L Umanad Powertrans Design

1.
PRINCIPLES OF POWER TRANSFORMER

DESIGN
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A simplified structure of a transformer is shown in figure 1.1. It has two windings
wound on a core. The winding to which power is fed is called the primary
winding and the winding which delivers power to the load is the secondary
winding. A transformer basically transfers power from the primary to the
secondary. This power transfer is done via the magnetic media i.e., the magnetic
core.
Core
V2
V1
PRI
N1
SEC
N2
Fig. 1.1 Basic Transformer

1.2 TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD
When the voltage is applied to the primary, current starts flowing through the
primary winding. This produces a magnetic field around the coil, the intensity (H)
of which is given by the following relationship (often known as Ampere's Law):
lm
H.dl = N 1 I mag = mmf

o
(1.1)
where
H
= magnetic field intensity (Amp/m)
lm
= magnetic path length (m)
N1
= no. of turns in the primary winding
Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012
Imag
= rms current in the primary winding with secondary open circuited

(Amp)
If H is uniform along the magnetic path length, then equation 1.1 reduces to
H.lm = N1 Imag
Thus, H =
N1 I mag
lm
(1.2)
The magnetic field intensity gives rise to a certain flux density B (tesla) in the core.
The relationship between B and H is given by
B = H where = o
(1.3)
Where, o is the permeability of free space which is equal to 4.10-7 H/m and ,
is the relative permeability of the core material. , is not a constant, quantity. It
has been found to vary nonlinearly with H. Graphically this relationship between
B and H is as shown in figure 1.2. This relationship can be observed on an
oscilloscope by a suitable measuring circuit. Note that the curve exhibits
hysteresis. A close look at this curve reveals the following observations, which
have a far-reaching effect on the understanding and designing of transformers.
Bsat
F
E
Bsat
Fig. 1.2 B-H Relationship of a magnetic core

1.3 HYSTERESIS LOSS
Referring to the figure 1.2, as one goes along the magnetilsation path of a virgin
specimen from O to B and when H is again brought back to O, there exists some
finite flux density due to the magnetic retentivity of the material. Some extra
energy has to be applied to bring the specimen back to zero flux density.From
Faraday's Law, the induced voltage due to the changing flux in the core is given
by,
2
dv
m = N dt = NAc dB
dt
(1.4)
substituting equation 1.3 in 1.2 we have
B=
lNi
lm
(1.5)
The instantaneous energy, dE is given by (from equations 1.4 and 1.5)

B
B
dE = vidt = NAc dB
dt l m Nl dt = A c l m l dB Joules
But
Aclm = core volume, Vc; and
Therefore,
B
l
(1.6)
=H
dE = VcB.dH = VcH.dB
Thus the energy per unit volume is B.dH, the integral of which is the area of the
B-H curve as shown in figure 1.2. Thus, in one cycle of applied voltage (or
current ), energy equivalent to the loop area of the B-H curve is lost forever, and
this happens in each cycle. This power loss is called the Hysteresis Loss, which
can be obtained from equation 1.6. and is given by
Ph =
1
2
BHVcf where f is the frequency of operation.
(1.7)
It is evident that for a particular core volume and flux density, hysteresis loss Ph, is
proportional to rate of change of flux, i.e. higher the frequency of operation,
higher the hysteresis loss. The equation 1.7 can be rewritten as
Ph =
1 (B 2 )
2 l V cf
It is evident from the above equation, that for a given flux density, core volume
and the frequency of operation, higher permeability materials have lower hystersis
loss when compared with lower permeability materials. So, in designing
transformers, the choice of materials is also critical.
When the applied magnetic field H is removed ( i.e. when the primary excitation is
removed ), the core flux is non-zero. As shown in figure 1.2, the flux density can
be anywhere between OC or OF, i.e. positive or negative remnant flux density
can exist. Such an uncertain residual flux density can create surge currents
during switching ON of the transformer.
1.4 INDUCED EMF AND EDDY CURRENTS
The flux in the core is related to the flux density by
= BAc
where
(1.8)
= flux in webers
B = flux density in Tesla
A c = core cross section in sq.m

Whenever the flux in the core changes, it induces a voltage in the winding which it
links. This relationship between the induced voltage and changing flux is given by
the following equation
e=N
dv
dt
(1.9)
This is a very important relationship, which is central to the entire magnetic circuit
behaviour. It should be noted that the voltage induced as per the equation 1.9,
opposes the applied voltage, thus limiting the input current to a low value at no
load called the magnetising current. In practical transformers this current is kept at
5 to 10% of full load current.
As a consequence of the above relationship, the changing flux established in the
core, links all windings that are wound on the core. In the case of the figure 1.1
there are three induced emfs, as given by the following equations:
E1 = N1
dv
dt
(1.10)
E2 = N2
dv
dt
(1.11)
E3 = N3
dv
dt
(1.12)
Equations 1.10 and 1.11 are perhaps obvious, but not so the equation 1.12. Note
that the core itself acts as one turn winding (a closed turn) in addition to the
primary and secondary windings. Thus, a voltage E3 is also induced in the core.
The cross section of the core of figure 1.1 is redrawn in figure 1.3 As the core is a
closed turn ( N= 1), voltage E3 and hence, current I3 can flow in the closed path
in the cross-section, as shown in figure 1.3 and can heat up the core. Thus, if the
core is a solid mass, it can result in a large current I3 known as eddy current
and this can pose a serious problem with the transformer operation. One of the
ways to minimize such a current flow is to increase the resistance in the current
path. This is done by having a core made up of thin laminations, insulated from
each other. Then the situation will be as shown in figure 1.4.
As can be seen, the effective resistance of the core increases and the eddy
currents go down, thus, reducing the losses and temperature of the core. A
second way of increasing the resistance of the solid core is to have proper
material which has large resistivity, like for e.g. Ferrites come under this category.
They are a solid mass and laminations are not required due to their high inherent
resistivity.
E3
I3
Fig. 1.3 Induced current

in the solid core
Fig. 1.4 Core cross

section of a laminated
core
The eddy current loss in the transformer is given by the following empirical
relationship
Pe = Ke f 2 Bm2 watts
(1.13)
The hysteresis and eddy current losses together are called the core losses
Pc = Ph + Pe
(1.14)
1.5 TURNS RATIO

Using equations 1.10 and 1.11, one has
E2
E1
N2
N1
=n
(1.15)
Thus, the voltage ratios at the primary and secondary are decided by the turns
ratio 'n'. This turns ratio is an important parameter of the transformer.
1.6 VOLT-SEC PRODUCT
Equation 1.9 can be rewritten using equation 1.8, in the following way:
e = NAc
dB
dt
(1.16)
and by rearranging, one obtains

B=
1
NAc
e.dt
(1.17)
Notice that this is an important relationship which has to be clearly understood.

