The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the

U.S.
Department of Defense. GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system available for
civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to use
GPS.

How it works
GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and
use triangulation to calculate the user's exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite
with the time it was received. The time difference tells the GPS receiver how far away the satellite is. Now, with distance measurements from a
few more satellites, the receiver can determine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic map.

A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D position (latitude and longitude) and track movement.
With four or more satellites in view, the receiver can determine the user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the user's position
has been determined, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing, track, trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise
and sunset time and more.

How accurate is GPS?

Today's GPS receivers are extremely accurate, thanks to their parallel multi-channel design. Garmin's 12 parallel channel receivers are quick to
lock onto satellites when first turned on and they maintain strong locks, even in dense foliage or urban settings with tall buildings. Certain
atmospheric factors and other sources of error can affect the accuracy of GPS receivers. Garmin GPS receivers are accurate to within 15 meters
on average.

Newer Garmin GPS receivers with WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) capability can improve accuracy to less than three meters on
average. No additional equipment or fees are required to take advantage of WAAS. Users can also get better accuracy with Differential GPS
(DGPS), which corrects GPS signals to within an average of three to five meters. The U.S. Coast Guard operates the most common DGPS
correction service. This system consists of a network of towers that receive GPS signals and transmit a corrected signal by beacon transmitters.
In order to get the corrected signal, users must have a differential beacon receiver and beacon antenna in addition to their GPS.

The GPS satellite system

The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the earth about 12,000 miles above us. They are constantly moving, making
two complete orbits in less than 24 hours. These satellites are travelling at speeds of roughly 7,000 miles an hour.
GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. They have backup batteries onboard to keep them running in the event of a solar eclipse, when
there's no solar power. Small rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct path.
Here are some other interesting facts about the GPS satellites (also called NAVSTAR, the official U.S. Department of Defense name for GPS):

The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978.

A full constellation of 24 satellites was achieved in 1994.

Each satellite is built to last about 10 years. Replacements are constantly being built and launched into orbit.

A GPS satellite weighs approximately 2,000 pounds and is about 17 feet across with the solar panels extended.

Transmitter power is only 50 watts or less.

What's the signal?

GPS satellites transmit two low power radio signals, designated L1 and L2. Civilian GPS uses the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz in the UHF
band. The signals travel by line of sight, meaning they will pass through clouds, glass and plastic but will not go through most solid objects such
as buildings and mountains.
A GPS signal contains three different bits of information - a pseudorandom code, ephemeris data and almanac data. The pseudorandom code is
simply an I.D. code that identifies which satellite is transmitting information. You can view this number on your Garmin GPS unit's satellite
page, as it identifies which satellites it's receiving.
Ephemeris data, which is constantly transmitted by each satellite, contains important information about the status of the satellite (healthy or
unhealthy), current date and time. This part of the signal is essential for determining a position.
The almanac data tells the GPS receiver where each GPS satellite should be at any time throughout the day. Each satellite transmits almanac data
showing the orbital information for that satellite and for every other satellite in the system.

Sources of GPS signal errors

Factors that can degrade the GPS signal and thus affect accuracy include the following:

Ionosphere and troposphere delays - The satellite signal slows as it passes through the atmosphere. The GPS system uses a built-in model
that calculates an average amount of delay to partially correct for this type of error.

Signal multipath - This occurs when the GPS signal is reflected off objects such as tall buildings or large rock surfaces before it reaches
the receiver. This increases the travel time of the signal, thereby causing errors.

Receiver clock errors - A receiver's built-in clock is not as accurate as the atomic clocks onboard the GPS satellites. Therefore, it may
have very slight timing errors.

Orbital errors - Also known as ephemeris errors, these are inaccuracies of the satellite's reported location.

Number of satellites visible - The more satellites a GPS receiver can "see," the better the accuracy. Buildings, terrain, electronic
interference, or sometimes even dense foliage can block signal reception, causing position errors or possibly no position reading at all.
GPS units typically will not work indoors, underwater or underground.

