Ography and You - July - August 2015

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Gny SINCe 2001 Vol. 15, ISSue 91, 2015
`120
A De v e l op m e n t A n D e n v i ron m e n t m Ag A z i n e
should Girs Lions be

relocated?
Water
Dying rivers
and dwindling
groundwater
Matters
Conserving Indias Groundwater 4 Ganga

Doomed 44 Surface Water Storage and
Disasters 50 Indias New Species 64
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GeoGraphy and you

Vol. 15 Issue 91 July - August 2015
Wat e r M at t e r s
4
Conserving Indias Groundwater
For Sustainable Water Security of the Country

Rina MukheRji
10
3D Imaging and National Aquifer

Mapping Programme
Shakeel ahMed
14
Groundwater Exploitation in the

Northwest Plains
Staff RepoRteR
20
Rivers of India : Perilous or

Promising?
S R k Mall and diva Bhatt
26
Riparian Vs Catchment
Hydropolitics
nayan ShaRMa, SuBaSh pRaSad Rai and
haRinaRayan tiwaRi
32
Keralas Dwindling Freshwater

Resources
d padMalal and Staff RepoRteR
38
Water Quality of the Upper Ganga

RaMeSh C ShaRMa
44
Ganga Doomed
Staff RepoRteR
50
Surface Water Storage and

Disasters
Sulagna Chattopadhyay
Expert Panel
Prithvish Nag
Vice Chancellor,
MG Kashi Vidyapeeth,
Varanasi.
Ajit Tyagi
Air Vice Marshal (Retd)

Former DG,
IMD, New Delhi.
B Meenakumari
Fmr Deputy Director General,

Fisheries, Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Rasik Ravindra
Panikkar Professor at ESSO,

Ministry of Earth Sciences,
Former Director, NCAOR.
Saraswati Raju
Professor, CSRD,
Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi.
Sachidanand Sinha
Professor, CSRD,
Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi.
Indiscriminate groundwater withdrawal brings down the

water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of
flow in a spring.
I n dIa ou t d o or s
56
The Lions New Home

Staff RepoRteR
64
Are there still more?
Discovering new species in India

Staff RepoRteR
In BrIef
2 Letters 3 Editors note 9 Geological sequestration:
Environmental concerns 25 Term power 31 The Black Damodar
55 Term Power Rating 62 The Whale Shark
GeoGraphy and you July - auGust 2015
GeoGraphy and you

editor
Sulagna Chattopadhyay
LeGaL advisor
KriShnendu datta
cover PhotoGraPh
a WoMen irrigating
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I read the disaster special issue of GnY

titled Man Vs God. The issue is a very
diGitaL editions
gny iS aVailaBle on
subtle commentary on the role of man in
digital platForMS FroM
creating situations conducive for disaster
January 2015 onWardS.
SpeCial liFetiMe
and then blaming nature. It is astonishing
diSCountS.
that India does not have any comprehensive
guidelines for urban construction which
evaluates safety, sanitation and adequate living
spaceall in one go. The construction of CWG games
village on a Yamuna flood plain and on a declared fault zone is an outright blunder and
surprisingly this was undertaken by the Central Government. The articles in this issue have
clearly brought out the problems that could have been averted if certain precautions were
taken. The article of Anil Kumar Sinha titled Tremors in Bihar is an eye opener. The data
given on the proportion of dilapidated houses in Odisha, Assam and Bihar is alarming. The
government must take action immediately to avert lives being lost. The other articles on
Nepal earthquake and Traditional genius and earthquakes are excellent and worth a read.
I congratulate the GnY team for their effort.
RamSwaRooP Singh, Patna
For more details log on to our website www.geographyandyou.com
Land acquisition issue I complement the
team of GnY for publishing such a

comprehensive Issue 88, (January-February
2015) on acquisition of land in India. In
fact, the learned articles and brief history
of previous land acquisitions and lingering
problems related to rehabilitation covered
in the issue are a clear indication that the
Ordinance by the current government was
not required. The repeated Ordinances
put the government in poor light and it
showed a clear lack of understanding
in dealing with the issue. Probably the
government managers believed that
administrative decisions should not be
questioned. But now the government has
decided to discontinue the Ordinance
route. This may have given some relief to
the present government, as they no longer
need to assuage the opposition. As for
the opposition, it is an issue lost as they
no longer need to prepare strategies to
fight the government of the day. But, the
following issues need to be cleared: what
happens to the land acquired under the
period when the Ordinance was under
operation; and secondly, what is the locus
standi of the previous Act which was
superseded by the Ordinance.
R K Singh, new Delhi
onLine issues of GnY I have subscribed to the
online issue of GnY and I am receiving it

regularly albeit a bit late. I understand the
difficulties in bringing out such a content rich
July - auGust 2015 GeoGraphy and you
magazine. However, I want to know whether