Referring back to figure 1.2, it is clear that there is a limit on the value of B, as
given by B Sat. Thus, for a transformer of a given rated voltage, if a lower
frequency is applied, the core can saturate. When the core saturates, the windings
offer very little impedance, which allows huge currents to flow. For example,
consider a transformer with the following rating:
Primary
: 230 V, 50 Hz
Secondary : 15 V
If one applies 25 Hz at 230 V, then as the period at 25 Hz is higher than that at
50 Hz, from equation 1.17, it is clear that the core will tend to saturate. So, one
should never apply a lower frequency ( this of course includes DC also) to a
transformer lower than that it is designed for, at the rated voltage, However, if the
voltage is reduced proportionately, then a lower frequency can be applied. This
means that, as given by equation 1.17, as long as one does not exceed the
volt-time product or the volt-sec product ( for the transformer ), one can safely
operate the transformer.
1.7 STACKING FACTOR
Introduction of laminations for minimizing the eddy current loss increases the
cross-section of the core (and hence the volume). It is quantified by means of
stacking factor Ks as defined below:
Ks =
volume of iron
volume of iron + volume of insulation
(1.18)
Typical values of K S are between 0.8 and 0.95. (This however does not apply in
the case of solid cores like ferrites).
1.8 TRANSFORMER ON LOAD
As soon as the transformer is loaded , a current I2 flows as shown in figure 1.5,
creating a flux 2 so as to oppose 1 . This results in a lower net flux (= 1 - 2 )
. This means that E1 reduces and a larger I 1 will flow. This in turn will increase
1 . Thus in the steady state, the net flux in the core will be (which is equal to
that which existed when the secondary was unloaded ). Therefore, even though
the secondary and primary currents are much more than the magnetizing current,
the resultant flux is still the same since extra fluxes due to load current and that
due to the primary current cancel each other. That is, the net magnetizing force in
the magnetic circuit is given by
N1 I1 - N2 I2 = N1 Imag
(1.19)
The magnetizing force due to I mag is generally negligible compared to N1 I1 or N2 I

2 . Thus, neglecting it in equation 1.19, one obtains
N1 I1 = N2 I2
i.e.
I2
I1
N1
N2
1
n
(1.20)
Combining equations 1.15 and 1.20, one obtains

E2
E1
I1
I2
N2
N1
=n
(1.21)
Net = 1 2
1 due to I1
2 due to I2
I2
I1
~
V1 E1
E2
Fig.1.5 Transformer on Load
E1
N1
11
N2
E2
Fig. 1.6 Leakage Flux

1.9 LEAKAGE FLUX
The permeability of the core is somewhat similar to conductivity in an electric
circuit. Just as no conductor is a perfect conductor of electricity, no magnetic
material is a perfect conductor of magnetic flux. That is, the permeability of a
core is never infinity, but has a finite value. As a consequence, (see figure 1.6),
not all the flux generated in the primary flows in the core. Part of it flows in the air
also. Moreover, as shown in the figure 1.6 this part of flux 11 does not cut the
secondary winding and is thus, not effective in transferring energy from primary to
secondary. This component of flux which links only the primary and not the
secondary winding is called the leakage flux. When secondary is loaded, similar
component 22 also exists, which links only the secondary and not the primary.
As the flux is changing in accordance with the equation 1.9, one gets a voltage
drop in the primary and secondary given by:
e11 = N1
dv 11
dt
; e22 = N2
dv 22
dt
These are generally represented by leakage inductances as follows:
PRI
SEC.
Fig. 1.7 Shell Type Transformer
e11 = r 1
di 1
dt ;
e22 = r 2
di 2
dt
where 1 and 2 are called the leakage inductances.

The transformer configuration shown in figure 1.6, is not common due to the fact
that it has the largest leakage flux. If one winds the prilmary and secondary on the
same leg, one has a better transformer, in which, the leakage flux is less and a
good coupling exists between the primary and the secondary. The shell type ( for
e.g. El core) cores therefore, are usually used in power transformers as shown in
figure 1.7. One should note that as the coupling between the windings becomes
better (ie. low leakage) the interwinding capacitance becomes larger thereby
reducing the interwinding breakdown voltage. Thus, leakage inductance and
interwinding capacitance are contracdictory specifications.
1.10 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
The various non-idealities including the core losses, copper losses, leakage
inductance etc., can be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown in figure
1.8. R1 and R2 represent the copper losses in the winding. Rc represents the iron
loss i.e., hysteresis plus the eddy current losses. Current i o is the vector sum of i c
and the magnetizing component i m of the core . It is important to recognize the
various non-idealities present in the transformer as given in figure 1.8. Any
improvement in the operation of the transformer has to necessarily take into
account one or more of these lossy elements. It can be seen that :
E2
E1
N2
N1
I1
I2
(1.22)
under most circumstances. For a transformer made up of low losses and having a
high permeability core, one can write:
1 I1 I'1
R1
io
E1
ic i m
V1
R2
E2
V2
Rc
N1
N2
Fig. 1.8 Equivalent Circuit of the Transformer

V2
V1
N2
N1
; I 12 =
N2
N1
(1.23)
However, in instrument transformers, which are used to sample voltage or

current, the errors introduced can be significant if the non-idealities are not kept to
the minimum.
1.11 POWER HANDLING CAPACITY OF A TRANSFORMER
In order that the core does not saturate, one operates the core at a flux density,
which is less than the saturation value. Consider that the core is operated upto a
flux m, which is less than sat (see figure 1.9). In one cycle of operation, the flux
traverses from say - m to + m and again from + m to m. Thus, in a half cycle
i.e. during an interval T2 , the total change in flux is 2 m . Hence, the average
voltage induced is given by
B/
Bsat
Bm/ m
H/MMF
Bm/ m
Bsat
Fig. 1.9 B.H Curve
Eav =
1
(T/2)
dv
2 T/2
T/2
o e.dt = T o N dt .dt =
2N
T
m
+v
v m dv
Thus
Eav =
2N
T (2v m )
It should be borne in mind that the above equation was derived independently of
any applied voltage waveshape. So this relationship is valid for any waveshape of
the applied voltage. It can also be written as follows:
Eav = 4NfBmAc
(1.25)
Notice that this is the average voltage. One is generally interested in the rms
voltage. RMS and Average voltages are related by form factor Kf which is
defined as follows:
Kf - form factor =
Erms
Eav
(1.26)
Thus, Erms = KfEav = 4KfNfBmAc
(1.27)
For an alternating square wave Kf = 1 and for a sinewave Kf = 1.11

Equation 1.27 is the fundamental equation of a transformer which relates the
induced voltage to the flux density, core area, frequency and the number of turns.
In order to design a transformer, generally what one knows is the power that it
has to handle or the volt-amp product. From the design point of view, it is
essential to know, how the power handling capacity is related to the physical size
of the transformer. In the next sub-section, a relationship between the power
handling capacity and the physical size of the transformer will be discussed.
1.11.1 Area Product
The size of a power transformer is generally designated by a parameter called,
Area Product, Ap , as given by the following equation:
Ap = area product = core cross section (Ac) x window area (Aw )
Ac and Aw for the power transformer cores (EI, C cores and toroids), are shown
in figure 1.10.
Using equation 1.27, the primary and secondary turns are given by
N1 =
E1
4Kf A c Bm f
and N2 =
E2
4Kf A c Bm f
(1.28)
Current can be expressed in terms of current density as follows:

I = Jawire
(1.29)
where,
10
J = current density
awire = area of the conductor cross section through which current is flowing
Ac
(a) EI CORE
Aw
(b) C CORE
Aw
Ac
Aw
Ac
(c) TOROID
Fig. 1.10 Illustration of Aw and Ac for different core geometries
As N1 turns of primary has a cross section area of a1 and N2 turns of secondary

has a cross section area of a2 , the total copper area that is to be made available
for winding is N1 a1 + N2 a2 .
This theoretically should fit in the window area Aw . However, in practice the
window area has to accommodate not only the bare wire, but the wire insulation,
coil former, insulation paper used between windings, etc. If Kw denotes this
factor called window utilization factor, (whose value is less than unity) then,
Kw Aw = N1 a1 + N2 a2
(1.30)
Substituting for awire in equation 1.29, one obtains

Kw Aw J = N1 I1 + N2 I2
(1.31)
Where I1 and I2 are the primary and secondary rms currents. Substituting for N1
and N2 from equation 1.28 in equation 1.31, one obtains
Kw Aw J =
[E1 I 1 +E2 I 2 ]
4Kf B m Ac f
i.e.Ap = AcAw =
[E 1I 1 +E2 I 2 ]
4Kf K w Bm A c f
11
For a sine wave, the secondary VA, P02 , is given by