Satellite geometry/shading - This refers to the relative position of the satellites at any given time. Ideal satellite geometry exists when the
satellites are located at wide angles relative to each other. Poor geometry results when the satellites are located in a line or in a tight
grouping.

Intentional degradation of the satellite signal - Selective Availability (SA) is an intentional degradation of the signal once imposed by the
U.S. Department of Defense. SA was intended to prevent military adversaries from using the highly accurate GPS signals. The
government turned off SA in May 2000, which significantly improved the accuracy of civilian GPS receivers.

Application
GPS has a variety of applications on land, at sea and in the air. Basically, GPS is usable everywhere except where it's impossible to receive the
signal such as inside most buildings, in caves and other subterranean locations, and underwater. The most common airborne applications are for
navigation by general aviation and commercial aircraft. At sea, GPS is also typically used for navigation by recreational boaters, commercial
fishermen, and professional mariners. Land-based applications are more diverse. The scientific community uses GPS for its precision timing
capability and position information.
Surveyors use GPS for an increasing portion of their work. GPS offers cost savings by drastically reducing setup time at the survey site and
providing incredible accuracy. Basic survey units, costing thousands of dollars, can offer accuracies down to one meter. More expensive systems
are available that can provide accuracies to within a centimeter.

Recreational uses of GPS are almost as varied as the number of recreational sports available. GPS is popular among hikers, hunters,
snowmobilers, mountain bikers, and cross-country skiers, just to name a few. Anyone who needs to keep track of where he or she is, to find his
or her way to a specified location, or know what direction and how fast he or she is going can utilize the benefits of the global positioning
system.
GPS is now commonplace in automobiles as well. Some basic systems are in place and provide emergency roadside assistance at the push of a
button (by transmitting your current position to a dispatch center). More sophisticated systems that show your position on a street map are also
available. Currently these systems allow a driver to keep track of where he or she is and suggest the best route to follow to reach a designated
location.

andheld GPS: Functions and Features

Do you travel frequently or spend a lot of time exploring the outdoors? A handheld GPS can you help you find your destination quickly and
safely. The global positioning system, or GPS, pinpoints locations on the land and sea using a network of 24 orbiting satellites operated by the
United States Department of Defense. Under ideal conditions, a GPS can achieve position accuracy of better than three meters, which is perfect
for both travel on foot and by car. Don't get lost or disoriented again; use our GPS system buying guide to find the navigation system that
works best for your lifestyle.
GPS Functions:

1. Giving a location: This is the whole point of a navigation system: its ability to accurately triangulate your position based on the data
transmissions from multiple satellites. It will give your location in coordinates, either latitude and longitude or Universal Transverse
Mercators (UTMs). Developed by the military, UTMs are used to pinpoint a location on a map. Most topographical maps have UTM
gridlines printed on them.
2. Point-to-point navigation: This GPS navigation feature allows you to add waypoints to your trips. By using a map, the coordinates of a
trailhead or road or the point where you're standing, you can create a point-to-point route to the place where you're headed. You will have
the trip mapped out, including any stops you add in.
3. Plot navigation: This feature in a global positioning system allows you to combine multiple waypoints and move point-to-point. Once
you reach the first waypoint, the GPS can automatically point you on your way to the next one. The waypoint management software
comes with most handheld GPS units for easy database management.
4. Keeping track of your track: Tracks are some of the most useful functions of portable navigation systems. You can map where you've
already been. This virtual map is called a track, and you can program the GPS system to automatically drop track-points as you travel,
either over intervals of time or distance. This can be done on land or in a nautical setting and allows you to retrace your steps.