I can get an online version of your books i.e.
Environment in India and Climate Change.
SubeRna PathaK, bangaloRe
short fiLms initiatives bY GnY I am a regular
reader of GnY and I visit your website

quite often. While browsing I came across
the short films uploaded by GnY team.
This is really a great effort. I liked the one
that talks about the need of individual
agri-agents. I have always had the feeling
that there was something amiss in the agriinsurance, as even after the governments
claims about providing insurance cover
to the failing crops, farmer suicides have
not abated. I fully agree with the view
expressed in the short film and believe that
companies like Life Insurance Corporation
should employ thousands of rural youth
as agri-agents who can insure individual
fields by charging a premium and in case
there is a natural calamity, the claim may
be settled individually. This will definitely
put a brake on the suicides by farmers.
SimRan Jeet Singh, ChanDigaRh
environment deGradation In 2007 I had read an
article in GnY on dying lakes of Badkal and
Dam Dama. It was based on remote sensing
data from various years. It would be great if
you kindly continue to highlight such issues
based on your own studies. I would look
forward to it.
JoyDeeP Pal, KolKata
Photo courtesy: Partha sarathi sahana
Edi t ors | no t E
Dear Readers,
The Cauvery and its historic

dispute over sharing its waters
any a stories have been woven around rippling and cascading brooks that ran
by homes, and deep and dark pools that adorned every green grove, about
unwritten codes and voyeurism, shame and love, titillation and fear. When the
mundane activity of collecting drinking water and bathing in a common space changed
to personal precincts, the stories died and with it the quality of the water. Once we lost
the connect with our water bodies, we lost our desire to take care of them. Indices of
development today flag the need to have a piped connection to ensure equitable access
amongst other things. But, its downside is a severance that has resulted in cascading
levels of pollution in ground and surface water. Without grassroot level vigilance, water
bodies began to bear the muck of a fast growing and ill-advised populace.
Thus began the saga of cleaning, and cleaning again and then again, until hundreds
of crores of Indian rupees have literally run down the proverbial drain, in order to redeem
something that is beyond redemption. If the health of a countys river and water bodies
could determine its level of development, India would perhaps occupy the lowest rungs
amongst developing nations. Let us then leave our rivers alone, and allow them, all dead,
run to seas with its dirt and filth. We can then, leave the wrecked lands behind, pack bed
and baggage and be a colourful addition to a diaspora that we so want to be part of.
The alternative would be to levy water charges. Ground, river, tank or any other
surface water should no longer be free. The government on the other hand should
distribute recycled water free, in a safe and equitable manner. Funds to clean rivers
and water bodies should only be used for this single purpose and charges levied for
freshwater usage should be worked into running recycled services for free. Then our
rivers and water bodies could perhaps breathe againand development jumpstart.
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WAT ER | M AT T ER S
Women thronging near a well in Vasai.

As per the May 2012 report of the
Groundwater Survey and Development
Agency Maharashtra, many regions of
the State are experiencing a groundwater decline of over 1 m.
July - August 2015 geogrAphy And you
Photo: Samrat35
Conserving
Indias
Groundwater
For Sustainable Water Security of the Country
geogrAphy And you July - August 2015
By Rina MukheRji
Demand for water in India is estimated to reach 1500 billion cubic m
by 2030. Against this Indias current water supply is approximately
740 billion cubic m as a result of which most river basins could face a
severe deficit by then.
he World
Resources
Institute, a
US based
resea rch
organisation projected
that the demand for
water in India will grow
to almost 1500 billion
cubic m by 2030, driven
by domestic demand for
rice, wheat, and sugar
(Tien Shiao et al., 2015, 3 Maps explain Indias
growing water risks, World Resources Institute).
Against this, Indias current water supply is approximately 740 billion cubic m (bcm) (Charting our
water futureEconomic framework to inform
decision-making, 2030, Water Resources Group,
2009). Thus, most of Indias river basins could face
a severe deficit by 2030 unless concerted action is
taken, with some of the most populous regions
the Ganga, the Krishna, and the Indus, facing the
biggest absolute gap.
Groundwater resources are the only means
of succour, given this scenario. But can our
groundwater resources be relied upon? Indias
groundwater resources are depleting in both
quality and quantity, as per data made available
by the Central Ground Water Board. The depletion can be perhaps partially ascribed to erratic
monsoon trends and unavailability of necessary moisture for groundwater replenishment.
However, water guzzling crops and cultivating a
wrong combination of foodgrains can play a key
role in depletion. According to a 2009 commentary
by Matthew Rodell et al.,Satellite based estimates
6
of groundwater depletion in India, published in

