra should be recited with the meticulous
correctness. In fact, the first result of the scientific outlook of Indians was the production of Sanskrit
grammar. In the fourth century BC Panini systemised the rules governing Sanskrit and produced a
grammar called Astadhyayi.
By the third century BC, mathematics, astronomy and medicine begin to develop separately. In the
field of mathematics the ancient Indians made three distinct contributions: the notation system, the
decimal system and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence for the use of the decimal
system is in the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The Indian notational system was adopted by the
Arabs who spread it in the Western world. The Indians numerals were called Arabic in English, but the
Arabs themselves called their numerals hindsa.

Dynasties, There Rulers And Capitals

Dynasties

By Rulers

Capitals

Shunga

Pushyamitra Sunga

Patliputra

Kanva

Vasudeva

Patliputra

Satvahanas

Simuk

Pratishthaan

Ilkshavaakus

Shrishanta Mulak

Nagarjun Konda

Kushanas

Kujulkhadphises

Purusushpur/Peshawar

Gupta

Sri Gupta

Patliputra

Hunas

Tormaan

Shakal or Syalkot

Pushybhuti

Narvardhan

Thaneshwar/Kannauj

Pallavas

Simhavarman IV

Kanchi

Chalukya

Jaisingh Siddharaja

Vatapi/Badami

Rashtrakuta

Danti Durga

Manya Khait

Gurjara-Pratihara

Harish Chandra

Gujarat

Gadhwaal

Chandradev

Kannauj

Chauhaan

Vasudev

Ajmer/Shakambhari

Chaindel

Nannuk or Dhanga

Khajurah or Kalinga