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Immigration History and the Future of International Migration
Author(s): Goran Rystad

Source: International Migration Review, Vol. 26, No. 4 (Winter, 1992), pp. 1168-1199
Published by: The Center for Migration Studies of New York, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2546879
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Immigration
of
and
History
International
the
Future
Migration
Goran
Rystad
University of Lund
International
must be understood
as a permanent
migration
phenom?
movement.
In this article, the author
enon rather than as a temporary
from the premise that in appreciating
the relation between
proceeds
the past and the present, we may be able to draw on "lessons of the
and perception
of current problems
and
past" to modify our definition
to analyze possible policies and decisions.
The article is divided into
several sections, historical changes within migration
patterns includ?
of
different
various
within
the migra?
categories
migrants,
phases
ing
tion process in recent history, theoretical
considerations
in analysis,
distinct types of immigration
policies pursued by various states, and
current and possible future trends.
is a remarkably
broad and multifaceted
a multi?
field embracing
Migration
Seasonal
and
tude of issues, even when limited to international
migration.
as well as migration
with the intent of permanent
migration
temporary
all figure in this phenomenon,
as do forced migration
of various
residence
of entire ethnic groups and the deportation
of certain
kinds, the expulsion
individuals.
Flight triggered by political persecution,
by civil war, by famine,
etc. also falls under the general
of
disasters,
by environmental
category
migration.
of history to understanding
A study on the significance
the future of
international
is, of course, difficult to condense in a limited space.
migration
in various ways, all of which require a
Such an analysis may be conducted
of aspects and certain inevitable
strict selection
restrictions.
the
However,
on the relation between
history, the
subject also triggers certain reflections
present and the future on possible
of the past.
exist independently
"lessons" of history. The present does not

In modifying
our view of the past, we
alter our perceptual
our sense of reality, our
predispositions,
simultaneously
of
the
and
of
its problems.
Yet new
present
way
understanding
defining
also
offer
new
the
is
a
into
There
insights
past.
continuing
experiences
interaction
between the way in which the past is viewed and the manner in
which the present is perceived.
History is the only key we have to under-
1168
IMR Volume
xxvi, No. 4
HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

standing the present and to making at
the future and regarding
the possible
All thought which leads to decisions
historical. History is an indispensable
1169
least tentative predictions

concerning
effects of decisions and policies.
regarding
public policy is essentially
tool in comprehending
the world, and
a requirement
of the past is undeniably
in choosing
intelligent
Like
all
thus
alternatives.
history,
among
policy
migration
history
options
as well as the
to understanding
the present
has an absolute
significance
future of international
migration.
History does not, however, provide a book
with pretested
for progress" or a "cookbook
of rules, "blueprints
recipes."
of historical
is not simply one of linear projections
trends.
The question
must be used with the utmost of circum?
historical analogies
Furthermore,
spection and caution in attempts to interpret and explain present problems
and predict future developments.
knowledge
INTERNATIONAL
MIGRATION
IN
HISTORY
is by no means a new phenomenon.

In order to under?
Today's migration
future developments,
the
stand the issue and to form a basis for judging
One could reasonably
question must be placed within an historical context.
claim that mankind's
entire history has been an history of migration.
The
from place to place
earliest man was a hunter and gatherer who wandered
and the process continued
even after establishing
in search of nourishment,
has been a common
in human
residence.
Although migration
phenomenon
would hardly be fruitful. Certain
a sociobiological
behavior,
explanation
had the good fortune to end up in areas richly endowed
groups of individuals
or natural
wound up fleeing destitution
by nature, others less fortunate
of others
disasters and thus sought to share the happier material conditions
Charles Tilly (1978:62)
1978:11).
points out three factors which
(Bohning,
have been decisive in the course of long-distance
migration
during the last
of employment
distribution
five centuries:
1) the changing
geographic
alterations
of regional differen?
imbalances,
2) demographic
opportunities;
and 3) actions and policies of nation states; i.e.,
tials in natural increase;
or relocating
war, expelling
controlling
specific ethnic groups,
making
migration.
In many
Labor, up to the twentieth century, has been a scarce commodity.
a
as
means
of both
thus
has
been
countries,
encouraged
immigration
for
as
as
well
as
new
residents
of yet
a
work
force
needed
obtaining
for
work?
the
need
the eighteenth
uncultivated
areas. Throughout
century,
countries
that
was so great in many of the European
ers and soldiers
It was not until 1793 that
measures
were taken to hinder emigration.
control.
immigration
England, with the passing of its Alien Bill, introduced
1170
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW
trend can be seen today, with immigration

control being the
The opposite
rule rather than the exception.
concerns
the very character of international
Another difference
migra?
in this phenomenon:
tion. Four main groups are generally
distinguished
residents, temporary
workers, refugees and illegal aliens. While
permanent
have
made
residents
permanent
up the bulk of migrants in previous history,
this now holds true only to a certain degree in five countries,
namely, the
United States, Australia, Canada, Israel and New Zealand. Yet even in these
and in the United
States in particular,
who gain
countries,
immigrants
often do so after the migration
residence
itself. Individuals
enter
permanent
visas and later acquire permanent
on temporary
residence
status. The three
current international
remaining
migration
groups thus dominate
patterns.
difference
lies in the fact that "intraregional
Another
or
migration,"
a limited
within
migration
"transcontinental
in scope, while
area, has increased
geographical
has
which
been
the dominant
migration,"
previously
has decreased.
differs
from
form,
Today's
intraregional
migration
to
such
transcontinental
an
extent
that
while
the
migration
yesterday's
waves
of
the
and
nineteenth
centuries
wandered
from
eighteenth
migration
at least in terms of the level of economic
richer to poorer
countries,
current
waves travel from less developed
countries
development,
migration
and regions
Nineteenth-
to those
and
more highly
Twentieth-Century
developed
(Kritz and Keely,
International
1981:xiii-xiv).
Migration
The Swedish
researcher
Tomas Hammar
four key
migration
distinguishes
the
two
centuries'
international
in
terms of
migrations
periods during
past
with which the migrants have been met (Hammar,
the degree of restrictions
1990:42-45).
The first period, which began in the mid-1800s
and continued
up to the
outbreak
of World War I, is characterized
free
both
within
by
migration
countries such as North America and Australia.
Europe and to transoceanic
liberalism
had abolished
all of the obstacles
of mercantilism,
Economic
control over population
movements,
including
During
by the mid-1800s.
most of the half century leading up to World War I there were thus virtually
travel abroad in Europe, with the exception
no controls restricting
of Czarist
of those traveling abroad remained
modest
relatively
and passports were not required for travel between
countries.
a
People could, in fact, begin to work in a new country without seeking
do
so
to
It
is
Marrus,
1985:91-93;
Holborn,
1938:683).
(cf,
permit
during
this same era that the European
increase
population
began to significantly
due to the combination
of a high birth rate and a low death rate. The
Russia.
The
number
at this time,
negative
effects
of this population
increase
could largely
be curbed
through
1171
extensive
to both North America and other continents,

which in
emigration
fact reached the figure of about 35 million (Cohen,
1987:27).
Emigration
from Europe had been quite negligible
up to the nineteenth
century: during
the three
received
only 2 million
prior to the 1800s, America
to
a
extent
and
immigrants,
religious
large
political European refugees. The
British Isles constituted
the greatest source at the time, accounting
for 1.75
as
million individuals,
most of whom settled
farmers. A few hundred thou?
sand
centuries
the northern
and southern
of Spain, and
provinces
25,000 came from France to Quebec in Canada, as well as a
to the French
settlements
in Louisiana.
Approximately
arrived
from
approximately
few thousand
100,000 people arrived from Germany

1978:13).
(Bohning,
The second period, which was ushered in at the time of the outbreak
of
World War I and continued
to the close of World War II, witnessed
the
introduction
of a control system regarding

international
migration.
During
In a time
War I, systematic
control was introduced.
immigration
of individuals
which witnessed
the mass mobilization
to fight in the armies
World
of their countries,
and when citizens from other countries
with which one
was at war were often viewed as spies, the passport suddenly became a useful
instrument
for control at the borders.
Once the war was over, the strict
controls
of
remained,
immigration
although
they now had the purpose
tending
to labor
market
the war were
during
Laws which
interests.
Provisional
established
laws which
had been
the various
passed
Alien
through
countries
during the 1920s and
1930s. Due to the massive unemployment
of these decades, demands were
raised for protection
of the domestic workers against foreign competition.
permanently
introduced
in several
from Nazi horrors were

why Jewish refugees
fleeing
in the world, even if antisemitism
nearly all of the countries
to this stand.
contributed
undeniably
World War II and closed in 1973-74,
The third phase began following
This
is one
were
barred
when
reason
from
were taken throughout