Nature, groundwater extraction during 2002 to
2008 was equivalent to a net loss of 109 cubic km of
water in Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (including
Delhi). The quantum of extraction was found to be
double the capacity of Indias largest surface water
reservoir. The data was calculated on the basis
of terrestrial water storage change observations
collected by the NASA Gravity Recovery and
Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellites and simulated soil-water variations from a data-integrating
hydrological modelling system related to groundwater depletion. During this period annual rainfall
was close to normal and terrestrial water storage
components (soil moisture, surface waters, snow,
glaciers and biomass) did not significantly reflect
a decline in total water levels. This would suggest
that unsustainable consumption of groundwater
for irrigation and other anthropogenic uses were
likely to be the cause. The researchers concluded
that if proactive measures are not taken to ensure
sustainable groundwater usage, residents of the
region maybe faced with a reduction of agricultural
output and shortages of potable water.
Over exploitation of groundwater in South Asia
has been extensively discussed in the report Water
and development, 1997-2007 of the Independent
Evaluation Group (IEG) of the World Bank, along
with the problem of inadequate environmental
flow and contamination. According to the report,
groundwater depletion is most severe in the
Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia. The
IEG Report had stressed on monitoring groundwater quality, improving of landfill sites, and the
reduction of infiltration by contaminated surface
water into groundwater as measures to maintain
The India Water Tool 2.0 created by the World Resources Institute illustrates the
depth and breadth of Indias water-related challenges through maps (February 2015).
A cursory perusal reveals that 54 per cent of India faces high to extremely high water
stress and more than 100 million people live in area of poor water quality.
Extremely high water stress
Red and dark-red areas
depicting highly or extremely
highly stressed regions, is where
more than 40 per cent of the
annually available surface water
is used every year (Fig 1). Indias
northwest is the countrys bread
basket, with Punjab and Haryana
alone producing 50 per cent
of the national governments
rice supply and 85 per cent of
its wheat stocks. Both crops
are highly water intensive,
and hence, the depletion of
groundwater resources is
bound to affect the availability
of foodgrains markedly. Of the
4,000 wells captured in the
India Water Tool 2.0, 54 per
cent showed dropped levels
over the past seven years, with
16 per cent declining by more
than 1 m (3.2 feet) per year. This
means 600 million people are at
risk of water disruptions. In the
northwestern India, 58 per cent
of the 550 wells studied displays
declining groundwater levels.
Fig 2: Poor Water

Quality regions
Groundwater quality
(Number of BIS-standard breaches)
No Breaches
1 Breach
2 Breach
3+ Breach
No Data
Map not to scale
Fig. 1: Water Stressed

regions of India
Groundwater level
(meters below ground level)
High (<1.5)
Medium to High (1.5-5.9)
Medium (5.9-10.3)
Low to Medium (10.3-14.6)
Low (>14.6)
No Data
Map not to scale
Poor water quality

Even where water is available,
the quality of water is extremely
poor. Of the 632 districts
surveyed for groundwater
quality, only 59 showed water
quality to be above the Bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS) limits
(Fig 2). Whenever a particular
pollutant concentration exceeds
BIS limits, drinking water is
considered unsafe. The yellow
and red areas in the map indicate
locations where chlorine,
fluoride, iron, arsenic, nitrate,
and/or electrical conductivity
exceed national standards. As
per the findings reflected in
the map, more than 100 million
people dwell in areas of poor
water quality.
Source: www.indiawatertool.in
the quality of precious aquifers.

Scientist S Suresh, in his paper, Groundwater
flow modelling in coastal aquifers of Southern
part of Chennai Metropolitan Area, Tamil Nadu
published in CGWBs Bhujal News (JanuaryDecember 2012), has noted with apprehension
the mining of water in southern parts of Chennai
by private entrepreneurs. Rainwater harvesting
is a common practice by concerned residents;
however, the erratic, sparse rainfall in the region
has left Chennai severely water stressed and bereft
of options. The water demand was 1026 million
litres per day (mld) in 2001 and would become
1980 mld in 2021, while supply is expected to be
around 1586 mld, if full capacity of the reservoirs
and the groundwater supply are to be projected
(ibid.). Owing to ballooning of urban populations,
groundwater extraction levels are found to be far in
excess of the recharging rates. However, in coastal
areas, this has resulted in salinity ingress, as in
Minjur, north of Chennai.
Conserving groundwater, saving aquifers
The quantity and quality of groundwater needs to

conserved at several levels. One needs to:
limit groundwater extraction;
recharge existing aquifers; and,
prevent contamination of aquifers through
salinity ingress, untreated sewage or industrial
pollutants.
The demands of growing urban populations
can certainly stress groundwater resources. Since
it is impractical to stop groundwater extraction,
we need to opt for methods to limit extraction.
Rainwater harvesting and recharging models can
be a good solution in regions of moderate to heavy
rainfall. For other parts of the country faced with
deficient rain, rainwater harvesting may not be
enough. Recycling of available water must necessarily be opted for, to keep groundwater extraction
to a minimum.
In rural regions, where agriculture accounts
for large quantities of groundwater extraction,
planting crops most suited to soil quality and
topography can limit the over exploitation of water
resources. Instead of rice or wheat, millets can be
opted for in semi-arid, arid or upland regions. Similarly, in coastal regions faced with standing water,
and salinity, planting trees like eucalyptus can solve
the problem, and make the soil suitable for planting
crops all year round. The system of rice intensifica8
tion (SRI) or system of wheat intensification (SWI)