Basic GPS Components:

1. Screen: There are different screens available, each with its own menu. Color screens can be good in maritime environments where you
need the individual "lumps" to be distinguishable between land mass and water depth. Grayscale screens are just fine for other outdoor
needs. Large screens are good for navigation in a vehicle, but while a large screen is easier to see, it could become a distraction to drivers.
Illumination is another option. The best GPS can be read in a variety of light conditions and can light up for night time or low-light
conditions.
2. Antenna configuration: The different types of antennas have their pros and cons. Quad helix antennas are the most common in newer
models and are considered best for use under tree cover. Flat-patch antennas are an inexpensive alternative to the quad helix antenna if
you usually hike or travel in open country. Note that with a high-sensitivity processor chip, the performance of your handheld GPS will
be enhanced dramatically, regardless of the type of antenna you have. Built-in antennas are less likely to break off or get damaged.
External antennas are less protected, but they can be repositioned and manipulated to obtain a better signal. The optional plug-in antenna
is great when you want to use your GPS in a car or boat, and it will allow you to pick up signals even if you are under a metal roof.
3. Internal maps: The amount of preloaded map information a GPS contains can really affect the price. Maps often include a base map of
North America, backcountry details of major rivers and street-level road maps. A limited number of international maps are also available.
4. Barometric altimeter: All GPS units can give elevation information, but not all of them come with a barometric altimeter. The barometric
altimeter operates independently of the satellite signal, so even if you're hiking in a low-signal area and you lose the signal, you can still
get an accurate elevation reading. The barometric altimeter runs on air pressure, so it can also give you an idea of approaching weather
conditions and changes by showing a graphic chart of barometric trends. With the best handheld GPS that includes an altimeter and a
little advanced warning, you can whip out a parka or pitch your tent.

Other GPS Features:

1. Usability: Does the GPS give you a simulation mode where you can familiarize yourself with all of its functions, regardless of a signal?
You'll want to be familiar with your GPS before you head out and explore.
2. Power supply: What kind of batteries does the GPS use? You'll want to know if the GPS will work with more than one type of battery and
how many extra batteries you'll want to pack, just in case. Most modern GPS navigation systems have a built-in back-up battery that
will keep your stored information safe even if the internal battery runs out.
3. Speed: How fast will the GPS system acquire the signal? Is it a constant speed? Some navigation systems process data and update much
more quickly than others. Usually, the more channels a GPS system has, the faster it will compute and refresh the on-screen information.
Look for "time to first fix," or TIFF, data when researching different models to find the best GPS for speed.
4. Size: The smallest portable navigation systems available today are no bigger than a cell phone and can fit in the palm of your hand, but
they also have a higher price tag. The smaller GPS systems will have double-purpose buttons. The larger GPS systems have clearly
labeled buttons, which makes using them and reading their labeled functions a lot easier.
5. Design: Look for a durable design. Can buttons stick easily? Will the casings crack if the unit is dropped? The best handheld GPS
models include waterproof ratings and may even float.

Prototype Development
The Global Positioning System did not begin as a sophisticated constellation of satellites used to precisely pinpoint the location of receivers
throughout the globe that it is today. Quite to the contrary, conditions spurring the GPSs creation called for simply a missile guidance system.
Like with many significant technological inventions, the creators of the GPS slowly came to realize that these missiles needed a sophisticated
and widespread network in order to become functional on a global scale.
On April 13, 1960, the earliest component of the GPS was launched, taking the form of a satellite TRANSIT IB. After the United States Navy
realized its potential to locate ballistic missile, submarines, and ships, they rallied the federal government for prompt support of research projects
to further develop navigation technology. It just so happened that May 15, 1960, Ivan Getting and his team of research and development
specialists at Raytheon Company completed plans for a radio-navigation system called Mobile System for Accurate ICBM Control, or MOSAIC,
for the Air Force. With so much success in such a short span of time, the United States government went forward with the creation of the
Aerospace Corporation to which Getting was appointed president. Its goal was straightforward, to aid the United States Air Force in applying
the full resources of modern science and technology to the problem of achieving those continuing advances in ballistic missiles and military
space systems which are basic to national security. By the end of June, 1960, less than two months from Gettings initial proposal of plans for
ICBM navigation, the Aerospace Corporation was already hard at work on its latest task of putting together a working missile navigation system.
(GPS Timeline)
Though one component of the GPS was already in orbit, TRANSIT IB, plans for a GPS system as it is understand today were not conceptualized
until 1963, with a project by the Aerospace Corporation coined Project 57, and later renamed Project 621B. Their chief concern was addressing
how navigation points could be established using satellites in Earths orbit. This is the point where the research team was joined by Brad
Parkinson, who helped research an answer to this quandary. Into the late 1960s, their research continued within the companys Systems
Planning Division, receiving great fiscal encouragement in the wake of a growing nuclear threat from Russia.