Western
immigration
prohibiting
This is once again a period marked by relatively liberal immigration
from a high demand
for a labor force in the
partially resulting
measures
Europe.
control,
industrialized
Western European
states, which often resulted in the direct
of foreign workers. The period is also, however, characterized
influx of refugees from
both by the Cold War, which also led to a tremendous
which
East Germany and the rest of Eastern Europe, and by decolonization,
the
to
the
from
former
colonies
former
resulted in extensive
immigration
recruitment
The
and Portugal.
France, Holland
countries,
namely
England,
labor
force
would
be
at
this
time
that
the
was
immigration
assumption
to
their
home
that
would
soon
return
and
the
immigrants
temporary
mother
1172
countries.
The social infrastructure
families and schools for immigrant
embodied
in residences
for immigrant
children was thus largely neglected.
a
migration
century has experienced
during the twentieth
European
of political action in
dramatic change entailed by the growing significance
the form of political
such as war and the transfer
of ethnic
pressures,
and political control, such as increasingly
national
controls
minorities,
rigid
and emigration
This
over both immigration
1978:64).
(Tilly,
development
in European
still a greater
than does the
migration
represents
change
and transition
to immigration
which has taken place
ceasing of emigration
in the northwestern
region.
to the present and is
The fourth and final phase stretches from 1973-74
characterized
control. Labor force immigration
by rigorous
immigration
has virtually
ceased in all of Western
with the exception
of the
Europe,
number of illegal aliens and a certain amount of seasonal workers
increasing
This does not, however, infer that all immigra?
in, for instance, Switzerland.
tion to Western Europe has come to a standstill. Families are still allowed to
and political
be reunited
continue
to be received,
albeit under
refugees
shrill protest.
Control
over those who claim to be political
increasingly
has thus become
the absolutely
central question,
since all other
refugees
for immigration
have been curbed.
possibilities
can thus be summed
The four periods which have here been described
up as follows:
1) Open
1914).
gate:
Free
immigration
and extensive
and alien control;

restriction
2) Shut gate: Immigration
was
due
which
made
to unemployment
permanent
system
(1914-1945).
free immigration
3) Open gate: Relatively
force
work
(1945-1974).
foreign
4) Shut gate: Strict immigration
and political refugees permitted
control;
(1860-
emigration
a provisional
and racism
and direct recruitment
exclusively
(1974-1980).
family
of a
reuniting
The period which began in the early 1980s, characterized

primarily by a
of
from
increase
the
Third
World
significant
refugee migration
(particularly
from Asia), could possibly be seen as a fifth phase.
Theories
of International
It has been
(Bohning,
in relation
Migration
said that "the history of mankind

is the history of migration"
the
size
of
a
When
becomes
1978:11).
population
overwhelming
to the resources which it has access to, a portion will be forced to
1173
seek a livelihood
a development
which contributes
to
elsewhere,
entailing
and
and
1932
Kulischer,
1938;
changes
developments
(cf.,
Tagil,
. . . had an important
role in human
1990:60).
(and
"Roving behavior
evolution.
Humankind
could
not
have
become
the
prehuman)
earth-gir?
that followed success?
dling, dominant
species we are without the migration
social
ful discovery
of new possibilities
made manifest by such roving" (McNeill,
In
the
to
ambition
fact,
1978:3).
improve material conditions
appears to be
a central explanatory
of migration.
Statistician
factor for the very existence
a
who was one of the first to attempt
to formulate
E. G. Ravenstein,
model to explain migration
the weight
theoretical
in the 1880s, underlined
factors
of economic
in explaining
the scope
of migration:
Bad or oppressive laws, heavy taxation, an unattractive climate, uncongenial

social surroundings,
all
and even compulsion (slave trade, transportation),
have produced and are still producing currents of migration, but none of
these currents can compare in volume with that which arises from the desire
inherent in most men to "better" themselves in material respects. (Hamberg,
1976:5)
There
economic
is also a particular
factors as central.
trend
within
research which views

migration
have studied the way in which
have over time been influenced
by
Researchers
fluctuations
in the scope of migration
conditions
in both the country of origin and the receiving
economic
country.
The classic work in this trend is Harry Jerome's Migration and Business Cycles
data on the scope of
(1926). In this work, Jerome
compared
chronological
from
various
countries
to
the
United
States
with those reflect?
immigration
ing the state of the market in both the United States and the home country.
in the
concluded
that with a certain time-lag,
economic
conditions
States acted as the dominant
the
of
influence
scope
determining
Jerome
United
and that pull factors were thus stronger than push factors (Ham?
migration
berg, 1976:7).
An exaggerated
factors has, however, been
emphasis on narrow economic
which
has in its turn claimed
criticized in subsequent
research,
migration
that a number of alternative
factors were neglected
in the exclusive
empha?
sis on economic
causes. Such other factors include, for instance, the level of
and the fact that educated
had a higher
education
individuals
apparently
the
to relocate
industrialized
Furthermore,
(Lucas, 1981:86).
tendency
this
although
put a stop to all import ofworkers
by the mid-1970s,
have continued
would
to be economically
(Cohen,
profitable
process
1987:138).
involve those which are
Still other factors which have been highlighted
on migration.
linked to what may be called an "investment
perspective"
countries
According
to this view,
migration
is a phenomenon
which
is costly
for the
1174
and a minimum
of three types of costs is usually distinguished:
individual,
oneself
while seeking
1) the travel cost itself, 2) the costs of supporting
in
new
and
the
of being
the
strains
3)
employment
country,
psychological
away from family and friends for an extended
period of time. This lastof migration
back to the
named cost is that which explains the phenomenon
of
country
origin (Lucas, 1981:86).
of the "investment
One consequence
with
theory" is that individuals
would have the highest
fortunate
economic
circumstances
ten?
relatively
on
of
Since
it
will
to
embark
the
take
migration.
necessarily
dency
project
a certain amount of time for the migrant to reprocure
that which he spent
offers
up front for the migration
process itself, the investment
perspective
an economically
for the fact that migration
is most
fully rational explanation
among younger people. Thus, the fact that younger people move
more often than older ones is not necessarily
because they are more restless,
active and psychologically
mobile (Lucas, 1981:87).
Another and more fundamental
critique has in later years been directed
common
oriented
researchers
eco?
by structurally
migration
against the traditional,
and
has
attacked
the
oriented
theories
narrow
nomically
push/pull
overly
focus
Portes has emphasized

that
Alejandro
for
such
as
to
different
reasons,
certainly migrate
escape hunger
to obtain riches and social status, to improve condi?
or political oppression,
tions for their children,
etc. Portes claims that there is indeed
nothing
of these motives and presenting
them collec?
than
all
simpler
assembling
on individual
forces.
driving
individuals
However, the problem is that such a "theory"

tively as a theory of migration.
is of little value in explaining
movements
of a given size
why population
and direction emerge with predictable
can
regularity. Individual aspirations
therefore
only explain why certain people choose to act and reflect one part
of a larger phenomenon,
itself (Portes,
yet cannot explain the phenomenon
1981:280;
Cohen, 1987:40).
been criticized
theories have furthermore
The traditional
for
push/pull
of various state and other types of institu?
or stimulate
the
policy to either impede
theories tend to treat both obstacles and delib?
the significance
largely ignoring
tions which conduct
an active
flow. Traditional
migration
erate recruitment
as no more
equations,
absolutely
accordance
in otherwise
than minor aberrations
elegant
of value judgments,
regarding
supply and demand on an
free market. The assumption
is thus that the migrants
act in
able to
with a rational world model where they are completely
devoid
freely weigh the pros and cons of any given decision. However, it is obvious
that choices of whatever
nature can be made only within the framework
of
available
where
options.
opportunities
is equally true of choices concerning

migration,
are clearly restricted by factors such as access to work
This

and housing,
1175
the different
costs, international
transportation
legislation,
of
states
and
for
various
documents
such
requirements
policies
visas and work permits. The individual's
decision to emigrate
immigration
as passports,
cannot be separated
is reached
migration
1986:13-16).
from the institutional