methods can also reduce the consumption of water,
and improve yields.
Rural areas are faced with contamination of
water resources due to leaching of chemicals from
fertilisers. Organic farming, which is fast catching
on as a cheaper and healthier method to produce
food can provide a good alternative to toxicity
in groundwater. Contamination also occurs due
to inadequate sanitation facilities, and the reckless release of untreated sewage and pollutants.
Untreated industrial pollutants can not only destroy
the soil, but introduce dangerous contaminants
like cadmium into the food cycle. In areas with
high groundwater levels, as in the deltaic regions of
Bengal, it is safer to opt for ecological sanitation to
prevent the contamination of the groundwater. In
parts of the lower Gangetic basin, as also the deltaic
region, arsenic and fluoride contamination of
groundwater resources is common. This is generally
brought about by overexploitation and continuous
extraction of groundwater by growing populations.
In 2014, a collaborative study by CGWB and the
Indian Institute of Remote Sensing to assess the
impact of ground water abstraction on land subsidence in Northern India, was launched. The study
involves application of state of art technologies
such as space borne geodetic observations on land
subsidence, predictive modelling, inter-comparison of land subsidence, ground water depletion
and space based gravity anomaly. Deliverables
include land subsidence information for selected
cities of northern India and regional groundwater
depletion scenario along with recharge assessment.
Notwithstanding the bleak state of affairs, several
water saving agricultural practices are already in
place to ensure Indias agricultural productivity.
These include utilisation of the best available
germplasm or other seed development, optimising fertiliser use, and application of crop stress
management, including both improved practices
(such as integrated pest management) and innovative crop protection technologies, as noted by the
2030 Water Resources Group. India, it notes, only
needs to undertake the last mile completion of
its canal projects and rehabilitation of its existing
irrigation districts. It should hence, not prove too
difficult to save our aquifers for posterity.
The author is a senior scientific writer from Kolkata.
rina_mukherji@yahoo.com
In | br Ief
Aquifer risk: Carbon capture and storage
Photo courtesy: NAsA
A prominent geoengineering process called geological sequestration or carbon capture and storage
(CCS), involves capturing CO2 that would otherwise be emitted to the atmosphere, compressing it,
and injecting it into deep aquifers to confine it for thousands or millions of years. Although the method
aims to mitigate the effects of global warming, this technique has been highly debated by experts
for its potential threat to the environment. They claim that this not only poses a serious threat to the
ecosystem through CO2 leakage but also involves additional cost to energy production and delays
transition to renewable energies. Experts claim that the leakage would potentially occur through
faults or abandoned boreholes and ultimately result in upward migration and discharge into the
atmosphere. During migration, CO2 would dissolve into groundwater forming carbonic acid, induce
NASA Scientists
experimenting by
shooting carbon
dioxide snow.
water-rock reactions and thus change groundwater chemistry.

The detrimental effects of CO2 leakage on shallow aquifer, to an extent, were successfully outlined
by a case study by the Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark
in 2013. Researchers injected approximately 1600 kg of CO2 into the shallow silicate dominated
Vrgum aquifer in Western Denmark for over 72 days and pulled out more than 760 water samples for
analysis. In addition to this, the research team, led by Aaron Graham Cahill, also collected pre- and
post-sediment cores to learn more about sediment alteration and identify the various geochemical
processes controlling groundwater chemistry evolution. Results of the study Hydrogeochemical
impact of CO2: Leakage from geological sequestration on shallow potable aquifers, documented a
significant lowering of pH and increase in electrical conductivity in all the samples collected. It was
noted that the deleterious effects on groundwater quality were limited, although samples recorded
high aluminium concentrations reaching up to 75 mol/L. The field studies and consequent laboratory
investigations confirmed buffering exhaustion/sediment depletion, thus explaining the observed
phenomenon of increasing acidification. The study concluded that groundwater chemistry evolves
spatially and temporally during leakage, thus risks posed and the best methods for detection will
also vary. It also pointed out that CO2 leakages depends largely on time and depth, with water quality
deteriorating as a leak matures.
3D imaging
&N atioN a l aquifer
M a ppiNg progr a MMe
NGRI personnel marking up one of

the pilot areas for the aquifer mapping
programme (top). Helicopter borne
survey underway (bottom).
10
Photo courtesy: DFID, uK
Photo courtesy: shaKeel ahmeD
By Shakeel ahmed
A futuristic programme that intends to define the geometry and

hydrochemistry of Indias natural aquifers in a national database which can
act as an important point of reference for water resources management.
he alarming depletion of groundwater, amid escalating demand

for water has motivated the Indian
government to accord top priority to
aquifer-based sustainable groundwater management of late. The National Aquifer
Mapping Programme has been planned to define
the geometry, productive zones, hydraulic characteristics and hydrochemistry of the principal
aquifers in India, besides quantifying the present
storage, assess recharge and discharge areas, as
also mark aquifers vulnerable to contamination.
The programme will mathematically model the
conditions of aquifers all over the country and
generate a database for aquifer-wise groundwater
resources management.
surveys to map Indias aquifers
Keeping in view the vast areas to be covered for

countrywide mapping, the National Geophysical
Research Institute (NGRI), had proposed
helicopter-borne geophysical surveys, for very
high precision data density, fast coverage, and
cost-effective accessibility to remote areas.
Accordingly, NGRI, in collaboration with the
Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) carried out
advanced geophysical investigations particularly
high resolution helicopter-borne time domain
electromagnetic (HTEM) and magnetic (HMAG)
surveys jointly with Aarhus University and
SkyTEM Denmark under the aegis of the Ministry
of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation, to delineate principal aquifers in six
hydro-geologically divergent areas in India.
For this purpose, the SkyTEM system that
incorporates the unique feature of using two (low
and high) moments was employed. While the low
moment provided the critical information on near
surface features to assess the recharge potential,