TIMATION, later known as NAVSTAR, came forward in 1973, and was, by great leaps, the most successful prototype of GPS that had been
tested yet. Before it was coined GPS, TIMATION/NAVSTAR went through two distinct stages of prototypical development. Block I evaluated
the theoretical principles of GPS and served as a trial and error type of experiment. Many failed, yet successful ideas were incorporated into
future designs. Block II satellites formed the first constellation, allowing an accurate measure of positioning on the ground, moving entirely apart
from missile guidance. (Wade) Block II satellites were declared operational in 1995. (GPS Timeline)

How It Works: Global Navigation and the Constellation System

In order for the precise isolation of location to be possible, instruments had to be put in place from which receivers could gauge that location. In
an era following the space race, the most logical yet sophisticated choice for these instruments were satellites, a technology that was still a
relatively recent phenomenon. Six twelve-hour, circular orbital planes were set up equidistant from the equator, with four satellites (known as
satellite vehicles or SVs) occupying each plane. The way the system was set up, with a 60 separation universally between SVs, receivers have
a direct line of sight to four satellites at any given moment in time. This network came to be more commonly known as the Constellation
System.
Yet for a functional system to operate in an environment of expanding receivers, there were two essential conditions, which it required. The first
of these circumstances was passive operation, for no individual device to function as a transmitter, only as a receiver. One could use the analogy
of these receivers to antennas. In this way, the constellation system can accommodate an unlimited number of users simultaneously without
interference. Secondly, a system of terrestrial stations had to be put in place that had to capability to decode the satellite transmissions in order
to provide positioning, velocity, and precise timing information to these antennas. (Farrell, 142-143) This model for global navigation would
later be imitated in designs by the EU and Russia. (Bartlett)

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The global positioning system is a worldwide radio-based navigation system formed from a constellation of 24 satellites and their ground
stations. The technology involves a GPS receiver that can "see" at least several satellites at any time from any point on Earth, and in seconds
can use the travel time of radio signals to pinpoint a user's position to within a few feet. In a sense, the GPS assigns a unique address to every
square foot on the planet.
Real-world applications of GPS include location, navigation, tracking, mapping, and timing. GPS technology can be used to locate and monitor
real-time movement of individuals as they go about their daily activities, tracking their route and distance traveled, which serves as a useful,
low-burden tool for physical activity measurement and intervention studies. Several GPS-enabled devices are emerging in the physical activity
research field, and products such as e/Balance maximize GPS technology by sending physical activity prompts based on the user's location.
GPS technology is often used in conjunction with Geographic Information System (GIS) software to visualize and analyze GPS data. An
EPARC consultant can help educate you in the latest advances in these technologies and how to best integrate GPS and GIS into your stud