(Zolberg,
1981:3-4;
context
Cohen,
in which
the decision
1987:35-36;
on
Jackson,
of the traditional
come under fire
theory have furthermore
Proponents
for having one-sidedly
concentrated
on either the push or the pull factors
of migration.
since the countries
This is hardly surprising,
experiencing
on push-factors,
while the opposite
emigration
support research focusing
holds true of the receiving countries.
Critics argue that in order to construct
a truly fruitful theory of migration,
it is necessary to view the home countries
and the receiving countries as a whole, with structural factors acting on both
sides (Cohen, 1987:38-39;
Erickson,
1970:26-27).
at formulating
a
Everett S. Lee made an early attempt
Demographer
all of the listed factors
model which takes into consideration
migration
Lee
and process of migration
behind the decision
(Lee, 1969:282-297).
four groups: 1) Factors correlated
structures these factors into the following
to the receiving area; 3) inhibiting
to the area of origin; 2) Factors correlated
to
factors such as distances and institutional
hindrances
(including
this
third
factor
in
and
factors.
The
model,
4) personal
namely
migration);
to migra?
the obstacles,
hindrances
represented
primarily
by institutional
tion embodied
in state-conducted
migration
policy, has been increasingly
obstacles
emphasized
migration
A leading
oriented
in modern,
more structurally
research.
has depicted
the role of the state in international
researcher
states are acting in fact to

in the following
manner:
"National
migration
or impel, to guide or force the movement
inhibit or prevent, to encourage
is now everywhere
of people in such a way that 'international
migration
orientations'"
also Petersen,
dominated
1981:321-322;
(Tomasi,
by policy
44
in
of
all
In
for
instance,
1969,
1978)
foreign workers
percent
Germany
contracts which
in the country had been recruited via official government
even allowed
worker
come
for deportation
to constitute
back to the country of origin should the foreign

state. All sovereign
on the receiving
a burden
states hold the absolute right to single- handedly decide which and how many
accepted both within
foreign citizens to receive, and this right is generally
on
international
law and in political practice. Thus, the UN Declaration
all individuals
the right to freely leave their home
Human Rights guarantees
(Hammar,
yet not the right of free entry into other countries
of
are
within
theories
1981:6).
migration
Developments
Zolberg,
to
assess
of
the
of
we
to
the
if
are
history
migration
significance
important
theories
The trend is one toward more complex
the future of migration.
countries,
1990:9;
1176
and increased
in discussing
the factors which trigger migra?
sophistication
this is a generally
it further accentu?
tion. Although
positive development,
and risks involved in drawing conclusions
ates the difficulties
the
regarding
future on the basis of historical experience.
POSTWAR
The Four
INTERNATIONAL
Phases
of European
MIGRATION
Postwar
IN
EUROPE
Migration
is without question
of particular
The history of postwar migration
signifi?
cance to an understanding
of the present situation and future developments
A closer look at migration
movements
within migration.
in Europe
is
We
can
and
examine
diverse
variable
thereby
rewarding.
especially
push
and pull factors; register different methods employed
by European
govern?
and guiding the immigrant
ments in controlling
flow; observe the miscal?
culations which were made, and also note the often drastic changes which
took place in both the scope and make-up of the immigrant
flow. These are
of great interest
our
of what
all phenomena
concerning
understanding
the
and
of
the
of
future
related
thereto.
may bring
migrations
problems
The Problem with the Millions Uprooted by the War.
The period 1945-1955:
Beginnings of the Labor Migrations to Northwestern Europe. The great migration
waves in postwar Europe have proceeded
in four distinct phases. The first
in the fact that it did not simply consist of labor
phase was particular
of the formidable
but, rather, and in fact predominantly,
popu?
migrations
lation
transfers
which were the direct result of the war. In the late 1940s
and
extensive
however,
migration
began from southern
Europe,
toward
the
industrialized
Switzerland
and
Swe?
northwest.
primarily
Italy,
den were initially the main receiving
and
France
En?
countries,
although
this
and
to
the
end
also
of
the
1950s,
phase
gland
up
figured. During
Italy
alone stood for approximately
half of the bulk of the labor migrations
north.
workers from Turkey, while
By the late 1940s, France also began recruiting
the 1950s with the assim?
West Germany remained
preoccupied
throughout
ilation of several million Germans from the east, both those who had been
substan?
in connection
with the end of the war and the continuing
expelled
tial influx from East Germany.
early
1950s,
miscalculation
In this context, we can note an interesting
due partially to
and
historical analogies.
the West?
Experts
politicians
throughout
that overpopulation
ern world were convinced
Western
represented
and
could
resolve
main
that
this
problem,
emigration
Europe's
allegedly
incorrect
urgent
question.
An organ
specifically
designed
to secure
this
aim,
the
1177
Committee
for European
(ICEM), was created.
Migration
to be Western Europe's great problem,
and
from a labor shortage.
This misperception,
and unemployment
unbear?
namely the fear of overpopulation
exercising
able pressure on the social structure, is, however, not difficult to understand,
International
Overpopulation
many countries
did not prove

in fact suffered
in West Germany.
The war had
the circumstances
considering
particularly
of 12 million Germans
from previously
German
resulted in the expulsion
areas in the East and from other countries
where these individuals
had
ended up in West
a minority.
Two thirds of these expellees
A
in
census
1950
indicated
that
population
Germany
(Sjoberg, 1991:154).
of 47.7 million, 9.6 million inhabitants
out of a population
had arrived in
the war, with 4.4 million having resided
West Germany during or following
constituted
in the eastern sections of the German Reich in 1939 and another 3.6 having
lived outside of its borders. One million had arrived from the Soviet zone
of
which later became the DDR, and half a million were previous residents
and so-called zone refugees had, by 1956,
Berlin. The number of expellees
increased by 2.3 million and now constituted
nearly one fourth of the total
population
(Rystad,
1991:94).
Labor Migration Reaches Massive Proportions in Step with the Indus1955-1973:

trial Expansion in Northern and Northwestern Europe. The second phase contin?
ued up to 1973 and entailed extensive
labor migration
from the Mediter?
ranean
area to the industrialized
movement
to the
traveled
countries
industries
of northwestern
which
were
Europe. This
and
expanding
could
countries
partly
force beyond
that which their native
to the service sector where immigrants
took
a labor
required
over the rela?

partly
branches.
within, i.e., the hotel and restaurant
tively low-waged
positions
in this case, the former in unemploy?
Both push and pull factors operated
in earning a living, the latter in the employment
ment and the difficulties
in
the
countries.
The reconstruction
and industrial
receiving
opportunities
provide,
expansion
the labor
of northwestern
Europe
increased
escalated
both in tempo
The
and scope,
and
was
problem
particularly
shortage
accordingly.
which began recruiting
before
"guestworkers"
tangible in West Germany,
of the Berlin Wall in August 1961
the close of the 1950s, and the erection
put an end to the influx of a work force from East Germany.
New
countries
provement
groups
slavia,
began
of economic
arriving
to emerge
conditions
as labor
since the im?

suppliers
during the 1960s. The new
force
in Italy
came primarily
in West Germany
were
labor import agreements
although
countries,
including
Portugal,
port of Italians was replaced
from Turkey and Yugo?

reached
with other
also
Greece, Morocco and Tunisia. France's im?

with that of Spaniards
and North Africans,
1178
By the end of the 1960s, France and West Germany could

mainly Algerians.
thus accounting
each count about 2.5 million foreign workers,
for 10-12
of
of
the
total
labor
force.
The
labor
is
development
migration
percent
in Table 1 (Rystad, 1991:94).
illustrated
Work Permits
Granted
Total
176
152
333
436
514
516
638
713
595
286
522
860
946
767
Year
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972_623_195_161_
TABLE 1
to Foreign Workers
in the EC 1958-1972
(in Thousand)
From EC Countries
110
94
207
229
222
182
190
261
213
96
164
166
205
198
Thereof from Italy~~

85
73
171
206
199
158
164
235
189
75
142
145
176
166
The EC comprised six states through 1972 and nine states thereafter.
Note:
Halting of Labor Migration Following the Oil Crisis. The Number of

to Increase Due to the Reuniting of Families. A third phase
Continues
Immigrants
was ushered in by the oil crisis of 1973 and was characterized
by a sharp
of workers.
This period witnessed
in the migration
both the
reduction
a
with
their
families
and
certain
amount
of
earlier
immigrants
integration
of migration
back to the country of origin. The radical change in labor
1973-1985:
migration
1991:94)
which
accompanied
the oil crisis is illustrated
in Table 2 (Rystad,
TABLE 2
EMIGRATIONOF WORKERSTO EUROPEANCOUNTRIESFROMA NUMBER
OF EMIGRATIONCOUNTRIES 1973-1977 (IN THOUSANDS)
Country_1973_1975_
Finland
Greece
Italy
Portugal
Spain
Turkey
Yugoslavia_100.0_1^6_
6.7
8.5
12.4
4.3
50.9
82.6
73.0
96.1
135.8
6.3
10.0
15.6
1179
The Period after 1985: From the Search for Employment to the Search for Asylum.
a change had come about which was to become increas?
By the mid-1980s,
came to a halt, or in any case
labor immigration
While
ingly tangible.
in
remained
limited
relatively
scope, pressure on state borders nevertheless
flow had, however,
The character and make-up of the immigrant
was
now
marked
the
for
and
shifted,
by
growing request
asylum which also
the immigrants
in
the
which
was accompanied
a
from
change
country
by
continued.
came.
Another
illegal
migration.
Two
Models
Permanent
new element
during
of Immigration
Residence
this period
was the increasing
The Rotation
Policy:
Principle
scope
of
and
in postwar
policy have been pursued
types of immigration
the
which
entailed
One
was
the
so-called
rotation
system,
Europe.
employ?
who were granted only temporary
ment of guestworkers
residence
in the
Two distinct
is thus viewed as a means of satisfying

receiving country. Labor immigration
short- term variations
in the demands
of industry. The receiving
countries
in this case have not been interested
in supporting
the immigration
of entire
families, but rather have sought out young, single males who were given
on an annual basis. When economic
generally
permits,
and
no
changed
longer required or could no longer support an
in the hope
labor
contracts were not renewed
force,
foreigners'
immigrant
work force from unemployment
of protecting
the native
(Hammar,
the
often
has
been
authorities
1985:249-262).
encouraged
by
Emigration
work
temporary
conditions
which sought
and possible
of the supplying
countries,
of avoiding unemployment
return
home
of a trained
to the industrialized
as much
facilitated
labor
countries
force.
to draw the short-term
benefits
long-term
Many of the workers
also intended
to return
home
advantages
in the eventual
who emigrated
after earning
and this attitude

often
as possible
in as little time as possible,
such a policy. The rotation system has been implemented
primar?
and less consistently