the measurements at high moment yielded deeper
information of up to ~300 m in alluvial areas
and ~200 m in hard rock areas. The survey also
included the measurement of magnetic fields in
areas where the occurrence of groundwater was
structurally controlled.
Indias major regions
The six pilot areas selected are representative of the

major geological and hydrogeological setups in the
country. The areas are AQRAJ in alluvium covered
hard rock and AQDRT in sedimentary sequence
under desert (Rajasthan), AQBHR in Gangetic
Alluvium plains (Bihar), AQMAH in Deccan
basalt underlain by Gondwana sediments (Maharashtra), AQKAR in granite hard rock (Karnataka),
and AQTND in coastal alluvium and sediments
(Tamil Nadu).
The objectives of the geophysical investigations
carried out by the NGRI are as follows:
Application of advanced geophysical methods
and techniques to provide information on
shallow and deep aquifers within 200 m depth in
hard rock and within 300 m in alluvial/ sedimentary areas at a reasonable scale of 1:50,000;
Establishing the efficacy of various geophysical
techniques under different hydrogeological
conditions and a protocol for geophysical investigations to be taken up as an aid to aquifer mapping
to be up-scaled for the entire country; and
Strengthening the capacity of the CGWB,
state agencies and stakeholders in advanced
geophysical techniques and modelling through
an outreach programme.
The helicopter-based geophysical investigation
comprises two components viz., electromagnetic
and magnetic. The HTEM method energises the
11
Fig 1: The six aquifers selected for the helicopter-borne geophysical survey
Alluvial at middle
Ganga Plain, Bihar
Desert underlined by
limestone at Jaisalmer,
Rajasthan
AQDRT
Hard rock covered by

-70m thick alluvial in
Rajasthan
AQBHR
Deccan Basalt at
Nagpur, Maharashtra
AQMAH
Granite hard rock at

Tumkur, Karnataka
AQKAR
Sea Coast at Cuddalore,

Tamil Nadu
AQTND
Fig 2: Geological analysis of alluvial at middle Ganga Plain, Bihar, depicting

variation in the clay layer (in green) separating the two aquifers, principal aquifer I
(contaminated by arsenic) and principal aquifer II (free from arsenic).
Recharge Area (palaeo channel)
South
North
W-I (e-logs)
W-II (e-logs)
Shallow Aquifer
Principal Aquifer-I
Principal Aquifer-I
Clay-I (Confining Layer)
Principal Aquifer-II
Principal Aquifer-II
Clay-II (Confining Layer)

300 m
Resistivity (Ohm-m)
0
1
10
ground by means of sending a current pulse in

the transmitter loop towed below the helicopter.
The pulse induces eddy currents in the subsurface geological conductors that in turn produce
secondary electromagnetic (EM) fields, which are
12
10 km
100
1,000
recorded by a receiver loop, placed either at the

centre or in close vicinity of the transmitter loop.
These are then converted into subsurface resistivity
distributions. The presence of groundwater and
variation in the groundwater quality within the
Rapid data collection

helps generate a dense
data network - facilitating
realistic plans for
groundwater management
aquifer results in variation in electrical conductivity

within the ground. This response is then analysed,
processed and modelled to create depth images
representing subsurface resistivity/conductivity
distributions. Concurrent measurements of the
magnetic field (HMAG) provide valuable information on the geological structures that control the
occurrence of groundwater.
Similarly, the variations in magnetic susceptibility in the ground to the presence of geological
structures (folds, faults and fractured zones) intrusive (dykes, quartz reef and pegmatite veins) in hard
rock areas, basements in alluvial areas, are also
mapped by helicopter borne magnetic surveys. The
magnetic field and other relevant parameters for an
area are prepared to identify structures favourable
for groundwater repository.
Findings
The salient hydrogeological features of the six

geologically distinct sites emerging from the pilot
HTEM experiment are summarised below:
A clear delineation of clayey and sandy beds and
their spatial distribution defining the multilayered aquifer typical of the Gangetic Plains;
Delineation of low resistivity zones in quartzite
below the overexploited aquifers indicating the
possibility of new aquifers in a pre-Cambrian
sedimentary setting;
Presence of freshwater zones underneath the
saline water aquifers in the thick and dry sands
in the desert;
Clear demarcation of different lava flows,
mapping the structural controls as well as highly
porous zones at the contact between Deccan
basalts and the underlying Gondwana strata;
A complete and continuous mapping of weathered portions in the hard-rock (granite) terrain
providing information on the recharge zones;