Location-Finding
Using Global Positioning System (GPS)
by Phil Wherry & Walter Sanford
PURPOSE & OBJECTIVES
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used to find your location quickly and
accurately anywhere in the world. In this activity, you will learn how to use a GPS receiver to locate your exact position on
Earth (latitude and longitude). You will then locate a mystery position (somewhere in the vicinity of your school) based on

information collected from the GPS system and a local map. In the process, you will discover how GPS works to determine
your exact position.
TIME REQUIREMENT
Approximately two- to three class periods (assuming 60- or 90-minute periods). Teaching Notes:
The directions for this activity were written specifically for the Garmin GPS 40 receiver (which is very similar to the Garmin GPS 12
receiver). This activity may be used with other GPS receivers; refer to your GPS receiver owner's manual for equivalent technical
information. Garmin GPS receiver owner's manuals are available online in Adobe Acrobat PDF format.
Hyperlinks to some teaching notes are password-protected and are accessible to teachers only.
Technical Tip:
External links will open automatically in a second browser window; subsequent clicks on external links will replace the contents of the second window. This enables the user
to keep both the activity and related text and graphics on the desktop.

EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES

GPS receiver (e.g., Garmin GPS 40 Personal Navigator)

Large-scale map of your school, such as the maps provided by

DeLorme's Street Atlas USA 6.0 software

Drawing compass (such as the Safe-T Compass)

Protractor (ideally, a 360-degree, full-circle protractor)

Laptop computer or Palm Computing Organizer with GPS receiver

interface cable (optional, but required for activity extensions)

Technical Tips:
1. After extended power-off or memory loss, the GPS receiver must be given an opportunity to collect satellite almanac data and its
current position. This process can take 7.5-15 minutes.
2. If the receiver has trouble acquiring the satellites, you may need to power-off the receiver and try again at a new location. Press
and hold the red key for three seconds until the power turns off.
3. When satellites are being acquired, the round part of the Satellite Status Page represents the sky. North is at the top of the display.
The outer ring represents the horizon; the inner ring represents 45 degrees above the horizon; and the center point directly
overhead (the zenith). Each satellite has its own number; these are the numbers shown on the display. Though this page
disappears once the satellites have been acquired, you can return to it by cycling through the pages (refer to Technical Tip #4,
below).

4. You can cycle through the various pages displayed by the receiver using the PAGE key to move forward and/or the QUIT key to
move backward. The pages are interconnected, so pressing either key repeatedly will cycle through the five main pages.
5. Under some circumstances, you may see a flashing box in the middle of the display instructing you to press PAGE to view a
message. This generally happens when the receiver loses its lock on the satellites. Use the PAGE key to move to the Satellite
Status Page (sky view). You'll know the receiver has locked on again when the "POOR CVG" (poor coverage) message at the top left
of the display changes to "2D NAV" or "3D NAV".

PROCEDURE
Part I. Using a GPS Receiver to Find Your Location

Proceed to an outdoor location with a clear view of the sky from horizon to horizon. You should stand well away from the school building, trees,
etc., so that you have an unobstructed view of the sky. Hold the receiver at arm's length from your body so the built-in antenna (the flat area
above the display) is parallel to the ground. Power-on the GPS receiver by pressing the red key. After the Welcome Page, by default the receiver
displays the Satellite Status Page (sky view) and begins searching for satellite signals. GPS receivers get their information from a system of 24
orbiting satellites located approximately 18,300 kilometers (11,000 miles) above the Earth's surface. To provide accurate position information,
the receiver must be able to "see" three or four satellites.
As satellites are acquired, you will see bars appear on the graph at the bottom of the display; these bars indicate the strength of the satellite
signal. Once enough satellites have been acquired, the Satellite Status Page will disappear automatically and be replaced with the Position Page
(graphic compass).

Your position (latitude and longitude) should be shown on the Position Page. Record your current position in the following data table:
Your Position
Latitude
(deg. N)

Longitude
(deg. W)

Teaching Note:
Programming the Mystery Location.
Technical Tips:
6. Ensure that "MYSLOC" appears on the display at this point. If you press the GOTO key twice by mistake, this will activate the
receiver's "man overboard" function (which automatically stores the current position as a destination). If this happens, the
destination point will be titled "MOB" rather than "MYSLOC"--just press GOTO again (once) and select "MYSLOC" from the list using
the arrow keys.