(Hammar,
by West Germany
ily by Switzerland,
1985:249-268).
and migration
researcher
Aristide Zolberg argues
American
sociologist
that the guestworker
policy
the fundamental
dilemma
as an answer to
be understood
may generally
democratic
industrialized
the
states,
facing
access to labor on the one hand and to preserve

integrity on the other. Zolberg contends that only a limited number
one being to
the most common
of solutions
to this question are available,
the
toward
economic
direct the immigrant
exclusively
sphere of society by
namely,
cultural
the wish to maximize
strengthening
the obstacles
to citizenship
(Zolberg,
1981:15-16).
The most
1180
notorious expression
of this policy is found in extreme segregation,
of which
is
the
South
Africa
foremost
A
similar
the Apartheid
of
system
example.
in the policy of excluding
solution is employed
certain specific groups from
toward Asians
which, for instance, the United States conducted
citizenship,
for over half a century. According
to Zolberg, the guestworker
policy falls
albeit in a far less extreme
this same category of solutions,
form. In
have attempted
to solve the
at least one case, namely Japan, the authorities
areas within the region instead
by exporting
capital to low-wage
problem
under
of by importing
labor.
The other type of immigration
era has been oriented
postwar
in the
policy which has been implemented
toward immigration
with the intent of
residence
and ultimate integration
of the individual.
This policy
permanent
has been adopted primarily by both Great Britain and Sweden, although for
France may be said to have assumed
reasons.
a position
quite different
mentioned
between the two types of immigration
policy
(Rystad, 1991:99).
of
the
so-called
Switzerland
a
rotation
provides
system or
good example
a
has
tradition
of
The
a
long
policy.
country
guestworker
comprising
The number
of such individuals
amount
of foreign
citizens.
in
1950.
Ten
in
Switzerland
reached
285,000
years later, the figure
residing
to 585,000
and in 1974, over a million individuals
of foreign
had increased
be
of
these
could
with
over
half
Italian.
Yet
counted,
being
citizenship
despite
significant
is not considered
these statistics, Switzerland
by the Swiss to be a country of
One
of
and "foreign?
immigrants.
speaks
"foreign workers," "guestworkers"
is
thus
seen
ers" etc. rather than of "immigrants."
Immigration
purely as an
to the economic
interests of
modified strictly according
question,
has been consciously
formulated
to regulate
the country. Alien legislation
in order to prevent
and the length of residence
the number of foreigners
is
an
or
what
to
be
of
high percentage
perceived
unacceptably
uberfremdung,
economic
in the population
The authori?
1978:94).
(Hoffmann-Nowotny,
foreigners
a
of granted
ties control immigration
maximum
number
by determining
residence
must
be
residence
the
Furthermore,
permit
regularly
permits.
of foreign workers should this be
which allows for a reduction
renewed,
1985:206Nowotny,
judged to be in the interest of the country (Hoffmann236; Rystad, 1991:96-97).
Great Britain represents
main category of immigration

policy
in the postwar era, namely that with the intent of permanent
implemented
of the immigrant.
residence
and eventual
Great Britain has
integration
which is natural in light
been viewed as a land of emigration,
traditionally
the second
as well as the country's role

of the empire and the British Commonwealth
in the building
and development
of North America.
Still, during the first
from
decade after World War I, no less than 2 million individuals
emigrated
1181
can be mea?
Great Britain. During the 1930s, however, a net immigration
World War II again experienced
a signifi?
sured, while the years following
to
Australia.
cant level of emigration,
primarily
recruitment
of a labor
World War II brought with it the rather extensive
the West Indies, partially to work in
force from Africa, Asia and especially
of
these foreigners
remained
in Great
defense industries.
Many
the
Britain despite attempts
to repatriate
and
this
became
them,
spring?
board for an increasingly
extensive
immigration,
again also largely from
the British
flow was soon followed by others, trig?

This immigration
events
the Commonwealth,
such as in India,
off
in
in
gered
part by political
Pakistan and later Kenya and other areas. Approximately
500,000 so-called
or immigrants
from the Common?
"New Commonwealth"
immigrants,
the West Indies.
wealth
who were not of British descent, arrived in Great Britain by 1962.

who came to be reunited
with
They were later joined by family members
them (Layton-Henry,
1985:89-126).
from the
There was no functioning
system of control over immigration
Commonwealth
colonies
from both the British

from 1948 to 1962, since immigrants
countries were British citizens. Legislation
restric?
in 1962, and controls have since become increasingly
and the Commonwealth
was introduced
tive. In fact, British alien legislation

has been directed precisely at prevent?
colonies
and Commonwealth
countries
from
those
in
the
ing
residing
The
new
British
was
toward
full
geared
receiving
citizenship.
legislation
limiting
the
of nonwhite
Commonwealth
members
while
immigration
a
liberal
towards
those
of
British
descent.
retaining
policy
Act in 1981, individuals
Since the passing
of the British Nationality
no longer hold British citizenship.
The law
residing in the Commonwealth
between
three types of citizenship.
The first group comprises
distinguishes
British
citizens
either
born in Great Britain
of British
to certain
have
according
acquired
citizenship
to freely
who are permitted
only individuals
Britain or in other EC countries.
in the "British
Individuals
with citizenship
into
given
establish
citizens
rules.
residence
Dependent
and lack the right to immigrate
category
in Great Britain. A current and controversial
the second
residence
policy lies with the question

residents
will not be allowed
transferred
British
to China
descent
who
are the
in Great
Territories"
fall
to and establish
example
of this
of the Crown
Colony of Hong Kong, whose

to Great Britain when the colony is
those of
A third and final group comprises
to move
in 1997.
who reside
or those
These
in the Commonwealth
countries
and who have
never
given up their British citizenship.

In terms of possible future migration
nated by the 1981 British
Nationality
the second group desig?

patterns,
Act, namely that of "British Dependent
1182
is of the greatest
Territories,"
against the 5-6 million Hong
in England.
right of residence
interest.
The
Chinese
Kong
law was primarily

targeted
individuals
who demanded
the
During the debate which accompanied
the
British
denied
government
adamantly
passing
that the law was in any way racist and pointed out that its terms applied
of the Falkland Islands. However,
the Falkequally to the white residents
to deny
lands War broke out a year later, and this event made it impossible
of the 1981
legislation,
in England if they so wished.

the right to establish residence
was thus discretely removed from Falkland passports, while
it remained
for those of the Hong Kong Chinese.
France has assumed a position in between
the two types of immigration
the
here
described,
namely,
guestworker
policy (rotation
system)
policies
residence
and the permanent
policy. France has long been a receiving
these islanders
The restriction
low birthrate since 1800 which

due in part to the significantly
in bouts of notable labor shortages.
The twentieth
century
country,
resulted
has
has
two periods of particularly

extensive
immigration,
namely, the
and the years between
1956 and 1972. World War I had resulted in
witnessed
1920s
for with new additions

losses which needed to be compensated
population
in France increased
from abroad, and the number of immigrants
from 1.5
million
to 2.7 million in a matter of ten years. Although
World War II
a tremendous
loss of human life, a net surplus of immi?
be
about ten years after the war. Between
not
counted
until
grants
1956 and 1961, over 400,000 "permanent"
workers arrived to France. Most
of these were French citizens returning
from French possessions
or Algeri?
likewise
entailed
could
French citizenship.
A stream of immigrants
was
in 1962, but significant
as Algeria became independent
numbers
triggered
as well, and half a million immigrants
could
arrived from other countries
be counted in that year alone (Verbunt, 1985:127-164).
ten years, and
The French economy
expanded
during the following
ans who at the time carried
annual
rose to an average of 130,000. A substantial

immigration
portion of
consisted
of unskilled
this immigration
workers from Portugal and North
Africa. However,
a quota for Algerians
was established
through an agree?
in 1968 and, in 1973,
ment between
the French and Algerian governments
to France due to the discrimina?
Algeria decided to halt all labor migration
tion
and
racism
miserable
social
The economic
to and because
were subjected
Algerians
conditions
in which they were made to live.
which
crisis of the 1970s
it did for the remaining