and,
The setting of multi-layered aquifers and different
salt water zones in the coastal sedimentary
formations.
The efficacy of the dual moment SkyTEM surveys
in delineating the 3-D configuration of aquifers is
clearly established. The survey helped identify
the principal aquifers in select hydrogeological
provinces of India, viz., in the Gangetic alluvium,
tertiary sediments underlying the desert, Deccan
basalts and Gondwana sediments, weathered and
fractured granite gneisses and schists and the
coastal alluvium and tertiary sediments. It helped
identify the subsurface structures controlling the
groundwater conditions, the regional continuity
of principal aquifers, the variations in lithological
character of aquifers and the quality of water in
terms of salinity.
Results of the heliborne surveys also correlated
well with the available geological, hydrogeological
and borehole information logs. Combining all the
borehole logs, surface and heliborne data with the
drilling log and integrated lithologs prepared at
point scale, were used to calibrate and interpolate
the SkyTEM data of the entire area to demarcate the
principal litho interfaces and finally convert them
into aquifer maps. Lithological and hydrogeological sections are prepared demarcating the tectonic
features and disposition of principal aquifers
and aquitards.
Helicopter borne geophysical surveys are fast
(~2000 measurements/hour), highly data dense
(~1000 depth-wise information points per sq km
of aquifer), precise, cost-economic, and can be
conducted in remote, inaccessible areas.
endnote
Reliable quantification of aquifer geometry withlarge

spatial variability, has become imperative for developing an effective groundwater management plan.
The information afforded by the maiden heliborne
experiment encourages up-scaling to meet the countrys groundwater needs in diverse terrain. Rapid
data collection by geophysical methods help generate
dense data network, that can facilitate realistic plans
for groundwater management in the near future.
The author is Chief Scientist, Aquifer Mapping, Council
of Scientific & Industrial Research -NGRI, Hyderabad.
shakeelahmed@ngri.res.in
13
The annual wheat-rice crop rotation

pattern in Punjab consumes huge
amounts of water and has led to severe
groundwater depletion.
14
By Staff RepoRteR
Groundwater
e xploitation
in the northweSt pl a inS
15
In the last few decades, there has been a tremendous overexploitation of

Indias groundwater resources, particularly in the Punjab-Haryana region,
due to cheap and easy groundwater pumping and drilling technologies
accompanied by decision distorting energy subsidies.
roundwater subsumes 97 per cent

of the worlds readily accessible
freshwater and also caters to the
rural, urban, industrial and irrigation water supply needs of about
2 billion people around the world, as pointed out
by a 2011 World Bank report on Indian Groundwater Governance. With the gradual depletion of
surface water resources by unprecedented population growth, the pressure on groundwater is
gradually growing.
However, no checks are put in place and no
charges levied on groundwater usage. The Indian
Easement Act of 1882 attempts to define the
ownership of groundwater and according to
Section 7(g) of the Act, every landowner has the
right to collect and dispose of all water under his
land, and all water on its surface that does not pass
in a defined channel. This clearly means that the
owner of the land holds the right to use the water
beneath. But, unlike land, water does not conform
to any boundaries. It flows through gradients and
in effect when overextracted from one location, can
affect adjoining areas, rendering them dry.
This is of particular concern in densely populated
India, where groundwater extraction is at an all
time high. In fact, a 2010 World Bank report, Deep
wells and prudence: Towards pragmatic action
for addressing groundwater overexploitation in
India, claims that India is the largest groundwater
user in the world, using an estimated 230 cubic km
of groundwater per yearover a quarter of the
global total, with more than 60 per cent of irrigated
agriculture and 85 per cent of its drinking water
supplies dependent on groundwater. At this rate of
extraction, it warns us, 60 per cent of Indias aquifers will end up critical in the next 20 years.
There are other reasons for alarm. As per a 2010
16
collaborative study by researchers Yoshihida Wada

and Rens van Beek of the Utrecht University and
International Groundwater Resources Assessment
Centre, large-scale abstraction of groundwater for
irrigation of crops leads to a sea level rise of 0.8 mm
per year, which is about one-fourth of the current
sea level rise of 3.3 mm per year. This can have
major repercussions all over the world.
In the last few decades, there has been a tremendous overexploitation of Indias groundwater
resources, particularly in the Punjab-Haryana
region in Indias northwest, as also the DelhiNational Capital Region (NCR) due to cheap
and easy groundwater pumping and drilling
technologies accompanied by decision distorting
energy subsidies .
In July, 2015, the Supreme Court of India, issued
notices to the Central government and Delhi state
government over the petition seeking metering and
pricing of groundwater in the country to ensure that
it is not wasted. Earlier this year, alarmed over the
depleting water table in Delhi-NCR, the National
Green Tribunal (NGT), in April, 2015, had ordered
the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA) to
ensure that no illegal extraction of groundwater
takes place in Gurgaon. A 2014 National Sample
Survey Organisation (NSSO) report states that
15.6 per cent of Delhis urban households and
29.7 per cent of its rural ones dont get sufficient
drinking water throughout the year. The Central
Ground Water Board (CGWB) found that between
November 2013 and November 2014, about 53 per
cent of all wells in the city showed a drop in the
water level. Of these, the drop was up to 2 m in 40
per cent of wells and more in the rest.
For India, the entire northwest plain is nationally significant for being the granary of one of
the biggest agricultural based economies of the
world. Evidently, the aquifers of the region have