P02 = E2 I2 ,
where E2 is the (rms) secondary induced voltage
and the primary VA, P01 , is given by
P01 = E1 I1 =
P02
g
(1.32)
(1.33)
where, E1 is the rms primary induced voltage and is the efficiency of the
transformer
Thus, Ap = AcAw =
P 02 1+ 1g
4Kf B m JKw f
(1.34)
where
P02
Kf
Bm
J
Kw
f
= Secondary VA
= form factor (1 for square wave, 1.11 for sine wave)
= allowed maximum flux density in tesla
= current density in A/sq.m
= window utilization factor
= frequency of operation in Hz
Equation 1.34 should give a feel as to how, the power to be handled and the size
of the transformer, are related to each other. The factor Kw (which will be
explained in detail a little later can be taken in the order of 0.4). The current
density J is in the order of 3.5x106 to 5x106 Amp/sq.m.
Generally, cores of different dimensions are standardized in the market. All one
has to do, is to calculate the required Ap as given by equation 1.34, compare it
with the value of standard cores and select one whose Ap is greater than the
calculated Ap . The area product approach for designing high frequency
transformers is also along the same lines and is dealt in detail in the next chapter.
1.12 EMPIRICAL FORMULA FOR CHOICE OF CORE FOR A
POWER TRANSFORMER
A simple empirical relation for the choice of the core for 50 Hz power
transformer applications is as follows:
Ac =
P in
Bm
(1.35)
where
Ac = core iron area in sq.cm.
Pin = input power in VA
Bm = allowable maximum flux density in Tesla
12
It should be noted that this formula is applicable for a square core only (a square
core is one in which the depth of stack is same as the width i.e. the tongue width)
and for 50 Hz applications only
Note: This empirical formula can be derived from equation 1.34 as follows:
For a square core Ac=a2 , and Aw =1.5a x 0.5a = 0.75a2 = 0.75Ac where a is the
tongue width. Substituting the above values for Ac and Aw and taking = 1, Kf =
1.11, J = 3x106 A/m2 , Kw = 0.4 and f = 50 Hz, in equation 1.34, one obtains
Ac =
Po
Bm
% 104 m 2
Which reduces to equation 1.35 if Ac is expressed in sq. cm. It has to be noted

that the formula given by equation 1.35 is empirical, since it hides the values of
several parameters like Kf, J, Kw , f etc.. When these parameters vary, the
required Ac has to change and equation 1.35 in no way allows such variations.
Thus it can be used as a first approximation to the core size and may have to be
modified later in the design stage when the design is to be checked for
performance.
2mm
a/2
2mm
With this limitation in the background, the empirical formula simplifies the design
to a large extent. However, for any other kind of transformer, which operates at
frequencies other than 50 Hz etc., the original formula given by equation 1.34 has
to be used.
a/2
2mm
a/2 (14)
a
1.5a
(42)
a/2
1.5a
a/2
a/2
a
a/2
a/2
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.11 EE laminations and coil former
1.13 WINDOW UTILIZATION FACTOR (KW)

There are several factors which decide the winding area that can be utilized, as
against the window area that is available. The important factors are considered
here.
13
Coil former/Bobbin effect: A bobbin or coil former that is used to house the
winding has a certain thickness and this reduces the available window area. As
an example, consider a coil former for Type 33 lamination as shown in figure 1.11
Window area = 1.5a x 0.5a = 42 x 14 mm2 = 588 mm2
Actual winding space available (because of coil former dimensions) = (42-4) x
(14-2) mm2 = 456 mm2
Thus the utilization factor Kw1 due to coil former is Kw1 = 456/588 = 0.7755. If
the coil has multiple sections, then the factor further gets reduced.
Space factor: The second factor that causes a reduction in the winding space is
the space factor Kw2 . It can be defined as
K w2 =
conductor area
conductor area + insulation area
(1.36)
This factor depends on the wire gauge. For example, for SWG 45 gauge having
a nominal diameter, dnom, of 0.071 mm, and a maximum diameter with insulation,
dmax, of 0.086 mm
K w2 =
o
4
o
4
d 2nom
d 2max
0.071 2
0.086 2
= 0.68
If the wire gauge is thicker, like say SWG 14, the value of Kw2 comes out to be
0.91. So, thinner the gauge, the lesser is the space factor.
Air gaps between conductors: The third factor which reduces the available
window area is the factor arising from the fact that the adjacent turns are not air
tight. There is always a gap between the conductors (though very small). And
generally wire which is circular in cross section, is wound on flat (square,
rectangular) surface, thus, further deteriorating the utility factor. In practice, this
factor Kw3 is found to be in the order of 0.6 to 0.9
Insulation factor: There is one more factor Kw4 , called the insulation factor.
Generally, when one winds a transformer, there are several insulation layers that
come into picture, like, a layer of insulation between say, the coil former and the
primary winding, between the primary winding and secondary winding, etc. to
meet the breakdown voltage requirements. If there are multiple secondaries,
additional layers are to be used. This insulation requirement further reduces the
area available for winding the wire.
Thus, the actual area finally available is
Available area = Kw x window area
where,
Kw = Kw1 x Kw2 x Kw3 x Kw4
14
(1.37)
Typically, a value of Kw = 0.3 to 0.4 can be taken for design purposes. So, the
effective window area available = Kw Aw
(1.38)
winding area in core

available winding area
creepage
distance
core
former
Fig: 1.12(a) Creepage Distance for 230V Mains Isolation

insulation
secondary
(strip)
3 layers
insulation
primary
(enamelled
copper)
former
creepage distance
Fig. 1.12 (b) Detailed section of winding showing how creepage

distance is used
Creepage distance: In addition to the above factors, in transformers used for

230 V main isolation, one has to leave a creepage distance between windings and
the bobbin as illustrated in figure 1.12 (a) and (b) According to IEC 435
standards, gaps of 4mm on each side of windings have to be provided for mains
isolation requirements.
1.13 TRANSFORMER POLARITIES AND DOT CONVENTION
If two coils AB and DC are wound in the same direction (clockwise or
anti-clockwise), as shown in figure 1.13, then points A and C will have the same
phase (or polarity relationship. That is, if at any instant, point A is positive, C is
also positive. If A is negative, so is C. This is generally represented in a circuit
diagram by means of dots as shown in figure 1.14 (a). Figure 1.14 (c) shows the
waveforms. VCDa shows the waveform w.r.t. VAB for figure 1.14 (a) and VCDb
shows the same for figure 1.14 (b).
15
A
B
C
D
Fig.1.13 Transformer Polarities
A
(a)
VAB
(1)
B
C
(2)
(b)
B
V a
(1) CD
V
(2) CDb
(c)
Fig.1.14 Dot Convention in a Transformer

A
(b)
V2
A
V1
D
(a)
(c)
Fig.1.15 Testing for Polarities
1.14 TESTING FOR POLARITY

In a transformer, when polarities are not known, it is possible to find out the
polarities with a simple test. The transformer can be connected as shown in figure
1.15 (a). Connect any two ends, say BD, together and measure the input voltage
V1 and the voltage between A and C, i.e. V2 . If measured V2 = VAB - VCD , then
mark polarities as shown in figure 1.15 (b).
If measured V2 = VAB + VCD , then mark polarities as in figure 1.15 (c).
Knowledge of polarities and dot convention is a very important when working
16
with transformers. When one wants to connect two transformers in series or in

parallel, this knowledge becomes even more important. Alternately, one can
excite one of the windings and observe the phase relationships between two
windings on an oscilloscope.
17
2. HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER

DESIGN
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The high frequency transformers are largely used in inverter and converter
applications. The Switched Mode power Supplies (SMPS) require high
frequency transformers, if it has to maintain a significant power/unit volume
advantage over the Linear Power Supplies. Here transformer designs for SMPS
will be discussed, though the general principles hold good for designing high
frequency transformers for any application.
A very brief review of the SMPS configurations that are most widely used will
now be made. The most frequently used configurations are the Forward
Converter, its derivatives and the Flyback Configuration.
They are
1. Forward converter.
2. Half bridge converter
3. Full bridge converter.
4. Push pull converter.
5. Flyback converter
It is expected that the reader is familiar with the above converter topologies. The
operation of the individual configurations will not be discussed, but only the
scheme for each configuration along with the important equation governing the
output voltage in terms of duty cycle will be listed. Subsequently the transformer
design procedure will be discussed.
Forward Converter
The topology is shown in figure 2.1 and the governing equation for this
configuration is given by
18
Vo + Vrl + VD = N21 . Dmax. Vccmin

where Vo = output voltage of the converter.
Vrl = drop across winding resistance of inductor.
VD = diode drop
Dmax = max duty ratio
Vccmin = minimum dc link voltage.
V cc
D1
D2
D3
R oVo
Fig. 2.1 Forward Converter Topology
Half Bridge Converter

The topology is shown in figure 2.2 and the governing equation for this
Vcc
Q1
CW
Q2
D1
D2
C
Vo
Ro
Fig.2.2 Half Bridge Converter Topology
19
Vo + Vrl + VD = N21 . Dmax (Vccmin - 0.1*Vccmax)

10% of Vccmax is subtracted from Vccmin in the above expression, to take into
account the drop across the flux walking capacitor, Cw .
Full Bridge Configuration

This topology is shown in figure 2.3 and the governing equation for this
Vo + Vrl + VD =
N2
N1
(2*Dmax). Vccmin
Vcc
Q1
Q4
CW
Q3
Q2
D1
D2
C
Vo
Ro
Fig. 2.3 Full bridge converter topology
Push Pull Configuration

Vo + Vrl + VD =
N2
N1
Q1
Vcc
(2*Dmax). Vccmin
D1
D2
R oVo
Q2
Fig.2.4 Push Pull Converter Topology
20
V cc
D
R oVo
Fig.2.5 Flyback Converter Topology
Flyback Configuration
Vo + VD =
N2
N1 .
Vccmin.
D max
(1Dmax )
The power handling capacity of a transformer is related to area product Ap as

described in chapter - 1. However the derivation used in chapter - 1 is for a
specific application only (50Hz mains application). As the configurations of
transformer are different in various converter applications, it is necessary to derive
Ap for each of the above mentioned converter applications. The derivations for
the forward converter configuration will only be discussed. However, the same
approach can be used for deriving the area products for other converter
configurations.
2.2. AREA PRODUCT FOR FORWARD CONVERTER
TRANSFORMER
The fundamental equation for transformer designs is given by
e=N
dv
dt
= NAc
dB
dt
(2.1)
In a forward converter when the transistor is ON, a voltage E1m = Vcc is applied
across the transformer. This gives rise to linearly increasing flux as shown in figure
2.6 (d). At the end of the ON time of the transistor, the flux in the transformer
reaches a value m, which should be less than the saturation limit of the core.
During the OFF time, the flux in the core has to be brought back to zero. If this
does not happen, then the core will never be reset and the flux goes on building
up during the successive cycles and will saturate the core. This core resetting is
done by the demagnetising winding N3 shown in figure 2.6 (a).
21
For an ON time equal to DTs (D is the Duty Cycle) the primary voltage E1 can be
rewritten using the equation 2.1
Elm = N1 Ac
Bm
DTs
N 1 A cB m f s
D
(2.2)
where fs = 1/Ts
Similarly, secondary induced voltage E2m is given by
E2m =
N2 A c Bm f s
D
(2.3)
Rearranging equations 2.2 and 2.3 one obtains,

N1 =
DE 1m
Ac B m fs
(2.4)
N2 =
DE 2m
Ac B m fs
(2.5)
Apart from the core area Ac one has to consider the window area, Aw also.
Effective window area available will be much less than Aw by a factor Kw as
discussed in Chapter 1. This area is given by the following equation
Kw Aw = N1 a1 + N2 a2 + N3 a3
Where a1 is the wire cross section area of the primary winding, a2 is the cross
section area of the secondary winding and a3 is that for the demagnetising
winding.
i3
(b)
Elm
e1
L
e1
-E1m
i2
I m
2
N2
N1
i1
N3
(a)
(c)
2 o
(d)
flux o
DT (1-D)T
(e)
Fig. 2.6 Forward Converter Topology
Areas a1 , a2 and a3 are related to the respective currents and the current density J
as follows
I
ax = Jx
Where x can take values, 1,2 and 3.
22
It should be noted that the currents referred are rms values.

The effective window area can be written as
Kw Aw J = N1 I1 + N2 I2 + N3 I3
As N3 = N1 and I1 >> I3 , one can simplify the above equation as follows
Kw Aw J = N1 I1 + N2 I2
(2.6)
From the waveforms shown in figure 2.6, one can arrive at the rms currents as
given below (by neglecting the magnetising slope):
I1 = I1m D
(2.7)
I2 = I2m D
(2.8)
Equation 2.6 can be rewritten using equations 2.4, 2.5, 2.7 and 2.8 as follows:
AcAw =
[I 1mE 1m D+I2m E 2m D]
K wJB m f s
(2.9)
The power at secondary is given by

P02 =
1
T
DT
e2 i2 dt = I2mE2mD, and the power at the primary
P01 = I1mE1mD =
Po2
g
(where is the efficiency of the transformer)
So, equation 2.9 can be written as
Ac Aw =
D P02 1+ 1g
K w JBm f s
The Area Product is given by

Ap = AcAw =
D P 02 1+ 1g
K wJB m f s
(2.10)
Typically, for the forward converter, Kw = 0.4, = 0.8 and D = 0.5 (50% being
the maximum possible duty cycle in this converter configuration). Substituting
these values in equation 2.10 one obtains,
Ap =
4P 02
Bm Jf s
CONFIGURATION
Forward Converter
Transformer
AREA PRODUCT
AP = Ac Aw =
D P02 1+ 1g
K w JBm f s
23
Half Bridge Converter

Transformer
Ap = Ac Aw =
P 02 2 + 1g
4K wJB m f s
Full Bridge Converter

Transformer
Ap = Ac Aw =
P 02 2 + 1g
4K wJB m f s
Push Pull Converter

Transformer
Ap = Ac Aw =
Flyback Converter
Transformer - Incomplete
energy transfer mode
Flyback Converter
Transformer - complete
energy transfer mode
Ap =
Ap =
P02 1g
4Da
3
2 P02 1+ 1g
4K wJB m f s
4(1D)a
3
Kw JDBf s
P02 1g
4D
3
; 0.75 [ a < 1
4(1D)
3
K wJB m f s
Table 2.1 Area products for the various configurations

2.3 DESIGN OF TRANSFORMERS
In the previous section the method of obtaining the area product for the forward
converter configuration was discussed. The area products for the various
configurations are listed in table 2.1. The way in which one can use the area
product to design the transformer will now be discussed. Here again, the
discussion is restricted to forward converter configuration only. However, the
method is similar for other configurations also.
Power calculation
The forward converter circuit and the secondary voltage and current and load
current waveforms are shown in figure 2.7. Referring to figure 2.7 the secondary
power, P02 . can be related to the output voltage and current in the following
manner,
P02 =
24
Ts
1
Ts o
m 2 i 2 dt = V 2m I 0 D max; (V o = DV 2m )
(2.11)
Vcc
V2 m
2
i2
V
2
N1
N3
i1
(b)
DT
i
N2
i
(a)
o
2 o
(c)
(d)
m -
(e)
Fig. 2.7 Forward Converter
In practice, one has to account for the diode drop, VD and the resistive drop in
the inductor and transformer windings, Vrl. Dmax is considered to take into account
the lowest supply voltage, Vccmin.
Thus, V2m Dmax = Vo +Vrl + VD
(2.12)
Substituting for V2m in equation 2.11 from 2.12, one can rewrite the secondary
power, P02 as
P02 = (V0 +Vrl + VD )I0
Here after, (V0 +Vrl + VD ) will be denoted as V' 0 , so
P02 = V'0 I0
(2.13)
In the case of multiple secondary windings, the powers of all the secondary
windings must be considered to arrive at the total secondary power, P02 , i.e.
m
P02 =
S (V0i' I0i) when m is the number of secondary windings.