European
in
1974
and,
stopped
completely
entailed
a drastic
change
countries.
receiving
with efforts which
of the
in France,
as
was
Immigration
included
financial
to return to their home coun?

were encouraged
compensation,
immigrants
also sought to drive out the immigrants
tries. The authorities
by making
1183
more difficult in various ways. Attempts to imple?

and the number
unsuccessful,
were,
however,
relatively
repatriation
are said
the
statistics
of immigrants
did not decline significantly.
Although
resided
to be inexact, an official report stated that 3.68 million foreigners
of 796,000
in France in 1982, comprised
765,000
Algerians,
Portuguese,
Italians
and 321,000
Moroccans,
334,000
431,000
Spaniards
(Rystad,
their residence
in France
ment
1991:99).
The French immigration
policy may be said to hold internal contradic?
in driving out
tions. On the one hand, harsh methods have been employed
to
considered
undesirable
due
social
who
were
misadaptation
immigrants
an economic
constituted
asset. On the other hand, a
or who no longer
both the reuniting
of
regarding
relatively
positive attitude has prevailed
of relatives to "permanent"
families through the immigration
immigrants
of immigrants
who had resided in the country at
and to the naturalization
to the loyal and socially adapted.
least five years, given that they belonged
The lack of a well thought out immigrant
policy allowed for an extensive
a
flow
for
and unmonitored
immigrant
lengthy period, and grave social
resulted.
itself in France
Racism
has manifested
have
problems
thereby
and has also been
countries
more severely
than in most other European
fear
political parties. Besides the common
ruthlessly exploited
by extremist
of competition
in the labor
itself in an
factor manifests
market, another
in
the
of any
France, namely
rejection
unusually
dogmatic
high degree
Cultural
in
a
multicultural
assimilation
of
is,
society.
reality, a
thoughts
for acceptance,
and the fact that a significant
number
fundamental
condition
are Muslim constitutes
a particular problem. The poorer
of the immigrants
to both France
countries of North Africa are the source of much immigration
and Spain.
The Failure
of the Rotation
System
The development
which has entailed large foreign populations
residing
countries
most of the Western European
today was in no way foreseen
in
in
in the 1960s. The guestworker

the wake of the great labor migrations
system
were based on the so-called
and rotation principle
"buffer theory," which
would be modified according to cyclical
assumed that the scope of migration
In other
of the receiving
countries.
in the market economies
fluctuations
in times of economic
and
should be accessible
words, migrants
growth
decline (Salt,
demand for labor, yet would return home in times of economic
1981:145).
this system did not function
In reality, however,
(Hammar,
correctly
recession
linked to the 1973 oil crisis put an
The economic
1985:292-304).
end to large
scale immigration.
The industrialized
countries
were
hit by a
1184
and thus implemented

level of unemployment
restrictive
immi?
significant
labor
was
reduced
after
sharply
gration
policies.
Although
immigration
and the rest of industrialized
1973 in France, West Germany
Western
continued
due to the reuniting
amount of immigration
Europe, a significant
of families which was still largely permitted.
The immigration
of family
to France, for instance, was in 1975-77
double that of workers.
members
of origin was
of guestworkers
to return to their countries
The reluctance
them
was
due
to
the
fact
that
not, to the
among
unemployment
partially
it
host
of
than
was
the
among
many, higher
country's population.
surprise
One factor behind this was that foreign workers were primarily recruited to
avoided for various reasons, such
perform jobs which the native population
as low wages, unclean or heavy duties or hazardous
conditions.
The rising
educational
standard
of living and the increasing
in the
opportunities
countries
industrialized
such
work, which
accept
less likely to
further made the native population
was instead taken by immigrants.
This resulted in
unevenly distributed in the economy. Since the jobs which
immigrants
being
those which disappeared
in times
held were not necessarily
the immigrants
of economic
the
labor
force
was
not
affected
as
crisis,
foreign
harshly as
have been the case.
would otherwise
in the immigrant
flow distinguishes
One model which tracks changes
between
four phases. Initially, the immigrant
flow consists of young, single
men arriving for shorter stays. Eventually,
however, both married and older
men are included in this stream and the period of stay becomes
longer.
Families arrive from the home country and are reunited with the immi?
begins to fade and, in
grants in the third phase. The thought of repatriation
the fourth
and final phase, the immigrant

into the host society.
of this model is confirmed
establishes
permanent
residence
and integrates
The validity
of the 1970s,
by the developments
recession was largely
where the exit of foreign workers during the economic
of family members
of those remaining.
balanced by the immigration
How?
countries proceeded
ever, an exodus from the traditional
parallel
receiving
of family members,
to the immigration
during the late 1970s,
particularly
in certain
the level of immigration
and at times in fact overwhelmed
countries.
The Import
of Labor
and
Possible
Alternatives
thus chose to solve the problem

of a
countries
The industrially
expansive
of
the
extensive
force.
This
demand
for
labor
a
work
rising
by
import
were contro?
and its consequences
solution was in no way uncomplicated,
to grasp for both the receiving
and the supplying
versial and difficult
available to the industrial states
countries. Were there indeed no alternatives
1185
and development
Europe in their reconstruction
program?
Robin Cohen (1987:131-132,
researcher
157) points out four
Migration
while underlining
other theoretical
that other types of prob?
possibilities,
lems may well have resulted from these.
could have used to full advantage
First, employers
groups which had
of northwestern
in the production
of goods. The existing
labor
marginal
have been exploited
to a higher
for
through,
degree
of working
hours. Third, companies
could have
the extension
and other labor- saving measures.
more heavily in automatization
previously
force also
instance,
invested
been
could
to developing
countries
with a
capital could have been exported
force
work
(Cohen, 1987:117).
cheaper
There are, however, complications
with these theoretical
First,
options.
Cohen points out that there was no possibility
of absorbing
a superfluous
Finally,
number
of farmers
reached
the final
in the production
process, since Europe had already
urbanization.
Women
phase in the course of historical
could not be drawn into the process either, since this measure would lack
of the worker would
the degree of exploitation
popular support. Increasing,
only sharpen class conflict and was hardly politically viable.
would have been of limited effect
increased
automatization
a measure
The solution
of
only, since such

and undesirable
tasks.
would
not significantly
affect low-wage
has been an in?
to
however,
countries,
Exporting
capital
underdeveloped
in the sophisti?
the
creasingly
years, particularly
popular strategy through
cated electronic
Yet
this
solution
is
in the
functional
industry.
primarily
of
which
could
be
production
nonbulky
goods
inexpensively
transported.
The
was thus that those industries

which were then in the most
problem
acute need of a labor force, such as the medical services and the construction
industry, were not easily movable (Cohen, 1987:118-127).
there were tangible gains to be had through the import
Simultaneously,
of the necessary
labor force. One advantage
was that many of the immi?
and
could thus begin to work
were
in
their
most
ages
grants
productive
to
the
and
thus
benefited
the country
country,
immediately
upon arriving
having cost society in the form of training or other social expenses.
constituted
to the English journal The Economist, immigrants
According
by
far the best labor force: they were young, active and mobile on the labor
without
to care for. The Economist also sympand they had fewer relations
not on general idealistic or humanitarian
criticized xenophobia,
tomatically
and rational reasons namely that
grounds, but rather for purely economic
market
an artificial obstacle
represented
xenophobia
factors of production
(Cohen, 1987; 134).
The question
of which social and economic
had on the supplying
countries
has in recent
to the free
effects
labor
years been
mobility
of the
has
emigration
debated at length
1186
researchers.
Those who promote
the import of labor
among
migration
and the supplying
argue that the benefits are mutual for both the receiving
countries
have experienced
low growth in
The industrialized
countries.
and labor force during the postwar period,
terms of both total population
countries
have witnessed
while the supplying
with
high growth combined
and a general shortage of jobs.
unemployment
the claim to mutual benefit
Yet there is cause to be skeptical regarding
of a labor force to
countries.
The import
for receiving
and supplying
were largely
Western Europe has in fact shown that those who emigrated
than on the
individuals with better training and greater working experience
less
did
not
come
from
or
and
the
thus
average,
unemployed
professionally
skilled
circles.
of a work force may entail the significant