been subjected to extensive pressure for sustaining
agricultural productivity, industry and livelihoods of millions due to diminishing rainfall over
several years.
Urbanisation and industrialisation has also put
tremendous pressure on groundwater reserves in
the region. Contamination of surface water bodies
has especially been a major threat to populations
in the northwest region. The situation has progressively worsened with increase in population as well
as the rate of withdrawal of groundwater, pushing
down the water table.
groundwater extraction in
northwestern India
The northwestern region of India falls within the

arid and semi-arid climatic zones, characterised
by low to medium rainfall leading to low natural
recharge rates. The Green Revolution in India
in the 80s saw water intensive commercial crop
models replacing traditional rain-fed varieties.
Price support policies, fertiliser subsidies and high
(initial) yields had more and more farmers inclined
towards these crops which resulted in a sudden
outpour of the aquifers.
The aquifers of Indias northern region are typically deep alluvial systems characterised by higher
water production as compared to the shallow hard
rock formations of the central and southern parts
of India. The elevated parts of the region are exceptional freshwater sources as they are dotted with
major aquifers that boast of substantial storage and
very high yield.
Yet, with lack of sustained recharge, the water
tables in this region are progressively declining.
According to the 2010 World Bank report (ibid.),
the rate of depletion of aquifers in the northwest
region ranges between 0.7-1.2 m per year (which
is approximately equivalent to a net 100-200 mm
per year of excessive extraction). As Rita Pandey
pointed out in her paper, Groundwater irrigation in Punjab, published by National Institute of
Public Finance and Policy, annual groundwater
extraction in Punjab is 31.16 billion cubic m as
opposed to 21.44 billion cubic m availability. Very
high levels of groundwater are being extracted in
Amritsar, Fategarh Sahib, Jalandhar, Kapurthala,
Mansa, Ludhiana, Moga, Nawanshahr, Patiala and
Sangrur Districts, to the extent that out of 137 blocks
in the state, only 25 are safe; 103 are overexploited,
5 critical and 4 semi-critical. The primary drivers
for groundwater extraction, Pandey feels, is the

presence of deep alluvial aquifers in central Punjab,
and the lack of adequate surface water as compared
to ample groundwater. In the lower plains of the
southern Punjab, notwithstanding a vast network
of rivers and canals, other factors come into play.
Groundwater has advantages where farmers
can control the timing and amount of water, and
unlike canal irrigation it is not dependent on
seasonal flows. Supportive policies that provided
flat rate/ subsidised/ free electricity for irrigation
well pumping; subsidies on well construction
and equipment; cheap diesel; support in terms of
assured prices and procurement for some crops
with very high consumptive use of water, such as
paddy, wheat and sugarcane facilitated groundwater extraction, as she points out.
What is alarming is that the decline has accelerated over time. According to the Ministry of
Water Resources latest minor irrigation census
(2006-2007), the three main states in the northwest
plainsPunjab, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana house
a total of 316323, 49503 and 47239 deep tube wells
respectively. On an average, there are 28 tube wells
per sq km of net sown area in Punjab alone. Punjab
is a predominantly agricultural state with 85 per
cent of its area under cultivation with an average
cropping intensity of 188 per cent.
With increasing instances of low flow from
pumps, where recharge does not measure up to
the present rate of extraction, electrical costs of
pumping has escalated. The fact that farmers have
largely been shielded by the governments subsidised electricity tariffs has only compounded the
problems of a lowered water table. As the water level
dips, more expensive technologies such as submersible pumps need to be deployed for extraction.
Indiscriminate groundwater extraction also
leads to problems such as the southwestern parts
of Punjab that suffers from waterlogging and
salinity due to the rise in the water table following
excessive groundwater extraction. Waterlogging
causes depletion of oxygen levels and accumulation of carbon dioxide around roots, lowering crop
yields. It also causes chemical degradation due to
accumulation of salts at the soil surface leading to
an ecological imbalance.
As per the norms prescribed by the 1991 working
group of the Ministry of Water Resources on Water
logging, soil salinity and alkalinity, an area is said
to be waterlogged if the water table lies within 2 m
of land surface. Today, large parts of southwestern
17
The rice and wheat crop cycles lays undue stress on the aquifers of India.
Punjab suffer from waterlogging and depleted soils,

where nothing has been grown for over a decade,
as per the findings of a 2013 Planning Commission report of the high level expert group on water
logging in Punjab.
Inadequacies of public policy
Experts feel that the depleting groundwater level in

the northwestern region can solely be attributed to
the incompetency of public water suppliers to cater
to rising water demands. Moreover, groundwater
usage in India suffers from fragmentation of
responsibility at both the central and state levels.
On paper, the central government is in charge of
developing policy guidelines and enforcing protection whereas the respective state governments exert
jurisdiction over all groundwater reserves. In actuality, groundwater usage in India is largely a private
activity that remains unregulated.
Although a multitude of steps are being adopted
18
in wake of the growing crisis, we singularly lack