Randomly choose three-to-five different locations on the school grounds. These locations should be fairly distant from each other (at least 500 feet apart). Remember
to choose locations where the GPS receiver will have a good view of the sky. Proceed to Point No. 1. Record the following information in the data table below:
1. Use the Position Page (graphic compass) to acquire your current position. Record your latitude and longitude.
2. Press the GOTO key. The Navigation Page (graphic highway) will appear with the waypoint field highlighted. Press the up or
down arrow keys to scroll through the available waypoints until "MYSLOC" (short for "mystery location") is displayed. Press
the ENTER key to confirm that you want to navigate to "MYSLOC". Record the bearing (in degrees) and distance (in
kilometers) to the mystery location.
3. Briefly describe the location.
Repeat Steps 1-3 until you have visited at least three different locations on the school grounds. Do not actually go to the mystery
location! Street Atlas USA 6.0 software) interfaced with a GPS receiver to simulate an automobile satellite-linked navigation
system.

Abstract
CONTEXT:

The GPS represents an innovative way to objectively assess the spatial locations of physical activity behavior. The aim of this systematic review
was to determine the capability of GPS to collect high-quality data on the location of activities in research on the relationship between physical
activity and the environment.
EVIDENCE ACQUISITION:

Published and unpublished articles identified from seven electronic databases, reference lists, bibliographies, and websites up to March 2010
were systematically searched for, appraised, and analyzed in summer 2010. Included studies used GPS to measure the spatial locations of
physical activity and some form of environmental analysis related to the GPS data. The capability of GPS was expressed in terms of data quality,
which in turn was defined as the proportion of GPS data lost in each study.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS:

24 studies met the inclusion criteria. Data loss was positively correlated with the measurement period for which participants were asked to wear
the GPS device (r=0.81, p<0.001). Major reasons for data loss included signal drop-outs, loss of device battery power, and poor adherence of
participants to measurement protocols. Data loss did not differ significantly between children and adults or by study sample size, year of
publication, or GPS device manufacturer.
CONCLUSIONS:

GPS is a promising tool for improving understanding of the spatial context of physical activity. The current findings suggest that the choice of an
appropriate device and efforts to maximize participant adherence are key to improving data quality, especially over longer study periods.
Copyright 2011 American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

4 Types of GPS Tracking Systems You Should Know About

When choosing GPS tracking systems, it's important to understand the basic types of GPS tracking systems and how they work. Read below to
find out more about 4 common types of GPS tracking systems.
Hardwired GPS Tracking Devices
Hardwired GPS tracking systems are typically used in vehicles. These GPS tracking systems utilize the power of the vehicle's battery for
operation. With the brain of the unit hidden under the hood or your dashboard, these GPS tracking systems sometimes come with antennas that
must be attached to the vehicle.
GPS Loggers

GPS loggers are GPS tracking systems that are used to record information to be retrieved at a later date. For example, a GPS logger can be used
to track a vehicle or a shipment, but the information cannot be retrieved from the GPS tracking system until it is manually uploaded to a
computer. These are also known as passive GPS tracking systems.
Personal GPS Trackers
Personal GPS trackers are GPS tracking systems which look like small beepers or cell phones. They're designed to be handheld, clipped to a
belt, or tossed in a purse for individual use. GPS tracking systems for personal use are often purchased for the purpose of personal protection for
adults and children. Many personal GPS tracking systems include a panic button for quickly alerting family or authorities in emergency
situations.
Real-Time GPS Trackers
Real-Time GPS trackers are GPS tracking systems which continuously transmit information so that users can track their location all the time.
Real time GPS tracking systems are highly-sophisticated and require the use of tracking services and GPS tracking software. With real time
GPS tracking systems, satellite mapping is used to show the location of the GPS tracking devices.
Conclusion
If you need help deciding which types of GPS tracking systems would be most suitable for your business or personal use, visit
TrackingtheWorld, Inc. at www.trackingtheworld.com.