loss
the emigration
Although
it is unlikely that this type of migration
of a valuable resource,
will, in the
taken by the supplying
future, be impeded by measures
country. There is a
for this and, as long as the receiving
lack of effective instruments
countries
to flow. It is clear, however,
open, the stream will continue
of the receiving
shall determine
the scope and
countries
of
this
The
will
not
be
to
immigration.
gates
just anyone, and
make-up
open
will
We
instead
a
no unrestricted
take
place.
may
expect
immigration
dimensioned
the
selective
and
modified
to
labor
according
immigration,
countries.
market needs of the receiving
keep their gates

that the actions
Illegal
Immigration
are generally
distinguished
residents,
workers,
migration:
permanent
temporary
The two latter groups remain to be discussed.
aliens and refugees.
is without question
one of the most sensitive
Illegal immigration
As has been
international
mentioned,
four
groups
within
illegal
issues
it is
alien policy (Keely and Elwell,
in American
1981:186).
Although
that anywhere
between
to ascertain exact figures, it is estimated
impossible
States (Tomasi,
reside in the United
2 to 12 million illegal immigrants
American
authorities
are thus faced with the
Cohen,
1981:321;
1987:57).
and there are several dimen?
problem of limiting this type of immigration,
to this dilemma.
are faced with the practical problem of guarding the
First, the authorities
demarcates
over 3,000 km. long border with Mexico, which furthermore
from one of the richest. Secondly, how
one of the world's poorest countries
10 million businessmen,
students and
are they to prevent the approximately
sions
border from illegally remaining

tourists who annually cross the American
visas (Reimers,
of
their
in the country
the
expiration
upon
temporary
of
the
seek
the
interest
who
The
1985:205)?
advantages
groups
exploiting

cheap
labor
force
problem.
After nearly
Immigration
comprehensive
IRCA's main
made
up of illegal
immigrants
constitute
1187
yet another
six years of debate and controversy,

Congress
passed the
Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986. It meant the most
revision
of U.S. immigration
policy since 1965. One of
portunities
is to curtail illegal immigration.

objectives
By penalizing
who knowingly
hire undocumented
workers,
employment
op?
for illegal aliens would be reduced,
at least to some extent
removing
the
employers
incentive
for workers
to enter
the
United
States
without
(Bean, Vernez and Keely, 1989:3).

proper documentation
who
to
fail
status of each person they
verify the employment
Employers
hire face in each case fines from $250 to $10,000,
and repeaters
could be
to six months in jail. The law also contains a clause prohibiting
discrimination
based on national origin or citizenship
status.
employment
IRCA has twin pillars. One is sanctions,
the other is legalization.
The law
extends amnesty to millions of illegal aliens who had resided in the United
sentenced
States
since
legalization
ment.
1, 1982.
January
with a guestworker
IRCA
combines
program
sanctions
and
employer
and with great border enforce?
Already at the time that IRCA was enacted, doubts were voiced whether
the law would have the intended
effect. Much would depend on whether or
enforced.
not the law would be effectively
In 1971, California
had passed
which
from
labor force
a
legislation
prohibited
employers
consciously
hiring
which lacked the legal right to reside in the United States. Ten years later,
not one employer
had been
virtually
impossible.
IRCA will do nothing
of employers
is
prosecuted.
Policing millions
defense
that the
Immigrant
groups have predicted
to solve the long-term
causes of illegal immigration
States but will accelerate

in hiring
ethnic-based
discrimination
on the border has not diminished.
(Kleinman,
1987:2). And the pressure
More than one million illegal aliens were apprehended
in both 1989 and
1990 (James, 1991:24).
of illegal immigration
The problem
not restricted
to the
is, however,
United States. Migration
researcher
Kritz
has
a
number
out
Mary
pointed
to the United
of general
factors which contribute
to explaining
the population
flow
between different countries. Among these factors are the significant
discrep?
economic
ancies in different
countries'
the fact that borders
development;
are relatively
easy to cross; that countries differ widely from one another in
terms of standard of living, population
density and population
growth; that
methods
well-established
and
routes
are
transportation
inexpensive
enough
to be made use of by a large portion of the population
in a region; and the
fact that earlier
migration
has created
social
networks
with fellow
country-
1188
men
who
aid in hiding illegal immigrants

and in providing
economic
until
the
individual
in
has
found
Given
this
question
employment.
support
it is hardly surprising
that the bulk of illegal immigrants
in the
situation,
in the states of Texas, Florida and California
United States is concentrated
and in cities such as New York and Chicago (Reimers,
1985:217).
This state of affairs maybe
to the significant
compared
group of illegal
is
case
in France. As
the
in the United
States, it is
residing
immigrants
but a general
numbers,
figure of 30 percent
statistics is commonly
Since
given.
approximately
exist in France, the calculation
4 million legal immigrants
gives a figure of
who are overwhelmingly
over one million illegal immigrants?individuals
impossible
calculated
to establish
fixed
off the official
and in a constantly
vulnerable
against, exploited
position.
work force is inexpensive
and practical, since individuals
may
be fired upon convenience,
and authorities
will ignore the issue as long as
this labor force does not compete
with the native one. This system has
discriminated
The illegal
reached such a scope that significant

amounts of capital are transferred
from
the regulated
to
these
sectors.
economy
grey
In pertaining
analyses, the labor market in postindustrial
society is often
divided into two main sections based on features such as social status, general
of permanent
conditions
and the degree
In this
working
employment.
the
the
half
bilevel labor market,
in
are protected by trade
upper
employees
unions while those in the lower half, where the illegal immigrants
are found,
are left virtually without security (Richmond,
1981:302).
In an analysis of labor immigration
to the capitalist economies,
in which
constitutes
a significant
element,
immigration
Alejandro
a
labor market immigration"
thus
(1981)
distinguishes
"primary
The latter category comprises
"secondary labor market immigration."
illegal
tasks which
require no previous
hold no advancement
experience;
jobs, which
economic
fluctuations.
employer
conditions
finds himself
due to his precarious

the individual
is thus able to force
which the native work force would
and
those
these
are typically low-wage

and are highly sensitive
to
opportunities
This type of immigration
is not controlled
is
The
main
since
it
generally
illegal.
advantage
gration laws,
of the employer
is the vulnerable
situation in which
perspective
immigrant
Portes
by immi?
from the
the illegal
the law. The
position vis-a-vis
to accept wages and working
refuse. There are no advance?
ment opportunities
for this type of a workforce which is employed
primarily
for temporary
and seasonal work. This immigration
does not only, or indeed
even
to the native labor force, but also as a

primarily, act as a complement
workforce
is employed
factor:
the
disciplining
foreign
despite
existing
access to the native one. The decisive difference
between native and foreign
1189
on wages and working condi?

labor is that the latter places fewer demands
tions, and salaries are thus generally
kept at a low level.
the history
Those investigations
which have been conducted
concerning
of illegal immigration
clearly show that there is a certain collusion between
in the receiving
and interests
the illegal immigrant
country, besides push
and pull factors such as extreme
prosperity.
Putting
poverty and economic
not only
on a larger scale would require
a stop to illegal immigration
but also enforcement
through control over the grey labor mar?
legislation
needed
to
without the political support
is, however,
impossible
master the forces which reap benefits from the illegal immigrants.
that the scope of illegal immigration
There are no indications
suggesting
this phenomenon
is
in the future. As has been mentioned,
will decrease
share
a
border
and
if
if
two
countries
to
difficult
control
long
exceedingly
ket. This
of living and lower

higher standard
enjoys a significantly
there
are
which
than
the
In
other.
fact,
developments
growth
population
which
make
an
in
the
conditions
increase
illegal immigration
possible,
signal
services which render the barrier
within transport
such as developments
This can be seen, for instance,
in
created by long distances less significant.
which has in recent decades traveled from Africa and
the refugee movement
one
country
Asia toward
Forced
Europe.
Migration:
Refugees
and
Expellees
the refugee question have taken place

changes concerning
do not
is
the realization
that refugees
the
few
decades.
One
during
past
issue. The immense
constitute
a temporary
but rather a permanent
refugee
problem which followed World War II was initially perceived as a temporary
within the next few years. The
be resolved
one which would ultimately
Two fundamental
to deal with
and agencies which were established
specifically
organizations
limited
tasks
and
would
cease to
had
the refugee
thus
specified,
question
of
same
was
these
The
exist upon the supposed
assignments.
completion
of
the
this
the
of
transformation
true
in
case
the
UNHCR.
Indeed,
largely
a
with
limited
brief
a
resources,
agency
strictly nonoperational
body from
of today
and rather narrowly defined tasks to the UNHCR
life-expectancy
of the recognition
of
the history of this fundamental
change,
represents
in
which will not disappear
as a permanent
issue and a problem
refugees
future.
the foreseeable
There is now a common
of the
fact
that refugees
today
there
is
simultaneously
problem, yet
should be
how the question
a significant
amount of confusion
concerning
its text
dealt with. States which have signed the same convention
interpret
create
a
conducted
rather
and
the
different
policies
refugee
differently,
constitute
a multifaceted
awareness
international
1190
and confusing
picture. The reasons for this are partly political, as
considerations
often affect refugee policy, partly economic,
foreign policy
and partly related to domestic
How?
policies and national public opinion.
complex
is the origin and historical

important
aspect of the problem
conventions
and practices
related to
of existing
definitions,
background
current refugee policy (Rystad, 1990:8).
was dealt
The manner in which the acute and severe refugee
problem
ever,
one
World War II was, of course, deter?