i=1
Core Selection
Now, substitute the value of P02 in the area product equation for forward
converter transformer,
Ap =
D max P 02 1+ 1g
K w JBm f s
(2.14)
From the Ap value calculated from equation 2.14, choose the core from the
appendix - I, which has a Ap value greater than the value calculated.
25
Determine the Number of turns

From the equation, e = NA dB
dt , one can obtain a relation for the primary number
of turns, N1 , given by
N1 =
Vcc max Dmin

A c B mfs
(2.15)
Note that the Duty cycle is minimum only when Vcc is maximum and vice versa.
(Vccmax . Dmin = Vccmin . Dmax)
Knowing the primary number of turns, the secondary number of turns is obtained
by multiplying the primary turns by the transformation ration.
n=
N2
N1
V0
V cc minD max
(2.16)
The secondary number of turns is given by N2 = n.N1

The demagnetising winding N3 is usually wound bifilar with the primary winding to
reduce the leakage inductance. Hence N3 is invariably chosen equal to N1 .
Wire Gauge Selection
The rms currents are given by
D max
I2 = I0
(2.17)
I1 = nI2
(2.18)
Equivalent primary inductance L1 is given by,
L1 =
l 0 l r Ac N 21
lm
(2.19)
Where lm is the mean magnetic length for the core which is given in Appendix-I.
L1 is also given by, L1 = AL N2 1 , where AL is in nH/turns2 which is the inductance
factor listed in Appendix - I for different cores.
The primary magnetising current is then given by, (which is derived from
(e = L didt ),)
I mag =
Dmax V ccmin
fs L 1
(2.20)
The demagnetising current, I3 , flows through the demagnetising winding during the
period (1 - D)Ts , as shown in figure 2.7, and the rms value obtained is
I3 = Imag
26
1D max
3
(2.21)
The gauge of the wire to be chosen for the windings is found from the following
relationship
a1 =
I1
J
and a2
I2
J
= and a3 =
I3
J
(2.22)
From the values of the required conductor cross section areas a1 , a2 and a3 , one
can choose the gauge of the wires required for the respective winding from
Appendix - II.
Cross Check
Even though the Ap formula takes into account various design parameters, the
final solution needs to be cross checked for the following reasons:
{ Wire gauges are available in discrete areas as per the list given in
Appendix-II. One has to invariably select a wire gauge whose area is
greater than the calculated one. This may necessitate higher window area.
{ When several windings are used (e.g pushpull with primary and secondary
centre tapped, multi output SMPS etc.) the window utilisation factor Kw
may go down as various windings need more insulation layers.
Using the actual conductor areas, check back to see if the turns fit into the
window area Aw of the core by checking for the inequality
m
Aw Kw m S ai Ni
(2.23)
i=1
If the above inequality is not satisfied, then choose a core with a higher Ap and
re-do the calculations till the inequality is satisfied.
The primary winding resistance is given by
ql e N1
r1 = a 1 , where is the resistivity of the wire, le is the mean length/turn and a1 is

the conductor cross section area of the primary winding.
The secondary winding resistance is given by
r2 =
ql e N2
a2
Example: Design a transformer for the forward converter configuration (Figure

2.7) with the following specifications
Output voltage, V0
Output ripple, %
Output current, I0
Switching freq., fs
Supply voltage, Vcc
12V
1% of V0
3A
20 KHz
24V+10%
27
Before we start solving the above problem, we shall look into the choice of some
design parameters which will affect the design of the transformers. The following
discussion will be valid for all transformer designs.
The converter diodes in the secondary of the transformer will show a significant
drop as they are carrying high currents. The diode drops may be as high as 1.5V
for fast recovery diodes. It is safe to design for the worst case of VD = 1.5V.
Another practical problem is the drops due to the winding resistances of the
inductor and transformer. It has been found that Vrl = 10% of V0 is a safe choice
generally.
At high frequencies, usually the core material choice is ferrite. It has a saturating
flux density, Bs of 0.3 T, so the maximum allowable flux density in the core should
be 0.2 T or less (Bm = 0.2T).
Another important design parameter is the current density J. If the current density
J is chosen very low, then for a given current, a very large conductor cross
section is required (thereby demanding a large window area), which means that
the resistance presented to the current flow will be low. One should not choose a
very low current density with the idea of reducing the conductor resistance
because at high frequencies the skin effect comes into picture and whatever be the
thickness of the gauge, there is no significant change in the conductor resistance.
A current density between 2 and 5 A/mm2 is found to be a good compromise
between conductor resistance and window area. A value of J = 3 A/mm2 is a
reasonable value in most cases.
The maximum duty cycle in isolated converters should not exceed 50% to avoid
core saturation. So, we shall design for Dmax = 0.45 i.e. 45%. The window
utilisation factor, K = O.4 and the efficiency of the transformer is taken to be 0.8.
Vccmin = Vcc - 10% Vcc = 21.6V
Vccmax = Vcc - 10% Vcc = 26.4V
Dmin = (Vccmin x Dmax ) / Vccmax = (21.6 x 0.45) / 26.4 = 0.371 (The calculation of
Dmin for flyback converters is different).
Power calculation: P02 = (V0 + Vrl + VD ) I0
Substituting the values for the variables we have,
P02 = 44.1 watts
Core Selection: The area product for the forward converter configuration is
given by
Ap =
28
D max P 02 1+ 1g
K w JBf s
Substituting the values for the variables we have,

Ap = 1.38671 x 10-8m4 = 13867.1 mm4
Choose a suitable core from Appendix - I which has an Ap greater than the value
calculated above.
P 36/22 is a proper choice (Ac = 201 mm2 , Aw = 101 mm2 , Ap = 20100 mm4 )
No. of turns: The equation for calculating the primary number of turns is given
by,
Vcc max Dmin
A c Bm f s
N1 =
Substituting the values for the variables, we have, N1 = 13 turns (taking the
nearest higher integer)
n=
N2
N1
(V 0 +V rl+V D )
V ccmin D max
Substituting the values we have, n = 1.51

The secondary number of turns is given by, N2 = n. N1 = 20 turns
The demagnetising winding, N3 , is equal to N1 as they are wound bifilar.
Wire Gauge selection: The rms values of the currents are given by,
I2 = I0
D max = 2.01 A
I1 = nI2 = 3.03 A
l 0 l r Ac N 21
lm
L1 =
Imag =
= 1.63 mH
Dmax V ccmin
fs L 1
I3 = Imag
= 0.29 A
1D max
3
= 0.12 A
The wire cross section areas can now be calculated by,

a1 =
I1
J
and a2 =
I2
J
and a3 =
I3
J
Substituting the values, we have

a1 = 1.01 mm2
Choose a wire gauge from Appendix - II whose cross section is greater than that
calculated above.
SWG 18 is a proper choice - (a1 = 1.167 mm2 ) a2 = 0.67 mm2
29
a2 = 0.67 mm2
Choose a wire gauge from Appendix - II whose cross section is greater than that
calculated above.
SWG 19 is a proper choice - (a2 = 0.8107 mm2 )
a3 = 0.041 mm2
Choose a wire gauge from Appendix II whose cross section is greater than that
calculated above.
SWG 34 is a proper choice - (a3 = 0.04289 mm2 )
Cross Check : Now check for the inequality,
m
Aw Kw m S ai Ni
i=1
Using the actual values of the cross section areas, we have,