with during and particularly
following
of the
mined or in any case heavily influenced
by political developments
in
international
law
while
and
classifications
simulta?
definitions
time,
and
neously played their parts. Political factors influenced
legal definitions
was made between
"displaced
persons,"
German actions, had been compelled
who through
to
leave their countries for Germany; "expellees,"
i.e., Germans who had been
forced to leave their former country of residence,
their Heimat, as a result
of military and political developments
and boundary changes in Central and
individuals
who had fled their countries
Eastern Europe; and "Refugees,"
implementations.
namely individuals
on political,
Rehabilitation
displaced
A distinction
or religious
grounds.
Administration
(UNRRA)
not with expellees.
persons,
The
ethnic
The
Nations
Relief
and
itself
with
exclusively
International
Refugee
those displaced persons who

was a possible option for refugees,
who did not wish to be repatriated,
and for
including
displaced
persons,
on the other hand,
arrivals from Eastern Europe.
Expellees,
subsequent
to simply integrate
were not treated as refugees and were instead expected
(IRO's)
Organization's
refused to be repatriated.
into German society.

This categorization
mandate
United
concerned
Resettlement
was clearly based on political

between
a matter of contention
was soon
to become
of World
War II. The Soviet
also chose to remain
was to resettle
outside
Union
refused
of the UNHCR.
considerations,
the victorious
and it
powers
to participate
in the IRO and
There is reason to believe that
in
definition
of the "refugee" concept, which emerged
today's international
influenced
the
confron?
the late 1940s and early 1950s, was significantly
by
tations of the Cold War.
The total number of refugees
existing around the world is indeed enor?
is
mous. Although
estimates
15 million
vary, a figure of approximately
internal
given. The perhaps equally high number of so-called
who have not crossed a national boundary
but who
individuals
refugees,
be
in their own countries,
added
to
exist under refugeelike
conditions
may
commonly
this estimate.
World,
Approximately
in countries
such
80 percent of such refugees reside in the Third

as Sudan,
Pakistan
and Thailand.
Africa, for
1191
but for
accounts for around 10 percent of the world's population,
1992:11-14).
(Otunnu,
nearly 25 percent of its refugees
The final question is thus, what causes refugee waves? There are naturally
a series of various factors behind flight, but an attempt at systematization
of the phenomenon
between
natural disasters such
requires distinguishing
instance,
as earthquakes
or droughts and manmade
disasters such as
In
the
a
UN
1980s,
early
group of government
upheavals.
factors
main
one
into
manmade
flight
general
categories,
factors
war, colonialism,
including
prised precisely political
of minorities,
the violation of human rights,
and oppression
war or political
experts divided
of which
com?
discrimination
and expulsion.
between
these two types of flight factors is that, in the
A crucial difference
soon after the flight
former case, the victim may return home relatively
are generally
drawn out and
to the latter situation
itself, while solutions
obvious
home is then hardly the equally
complicated.
Returning
in
case
of
based
on
manmade
disasters.
the
Furthermore,
flight
flight
option
from
under
are
the
ones
factors
this
last-named
only
resulting
category
status
to
UN's
which grant an individual
the
refugee
refugee
according
more
convention.
has constructed
a much-discussed
model for the catego?
from hunger or
factors, in which refugee waves resulting
are not included
Gordenker
natural
(Gordenker,
1987:64-68).
which
most
four
with
twentieth-century
suggests
general categories
refugee
war.
streams may be understood.
The first category is that of international
and warfare within state boundaries,
The second comprises
disturbances
Leon
rization
Gordenker
of flight
disasters
or a coup d'etat. The third category

civil war, revolution,
which may follow
changes within the social structure,
or a coup d'etat, but also more common
democratic
a revolution
and this may entail

involves
deliberate
not only
elections.
tension.
The
is that of international
and final category
or organizations
with
war-waging,
governments
via
disturbances
in another
country
propaganda
fourth
Political
ing to create
political
attempt?
and other
to international
tension and
methods,
nonmilitary
may directly contribute
is the transmission
of radio
thus trigger refugee waves. A classic example
the
broadcasts
from Radio Free Europe and Voice of America throughout
Cold War, which encouraged
the peoples of Eastern Europe to "vote with
to freedom in the West.
their feet," to flee from Communism
the fact that refugees
often have been
This last-named
aspect illustrates
of foreign
policy, in this case to politically
directly used as instruments
et al.,
another
or another
discredit
(Zolberg,
political
system
country
trait of American
This may be said to have been a distinctive
1986:26-27).
as ideological
refugee
policy after World War II. The use of refugees
weapons
was,
for instance,
the motive
behind
the creation
of USEP,
the
1192
United
States
ican refugee
been forced
Escapee Program of 1952. For years after, refugees in Amer?

been individuals
who fled from or had
policy had primarily
to leave Communist
or Communist-dominated
countries
Loescher and Scanlan, 1986:xviii). It was expressly

(Rystad, 1990:205-210);
of 1965 that the quota for refugees
stated in legislation
first and foremost
from
countries
which
were
individuals
or
"Communist
arriving
designated
"
and the 1980 Immigration
and Nationality
Act
Communistdominated,"
Out of a total of approximately
2
any practical changes.1
which
the
United
States
received
after
World
War
no
II,
refugees
less than 90-95 percent were individuals
fleeing from states with Marxist
did not entail

million
regimes.
There
is no evidence
that any of Gordenker's

four general
indicating
cease
to
or
that
the
exist,
suddenly
refugee problem
will be significantly
mitigated in the near future. In fact, the situation clearly
from the
appears more severe now than it has for some time, particularly
Gordenker
and oth?
(1989:355-371;
1986:170-189)
European
perspective.
ers have discussed various ways of establishing
If
early warning
systems.
causes
for flight should
it might at least be possible

such a system could be effectively
implemented,
It would be better
to anticipate
and thus prepare for the arrival of refugees.
such
make
it
to
to
if
a
could
take
action
a situation
possible
prevent
yet
system
It
will
in
the
future
in
forcible
be
to prior?
migration.
resulting
imperative
of refugee movements
and repatriation
in light of the
itize the prevention
and the risk of future refugee
streams
of
problem
for
methods.
the
difficul?
However,
scope
presently
existing
unmanageable
ties are great, indeed (Coles, 1989:392;
Goodwin-Gill,
1986:229-231).
of
forced
In a survey on different
movements,
types
migration
Guy
has
asserted
that
"where
tension
Goodwin-Gill
and
(1990:34)
political
become
tend
to
insoluble."
are
to
According
rivalry
high, refugee problems
increasing
refugee
true of cases involving

this is particularly
big power interests.
that refugee problems
be
intractable
even if the
may
is
limited
to
the
immediate
actors.
The
fierce
and
disastrous
power struggle
of Yugoslavia
have led
ethnic conflicts which erupted with the disintegration
since World War II and
to an overwhelming
flow of refugees
unparalleled
Goodwin-Gill,
It is, however,
evident
the scope of the problem.

The "ethnic cleansing"
clearly reflected
which has been employed
primarily by the Serbs is one undoubt?
edly frightful element.
between
is important.
In the case of
The distinction
flight and expulsion
have
program
are given no choice and are ordered to leave their

individuals
expulsion,
home country or district. In reality, however, it may be difficult to draw an
One could easily contend
that
absolute line between
flight and expulsion.
The Refugee Act of 1980, however did adopt the UN definition of Refugee.
1193
the situation
in their home country as one which they
interpret
to
flee.
and
choose
Flights on a mass scale, mass expulsions
"voluntarily"
in
mass
transfers
took
connection
the
with
place
organized
population
refugees
various
of the decades
the Balkan War of 1912-1913,

following
of
thousands
of
and
Turks, Greeks, Armenians
many
involving
In
it
is
not
this case,
always easy to distinguish
Bulgarians
(Tagil, 1990:72).
and organized
mass expulsion.
between
movements
refugee
spontaneous
conflicts
hundreds
The Peace
of Neuilly
between
agreements
situation resulting
of 1919,
the Peace of Lausanne

and Greece
of 1923
sanctioned
and bilateral
an existing
and military force. The
at the close of World War II likewise falls
Bulgaria
from the ruthless
largely
use of violence
of millions of Germans
expulsion
minorities
were eliminated
under this same type of policy. German
in
as an integrated
countries
in which they had long existed
part of the
from
German
areas
which
were
and
were
annexed
population
expelled
by
Poland and the USSR.
conducted
If the "ethnic cleansing"
currently being systematically
mainly
by the Serbs continues,
passivity of the outside
and is indeed
sanctioned
and
by the helplessness
a
risk
this
will
is
that
method
world,
tangible
to
other
with
similar
ethnic
in
immense
countries
conflicts, ushering
appeal
has shown that it is remarkably
difficult to
refugee problems.
Experience
in
such
the
which
intervene
yet
consequences
questions,
passivity
effectively
there
would result in are simultaneously

unacceptable.
of the Soviet Union, the ethnic conflicts in the
The political dissolution
and extreme
with acuteecological
problems
newly created states combined
an
ominous
crisis concerning
livelihood,
together
paint
picture of millions
In
various
scenarios
in which the
of refugees
to
Western
traveling
Europe.
question has been
million individuals
entail
of refugee streams involving

2 to 20
discussed, estimates
have been made. Such a development
would undeniably
of a new dimension
for the receiving countries.
Prospective
problems
countries
have clearly stated that "ecological"

and "economic"
in case of
will
be
not
granted asylum. What, then,
happen
refugees
natural disasters? A functioning
early warning system is the key to effective
areas and in
Africa's hunger-disaster
relief here as in other cases?in
receiving
will
and economic
social, political
flight-triggering
potential
commitments
in the
and various
entails early intervention
States
of
area
The
Commonwealth
itself.
Independent
refugee-generating
countries
crises.
with
This
and economic
(CIS) also has various relief consignments,
support programs
In
to impede the release of a refugee stream have been launched.
designed
order
another
to be truly effective,
such
however,
and as of yet unequalled
level.
measures
will
need
to reach
1194
CONCLUSIONS
transcontinental
or similar mass migration
wave is
No fresh transatlantic,
awaited. There are no longer any "accessible,
but
tem?
lightly populated,
to
attract
no
"New
1978:245),
European
migrants (Zolberg,
perate regions"
wide open spaces
Frontiers" waiting to be reached, no sparsely populated
where scores of migrants from developed
areas will come to reproduce
their
of
civilizations.
Nor do we see open gates now or in the future. Conditions
have
seldom
existed
in
the
hold
no
in
a
unrestricted
and
past
place
entry
realistic future scenario.
indicate
that Western
However,
during recent decades
developments
the
will
foreseeable
a
in
future
Europe
during
experience
sharp increase
the immigrant
influx both from other continents
and from the collapsing
Soviet empire and the Eastern European
countries.
There are a number of
factors behind this concern, one of which is the increased economic
discrep?
different
countries
around
the world, which undeniably
ancy between
results in pressure on the more fortunate
countries.
Added to this are the
and
constantly
improving
increasingly
inexpensive
global communication
as
fact
that
well
as
the
across
the
world are consistently
poor peoples
systems,
world and its abundance.
fed with images
of the wealthy
Demographic
constitute
is shrinking
factor. Europe's
another
developments
population
south and east of the Mediterranean
and aging, while countries
buckle
under
the weight of their populations,

an immense
suggesting
potential
restrictions
on
and
are nec?
flow.
However,
entry
migratory
incorporation
to
if
the
societies
are
survive
in
Western
form.
present
essary
The often-expressed
fears of a mass immigration
of Russians and others
Soviet Union are based on the possibility
of political
from the dissolved
former
USSR
in
the
a
similar
unfortunate
turn
as those
developments
taking
in former Yugoslavia.
In a study presented
at an international
symposium
in Vienna in March 1992, a British investigation
the unemploy?
predicted
ment of 12 million individuals
in Central Europe within just a few years,
and close to 30-40 million unemployed
in the former Soviet Union. Second?
effects
of
such
could
well include the intensification
of
ary
developments
ethnic and national
tensions
which rapidly create the types of
conflicts,
threat which cause people to flee from their homes. With the dissolution
of
the Soviet Union, panic is rapidly spreading amongst the 30 million Russians
who remain in the former Soviet republics outside of Russia. Muslim Central
Asia is now experiencing
the move or the flight of masses of Russian workers
and experts who were once sent to "Sovietize" the colonies in the periphery.
Advisers to President
Yeltsin have spoken of the risk of the creation of 3-5
million Russian refugees
from Central Asia alone. They fear disturbances
linked
to
existing
partly
hostility towards the Russians and to the increas-
1195
ingly strong hold of Islam on the new Central Asian states, constituting
which may act as conflict-propagating
factors.
elements
in
St.
to
a
Poll
the first of its kind,
conducted
Gallup
Petersburg,
According
one third of the population
ment of the new emigration
consider moving abroad upon the enact?

would
laws on January 1,1993. This emigration
If we add to these figures
be based primarily
on economic
considerations.
of the former Soviet Union, the threat
of a "Yugoslavization"
the possibility
becomes
It is
movement
westward
still more ominous.
of a migration
would
to point out yet another element which may act as a flight-causing

important
of environmental
factor in the former Soviet Union, namely, the abundance
of Independent
States
disaster areas. It is estimated that the Commonwealth
(CIS)
comprises
approximately
due to environmental
endangered
300
such
where
regions,
human
life
third citizen
is
of
Perhaps every
pollution.
the CIS lives in such a region (Rybizki, 1992:22-23).
factors involved primarily
Gordenker's
of flight-inducing
categorization
disasters may well prove to be key
political refugees,
yet environmental
on
factors in the future of the refugee question. Refuge, Canada's periodical
(Vol.
refugees
recently published a special issue on environmental
refugees,
No.
1, June 1992). The articles dealt not only with "refugees fleeing from
12,
but also with those "displaced
natural disasters,"
causes,
by human-made
and those who are the victims
schemes,"
i.e., dams and other development
or 'ecocide'"
(Lassailly-Jacob,
degradation
and
1992:1).
migrants will become an increasingly
refugees
must
refugees"
category. The growing number of "development
important
as
a
of
ousted
also be noted; namely, people
development
consequence
of "intentional
environmental
Environmental
of the Three Gorges Dam project on the

such as the building
projects
in
tree plantations
Yangtse River in China or the plans for the eucalyptus
Thailand.
is
the future of migration
Using the past in order to further understand
a
it
will
as
has
been
neither
mentioned,
but,
blueprint
provide
important
for future
for dealing with ensuing

problems.
is
a thing of the past. Labor immigra?
immigration
The selective
will not reappear.
to the rotation
principle
developments
and unrestricted
Open
tion according
of individuals
recruitment
force will take place.
is a definite
There
nor a recipe
deemed
as valuable
immigration
will
that Europe
possibility
of
"ethnic cleansing,"
a
of refugees
as
consequence
onslaught
in the former Soviet
and social paroxysms
conflicts and economic
the problem
Finally,
will undoubtedly
Illegal
to the existing labor

and possibly increase.
with an
be confronted
additions
will continue
"environmental"
concerning
to be of increasing
prove
and "ecological"
significance.
political
empire.
refugees
1196
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Immigration History and the Future of International Migration

Author(s): Goran Rystad

"lessons" of history. The present does not

HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

least tentative predictions

is by no means a new phenomenon.

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW

trend can be seen today, with immigration

(Kritz and Keely,

HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

to both North America and other continents,

100,000 people arrived from Germany

of a control system regarding

the war were

from Nazi horrors were

were taken throughout

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW

and alien control;

and direct recruitment

The period which began in the early 1980s, characterized

said that "the history of mankind

HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

Bad or oppressive laws, heavy taxation, an unattractive climate, uncongenial

research which views

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW

Portes has emphasized

However, the problem is that such a "theory"

is equally true of choices concerning

HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

from the institutional

states are acting in fact to

back to the country of origin should the foreign

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW

HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

did not prove

Labor Migration Reaches Massive Proportions in Step with the Indus1955-1973:

area to the industrialized

over the rela?

since the im?

from Turkey and Yugo?

Greece, Morocco and Tunisia. France's im?

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW

By the end of the 1960s, France and West Germany could

Thereof from Italy~~

Halting of Labor Migration Following the Oil Crisis. The Number of

the oil crisis is illustrated

HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

was the increasing

is thus viewed as a means of satisfying

to draw the short-term

and this attitude

and less consistently

access to labor on the one hand and to preserve

the wish to maximize

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW

main category of immigration

as well as the country's role

HISTORY AND THE FUTURE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION

flow was soon followed by others, trig?

who were not of British descent, arrived in Great Britain by 1962.

from both the British

and the Commonwealth

tive. In fact, British alien legislation