3
S aiNi = 32 mm2
i=1
Aw Kw = 40.4 mm2
So, the inequality is satisfied, which means that the windings will fit in the available
window area.
30
3. DESIGN OF INDUCTORS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Even though inductors and transformers are both magnetic components, there is a
very important difference in their functioning and design aspect. In a transformer,
the core flux (or the flux density) is decided by the magnetising current. The load
current virtually has no say in deciding the core flux (the flux due to the load
current is nullified by the counter flux produced by the primary component of the
load current). Where as in an inductor, the core flux is decided only by the load
current. Thus if the load current increases, there is a possibility that the core may
saturate and inductance will come down. So the primary consideration in an
inductor is that one has to know the maximum load current and have the core
which does not saturate at this current. This can lead to a huge core size if the
current to be handled is large. The core size can be reduced considerably by
introducing an appropriate air gap in the magnetic circuit. Figure 4.1 (a) and (b)
show the effect of an air gap on the B-H characteristics of the magnetic material
illustrating clearly that with the airgap, the coil can carry considerably larger
current without saturating the core.
3.2 PRINCIPLES OF INDUCTOR DESIGN
There are several approaches to inductor design, two of which are mentioned
below:
{ Trial and error approach often guided by the "Hanna Curves".
{ Area product approach.
Here the Area Product approach is discussed as it is a sound design technique
and is also easy to follow. Figure 3.2 shows the inductor geometry using an EI
core. Using the Faraday's law one has,
e=N
dv
dt
(3.1)
31
B1
H1
H2
(b) With airgap
(a) Without airgap

Fig. 3.1 B-H Curves
Lg
Fig. 3.2 Inductor Geometry with E-I core
Ni
mmf
Rc
Rg
Fig.3.3 Model of Magnetic circuit for the inductor
32
The equivalent magnetic circuit is shown in figure 3.3. Note that Rc and Rg are
the core and air gap reluctances. They are given by the following relationships,
Rc =
lc
l 0 l r Ac
; Rs =
lg
l0 A c
(3.2)
(assuming the area of cross sections of the core and air gap to be equal i.e.
neglecting the fringing flux.), flux in the circuit of the figure 3.3 is given by
v=
mmf
Rc +R g
Ni
(3.3)
lg
lc
l 0 l r Ac + l 0A c
Using equation 3.3, equation 3.1 can be rewritten as,

e=N
dv
dt
N2
lg
lc
l 0 l r Ac ;+; l 0A c
di
dt
= L didt
(3.4)
where the inductance L is given by

L=
N2
(3.5)
lg
lc
l 0l rA c ;+; l 0 Ac
If lg , the air gap length is zero, then

L=
l 0 l r Ac N 2
lm
(3.6)
which is the familiar expression of the inductance.

For a core with high permeability, the factor lc / (0rAc) can be neglected with
respect to lg / (0 Ac) i.e. the reluctance of the magnetic material is much less than
that of the air gap. Thus equation 3.5 simplifies to
L=
l 0 A c N2
lg
i.e. lg =
l 0 A c N2
L
(3.7)
(3.8)
3.3 DESIGN OF INDUCTOR

Inductor value: The first step towards the inductor design is to find out the value
of L for the particular application. The Faraday's equation e = L di
dt is used to
find the value of L for any circuit. This equation is best suited for switched mode
applications. For circuits based on resonant principle, the L value is determined
from the resonant frequency and the Q of the circuit etc.. So depending on the
type of application and the configuration of the circuit, the value of L has to be
arrived at.
Area Product: The energy to be handled by the inductor core is given by
33
E = 1/2 LI2 m
(3.9)
where, E is the energy in joules, L is the inductance in Henrys and Im is the peak
inductor current in amps. The window area of the core should accommodate 'N'
turns of wire cross-section area 'a'. Thus,
Kw Aw = N.a
(3.10)
But, a = J , where I is the rms current through the inductor in amps and J is the
current density in A/mm2 . So, equation 3.10 can be rewritten as
Kw Aw = N
I
J
(3.11)
Defining crest factor Kc as
Kc h
Im
I
(peak )
(rms ) , and substituting for I from equation 3.11, one obtains,
Kw KcAw J = NIm
(3.12)
From the Faraday's equation, it is evident that,

di
e = L dt;
=N
dv
dt
= NAc dB
dt and
LIm = NAcBm
(3.13)
Substituting equation 3.13 in equation 3.9, one obtains

E = 1/2 NIm AcBm
(3.14)
Substituting for Im in equation 3.14 from equation 3.12 and rearranging, the Area
Product for the core is given by,
Ap = Aw Ac =
2E
Kw K c JBm
(3.15)
As there is only one winding, Kw can be chosen as o.6. The core can be chosen
by comparing the area product value obtained from equation 3.15 with the cores
in Appendix-I.
No. of turns: The number of turns can be calculated from equation 3.13,
which can be rewritten as
N=
LI m
Ac B m
(3.16)
Gauge of wire:The cross-section area of the wire can be calculated from the
formula,
a = I/J
34
(3.17)
The gauge of the wire can be decided by comparing the calculated wire cross
section from equation 3.17 with wire gauges given in Appendix-II.
Air gap, lg:
As per section 3.1, air gap, lg , is used to reduce the core size.
From the Faraday's equation, it is evident that

B=
LI
NAc
where B =
(3.18)
v
Ac
from Ampere's Law, one obtains

mmf = NI = H.dl, which gives rise to
.
NI
H = l m where lm is the mean magnetic path length

so, B = l NI
lm
(3.19)
Equating equations 3.18 and 3.19, one obtains

N2
L
lm
lAc
lm
lAc
is the reluctance of the magnetic path which can
be split into
(3.20)
lc
l 0 l r Ac
lg
+ l 0 Ac ,
where,
lc is the mean magnetic path in the magnetic material, m
lg is the air gap length, m
Ac is the core section, m2
If the material is of high permeability one, then the reluctance is contributed mainly
by the air gap, so
lc
l 0 l r Ac
<<
lg
l 0 Ac
so equation 3.20 can be rewritten as,

lg =
l 0 N 2 Ac
L
(3.21)
In calculating N, Bm is assumed, which may not be the exact Bm in the core, so

the air gap calculated may not be exact. So in many cases, value of L may have
to be trimmed by slightly adjusting the airgap.
35
3.4 SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCEDURE

{ Determine L for the particular application.
{ Calculate Area Product
E = 1/2 LI2 m
Ap = Aw Ac =
2E
Kw K c JBm
take Bm = 0.2T for ferrite, Bm = IT for CRGO, J = 3 A/mm2

and Kw = 0.6
Choose the core from Appendix - I.
{ Calculate the number of turns
LI m
Ac B m
N=
{ Determine the Gauge of the wire

a=I/J
Choose the Gauge of the wire from Appendix - II.
{ Cross Check
The inequality, Aw Kw >a.N should be satisfied, or else repeat the calculatins
for the number of turns and guage of wire after choosing the next bigger
core. Note that the value of 'a' should be the actual cross section area of
the wire used and not the calculated value.
{ Calculate air gap length, lg
lg =
l 0 N 2 Ac
L
Example : Design an Inductor for a Buck (non isolated forward converter)

Converter Configuration as shown in figure 3.4, for the following specifications:
Output voltage, V0
Output current, I0
Switching Freq., fs
Input Voltage, Vg
5V
5A
40 KHz
12V + 10%
Solution:
Determine L: The L for this Converter is given by
L=
36
V0 (1D min )
DIfs
ig
iL
VA
i
Io
Vg
VA
L
R oVo
I
io
g
DT (I-D)T
Fig. 3.4 Buck Converter and relevant waveforms

I is the current ripple in the inductor. Usually 10 to 25% of I0 is taken as I.
Take I = 10% of I0 ,
and Dmin =
V0
Vg max
Substituting the appropriate values in the above equations, we find that

L = 0.1553 mH
Area product: The energy and area product calculations are as follows
E = 1/2 LI2 m
where Im = I0 +
DI
2
Substituting the values in the above equations, we have

E = 2.14 x 10-3 joules
Ap = Aw Ac =
2E
Kw K c JBm
take Bm = 0.2T for ferrite, J=3A/mm2 (3x106 A/m2 ),

Kc = 1 (for square wave) and Kw = 0.6.
Substituting the values in the area product equation, we have
Ap = 1.18888x10-8m4 = 11888.8mm4
Now choose the core from Appendix-I which has a Ap higher than the value
calculated above
P 36/22 is proper choice - (Ac = 201 mm2 , Aw = 101 mm2 , Ap = 20100 mm4 )
No. of turns: The equation for the number of turns is given by N =
LI m
Ac B m
37
Substituting the values for the variables, we have N=21 turns (taking the next
higher integer if the calculation does not give an integer value).
Wire gauge: The gauge of the wire can be calculated from the equation given
below, taking
J = 3 A/mm2
I
a = J , where I = I0
Substituting the values of the variables in the above equation, we have,
a = 1.6666 mm2
Now choose the wire gauge from Appendix - II, which has a cross section area
greater than the value calculated above.
SWG 16 is a proper choice ( a = 2.075 mm2 )
Cross check : The inequality AwKw > aN has to be checked.
So AwKw = 101 x 0.6 = 60.60 mm2 and aN = 2.075x21 = 43.57 mm2
So the inequality is satisfied, which means that the windings will fit into the
available window area.
Air gap Length: The air gap length, lg , is given by the equation,
lg =
l 0 N 2 Ac
,
L
where 0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m.
Substituting the variable values to the above equation, we have,

lg = 0.717 x 10-3 m = 0.717 mm
3.5 SOME REMARKS ON INDUCTORS
The following remarks regarding inductor design are to be noted carefully.
{ As the permeability of the core is not a constant parameter and the energy
stored in the core material cannot be totally neglected, the above design
when implemented may not give the exact value of required L. However
this design procedure is satisfactory for most of the cases. The actual value
of desired L may have to be trimmed by adjusting the air gap.
{ The assembly of the core is done in a slightly different manner than that of
the transformer, when laminations are used to make the inductor. In the
case of the inductor, all E laminations are put together and all I laminations
are held together and air gap is put between the E laminations and the I
38
laminations. Thin Hylam / leatheroid / fibre glass/melinex can be used as air

gap. The assembly is then tightened by means of clamps.
{ In the case of potcores, EE and EI cores, a gap of lg/2 only need be introduced in the centre to achieve effective air gap of lg, due to the geometry of
the core.
{ The inductor fabricated is not a pure L but has a resistance also. Its value
can be computed using the same procedure used in the case of
transformer. If there is a particular constraint on R (e.g. Low copper loss
requirement), then the wire size has to be chosen properly. One should not
forget to cross check the space requirement in case the wire size is altered.
Due to the copper losses, the actual energy handled by the core is slightly
higher than that given by equation 3.9. An efficiency factor can be incorporated in equation 3.15 so that the required Ap is slightly higher.
{ When using ferrite cores, once the core is chosen, calculation of the
number of turns is often simplified by using the so called AL value of the
core. AL value represents the inductance factor. The formula for the
number of turns is given by,
L = ALN2
When air gap is to be put, a ferrite core of pre-adjusted airgap can be
chosen and its AL value can be used in the design.
39
REFERENCES
1. L.Umanand and S.R.Bhat, Design of Magnetic Components for Switched

Mode Power Converters, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1992.
2. M.A.Nadkarni and S.R.Bhat, Pulse transformer: Design and fabrication,
CEDT series, Tata McGraw Hill Book Co., 1985.
3. Colonel Wm.T.McLyman, Transfomer and Inductor design handbook,
Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1978.
4. K.Kitsum, Switched mode power conversion - Basic theory and design,
Marcell Dekker Inc., 1984.
5. N.Radhakrishnan and S.R.Bhat, Design and technology of low power
transformers and inductors, CEDT, IISc., 1988.
6. McSay, Performance and design of alternating current machines, Sir Isaac
Pitman and Sons Ltd., 1962.
7. J.Nagarath and D.P.Kothari, Electric Machines, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, 1985.
8. Philips Databook C5, Components and Materials, 1986, pp. 88.
40
APPENDIX - I
PHYSICAL, ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF SOME FERRITE CORES
Cores
without
airgap
mean
mean core cross window
length magnetic section area, A w,
per turn, length lm , area A c ,
cm2
2
mm
mm
cm
area
product,
A p, cm4
effective
AL
relative nH/turns2
permeab- +/- 25%
ility, r
+/-25%
POTCORES - CEL HP3C grade

P18/11
35.6
26
0.43
0.27
0.114
1,480
3,122
P26/16
52
37.5
0.94
0.53
0.498
1,670
5,247
P30/19
60
45.2
1.36
0.75
1.016
1,760
6,703
P36/22
73
53.2
2.01
1.01
2.01
2,030
9,500
P42/29
86
68.6
2.64
1.81
4.778
2,120
10,250
P66/56
130
123
7.15
5.18
37.03
EE CORES - CEL HP3C grade

E20/10/5
38
42.8
0.31
0.478
0.149
1,770
1,624
E25/9/6
51.2
48.8
0.4
0.78
0.312
1,840
1,895
E25/13/7
52
57.5
0.55
0.87
0.478
1,900
2,285
E30/15/7
56
66.9
0.597
1.19
0.71
E36/18/11
70.6
78
1.31
1.41
1.847
2,000
4,200
E42/21/9
77.6
108.5
1.07
2.56
2.739
2,100
2,613
E42/21/15
93
97.2
1.82
2.56
4.659
2,030
4,778
E42/21/20
99
98
2.35
2.56
6.016
2,058
6,231
E65/32/13
150
146.3
2.66
5.37
14.284
2,115
4,833
UU CORES
UU 15
44
48
0.32
0.59
1.19
1,100
UU 21
55
68
0.55
1.01
0.555
1,425
UU 23
64
74
0.61
1.36
0.823
1,425
UU 60
183
184
1.96
11.65
22.83
1,900
UU 100
29.3
308
6.45
29.14
187.95
3,325
41
Cores
without
airgap
mean
mean core cross window
length magnetic section area, A w,
per turn, length lm , area A c ,
cm2
2
mm
mm
cm
area
product,
A p, cm4
effective
AL
relative nH/turns2
permeab- +/- 25%
ility, r
+/-25%
TOROIDS - CEL HP3C grade
42
T 10
12.8
23.55
0.062
0.196
0.012
2,300
765
T 12
19.2
30.4
0.12
0.442
0.053
2,300
1,180
T 16
24.2
38.7
0.2
0.785
0.157
2,300
1,482
T 20
25.2
47.3
0.22
0.95
0.213
2,300
1,130
T 27
34.1
65.94
0.42
1.651
0.698
2,300
1,851
T 32
39.6
73
0.61
1.651
1.01
2,300
2,427
T 45
54.7
114.5
0.93
6.157
5.756
2,300
2,367
APPENDIX - II
WIRE SIZE TABLE

SWG
Dia with enamel,

Area of bare
mm
conductor, mm2
R/Km @20oC
ohms
Weight
Kg/Km
45
0.086
0.003973
4,340
0.0369
44
0.097
0.005189
3,323
0.0481
43
0.109
0.006567
2,626
0.061
42
0.119
0.008107
2,127
0.075
41
0.132
0.009810
1,758
0.0908
40
0.142
0.011675
1,477
0.1079
39
0.152
0.013700
1,258
0.1262
38
0.175
0.018240
945.2
0.1679
37
0.198
0.023430
735.9
0.2202
36
0.218
0.029270
589.1
0.2686
35
0.241
0.035750
482.2
0.3281
34
0.264
0.042890
402
0.3932
33
0.287
0.050670
340.3
0.465
32
0.307
0.059100
291.7
0.5408
31
0.33
0.06818
252.9
0.6245
30
0.351
0.07791
221.3
0.7121
29
0.384
0.09372
184
0.8559
28
0.417
0.11100
155.3
1.014
27
0.462
0.13630
126.5
1.245
26
0.505
0.16420
105
1.499
25
0.561
0.20270
85.1
1.851
24
0.612
0.24520
70.3
2.233
23
0.665
0.29190
59.1
2.655
22
0.77
0.39730
43.4
3.607
21
0.874
0.51890
33.2
4.702
20
0.978
0.65670
26.3
5.939
19
1.082
0.81070
21.3
7.324
18
1.293
1.16700
14.8
10.537
43
SWG
44
Dia with enamel,

Area of bare
mm
conductor, mm2
R/Km @20oC
ohms
Weight
Kg/Km
17
1.501
1.589
10.8
14.313
16
1.709
2.075
8.3
18.678
15
1.92
2.627
6.6
23.64
14
2.129
3.243
5.3
29.15
13
2.441
4.289
38.56
12
2.756
5.48
3.1
49.22
11
3.068
6.818
2.5
61
10
3.383
8.302
2.1
74
3.8
10.51
1.6
94
4.219
12.97
1.3
116
APPENDIX - III
TRANSFORMERS AND CHOKE LAMINATIONS - STANDARD

TYPES
TYPE No.
A c , cm2
A w, cm2
A p, cm4
17
1.61
1.2
1.95
12A
2.52
1.884
4.75
21
2.52
3.32
8.36
10
2.52
4.43
11.2
10A
2.52
4.43
11.2
2.789
6.543
18.2
74
3.063
2.28
6.98
23
3.63
2.72
9.88
11
3.63
7.26
26.4
11A
3.63
9.07
32.9
3.63
10.89
39.52
30
12
31
4.94
3.71
18.3
45
4.94
3.71
18.3
15
6.45
4.84
31.2
44
6.45
4.84
31.2
14
6.45
6.55
42.2
6.45
15.85
102.2
33
7.84
5.88
46.1
10.08
7.54
76
13
10.08
14.11
142.3
4A
11.12
10.26
114
16
14.5
10.89
158
14.5
12.73
184.5
14.5
19.35
280.8
25.8
18.95
488.9
25.8
51.23
1,322
34
2.5
6.68
16.3
45
46
TYPE No.
A c , cm2
A w, cm2
A p, cm4
4.4
9.1
44.9
9A
4.9
7.9
38.9
4AX
5.6
13.07
74.1
75
6.5
15.26
98.4
35A
14.5
39.34
570.4
8B
58.1
65.52
3,804
100
103.2
116.1
11,988
PROBLEMS
1. Derive the area product relationship for the half bridge converter, full
bridge converter, pushpull converter and the flyback converter
configurations.
2. Design a 50Hz transformer that has the following specifications:
The transformer has one primary and three secondary windings.
Primary voltage
230Vrms
Secondary ratings-1
140Vrms, 16A
Secondary ratings-2
12Vrms, 12A
Secondary ratings-3
12Vrms, 12A
Use CRGO laminations for the core. An operating flux density of 1.2T can
be chosen.
3. Design a 48mH inductor carrying 8Arms current used in a LC filter to filter
fullwave mains rectified waveform. Use CRGO laminations for the core
with operating flux density of 1.2T.
4. For a non-isolated buck converter, the inductance was calculated to be
1mH. The minimum load current is 0.5A and the maximum allowable load
current is 11A. Design the inductor for Bm = 0.25T, J=5A/mm2 , Kw=0.6
and fs=40KHz.
5. Design a transformer for the half bridge converter configuration shown in
figure 2.2 for the following specifications,
output voltage, Vo
12V
output ripple, %
1% of Vo
output current, Io
3A
switching frequency, fs
20KHz
supply voltage, Vcc
24V +/- 10%
6. Design a transformer for the full bridge converter configuration shown in
figure 2.3 for the following specifications,
output voltage, Vo
12V
output ripple, %
1% of Vo
output current, Io
3A
47
supply voltage, Vcc
20KHz
24V +/- 10%
7. Design a transformer for the push pull converter configuration shown in

figure 2.4 with the following specifications
output voltage, Vo
12V
output ripple, %
1% of Vo
output current, Io
3A
20KHz
supply voltage, Vcc
24V +/- 10%
8. Design a transformer for the flyback converter (in the continuous conduction mode) with the following specifications
output voltage, Vo
12V
output ripple, %
1% of Vo
output current, Io
3A
20KHz
supply voltage, Vcc
24V +/- 10%
9. Design a transformer for the flyback converter (in the discontinuous
conduction mode) with the following specifications
output voltage, Vo
12V
output ripple, %
1% of Vo
output current, Io
3A
20KHz
supply voltage, Vcc
24V +/- 10%
10.Compare the physical sizes of the transformers obtained for the converter
configurations in problems (5) to (9). Comment on the preferred type of
converter configurations for various power ranges from the point of view of
transformer size.
48

L Umanad Powertrans Design

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L Umanad Powertrans Design

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1.

PRINCIPLES OF POWER TRANSFORMER

Fig. 1.1 Basic Transformer

H.dl = N 1 I mag = mmf

= rms current in the primary winding with secondary open circuited

Fig. 1.2 B-H Relationship of a magnetic core

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

substituting equation 1.3 in 1.2 we have

The instantaneous energy, dE is given by (from equations 1.4 and 1.5)

Aclm = core volume, Vc; and

BHVcf where f is the frequency of operation.

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

A c = core cross section in sq.m

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Fig. 1.3 Induced current

Fig. 1.4 Core cross

1.5 TURNS RATIO

and by rearranging, one obtains

Notice that this is an important relationship which has to be clearly understood.

The magnetizing force due to I mag is generally negligible compared to N1 I1 or N2 I

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Combining equations 1.15 and 1.20, one obtains

Fig.1.5 Transformer on Load

Fig. 1.6 Leakage Flux

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

These are generally represented by leakage inductances as follows:

Fig. 1.7 Shell Type Transformer

where 1 and 2 are called the leakage inductances.

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Fig. 1.8 Equivalent Circuit of the Transformer

However, in instrument transformers, which are used to sample voltage or

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Thus, Erms = KfEav = 4KfNfBmAc

For an alternating square wave Kf = 1 and for a sinewave Kf = 1.11

Current can be expressed in terms of current density as follows:

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Fig. 1.10 Illustration of Aw and Ac for different core geometries

As N1 turns of primary has a cross section area of a1 and N2 turns of secondary

Substituting for awire in equation 1.29, one obtains

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

For a sine wave, the secondary VA, P02 , is given by

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Which reduces to equation 1.35 if Ac is expressed in sq. cm. It has to be noted

Fig. 1.11 EE laminations and coil former

1.13 WINDOW UTILIZATION FACTOR (KW)

winding area in core

Fig: 1.12(a) Creepage Distance for 230V Mains Isolation

Fig. 1.12 (b) Detailed section of winding showing how creepage

Creepage distance: In addition to the above factors, in transformers used for

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Fig.1.13 Transformer Polarities

Fig.1.14 Dot Convention in a Transformer

Fig.1.15 Testing for Polarities

1.14 TESTING FOR POLARITY

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

with transformers. When one wants to connect two transformers in series or in

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

2. HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012

Vo + Vrl + VD = N21 . Dmax. Vccmin

Fig. 2.1 Forward Converter Topology

Half Bridge Converter

Fig.2.2 Half Bridge Converter Topology

Dr.L.Umanand, CEDT, IISc, Bangalore-560012