regulatory norms. Even as groundwater resources
continue to be depleted, degraded, and divided
among more and more users every day, the
government needs to overcome its myopia and
actualise effective management plans to stem the
impending disaster, if the normal course of wet
monsoons enjoyed over the last century be interrupted by consecutive years of drought. Where
the Delhi-NCR region is concerned, uncontrolled
urbanisation, and withdrawal of groundwater by
realtors involved in frenetic construction activities
all around the Gurgaon-Haryana belt has severely
brought down the water tables.
groundwater pricing-pros and cons
Although many suggest the pricing of groundwater,

this is not an easy task to accomplish. Groundwater
pricing involves the complication of putting a
price on a common resource. The National Water
Policy 2002 recommends (in the context of financial and physical sustainability) that there is a
need to ensure that the water charges for various
uses should be fixed in such a way that they cover
at least the operation and maintenance charges
of providing the service initially and a part of the
capital costs subsequently.
This recommendation can become a basis for
fixing the prices. The most plausible way of pricing
groundwater is through regulation. This can keep
overexploitation at bay. The draft 2011 Model Bill
for the conservation, protection and regulation
of groundwater provides for the establishment of
a groundwater authority under the direct control
of the government. The authority is given the right
to notify areas where it is deemed necessary to
regulate the use of groundwater. The final decision
is taken by the respective state government. As per
this draft Bill, the government can:
Regulate and control iniquitous groundwater use
and distribution, based on priority of allocation
to ensure in particular that the drinking water/
domestic needs of every person and irrigation
needs of small and landless farmers can be met;
Ensure safe and secure drinking/domestic
water for all people, particularly in groundwater
dependent regions;
Regulate the overextraction of groundwater in
order to ensure the sustainability of groundwater
resources, equity of their use and distribution,
and to ensure fulfillment of ecosystem needs;
Promote and protect community based, participatory groundwater management mechanisms
adapted to specific locations in keeping with the
resource, socio-economic set up;
Prevent and mitigate contamination of groundwater resources;
Promote and protect good conservation, augmentation (recharge) and management practices; and,
Protect areas of land that are crucial for the
sustainable management of groundwater
resources and ensure that high groundwater
consuming industries are not located in areas
unable to support them.
Adaptive strategies
Prior to the Green Revolution, in the early 70s,

the amount of land under paddy was less than
5 per cent. This increased to 35 per cent in recent
Although suggested
by many, groundwater
pricing involves myriad
complications as it has
been hitherto considered
a common resource.
times, resulting in an increased demand for water,

as Satvir Kaur and Kamal Vatta, have pointed out
in their 2015 article, Groundwater depletion in
Central Punjab: pattern, access and adaptations, in
Current Science. In fact out of 20 million tubewells
in the country, almost 1.3 million are in Punjab.
Faced with water shortages farmers have today
switched from centrifugal to submersible pumps.
This explains the lowering of the water table in 110
districts of the State.
In certain instances, the farmers of the PunjabHaryana doab are pulling down acreage of crops
like rice and sugarcane, planting millets and wheat
instead. Also, farmers are practicing direct seeding
of rice, so as to reduce water consumption; opting
for basmati variety of rice, since it is transplanted
late and needs less water; and, laser levelling. Of
late, tensiometer technology, wherein the moisture
content of the soil is assessed prior to irrigating the
soil, has caught on. Several rich farmers are using
such and more water saving techniques, besides
falling back on traditional landrace varieties
and organic farming to stem the depletion
of groundwater.
endnote
A combination of several factorsmonoculture of

high yielding varieties, fertiliser subsidies and an
efficient procurement system saw farmers in Indias
northwestern regions give in to water guzzling
crops. As a result, natural aquifers are being drained
to the last drop. India urgently needs to embark on
a well etched water management policy along with
the dissemination of water saving cultivation techniques to stakeholders if it has to save the aquifers in
Indias food bowl.
19
The simplicity of the traditional structure

was an essential attribute of safe
construction. A simple rectangular or
square plan was followed with the height
restricted to double the length of the
shorter side.
20
Two fishermen return home empty

handed. Recent weather conditions
and anthropogenic interferences
have contributed to a significant
decrease in fish catch in the Champaran, Bihar, stretch of Burhi Gandak.
R iv eRs of india
PeRilous
oR PRomising?
By S R K Mall and Diva Bhatt
With advancements in the science of simulation modelling, climate models

have improved their projection capabilities. This can have an important
bearing on the future hydrology of flowing surface waters in the current
context of climate change.
21
ith Indias per-capita surface

water projections for 2050
placed at 1235 cubic m and
1451 cubic m, respectively,
for high and low population
growth scenarios, as per Kumar et als 2005 paper
Water resources of India, Current Science, the water
resources of the nation are clearly under stress.
About 328.726 million hectare (mha) of Indias
geographical area is covered by rivers. Of these, 12
are major rivers with individual basins comprising
catchments exceeding 10 mha, and cumulatively
totalling 252.8 mha. The Ganga-BrahmaputraMeghna system is the largest among these, with
a catchment area comprising 110 mha, and
amounting to 60 per cent of Indias total surface
water potential. As per a United Nations 2012
report, these rivers are a source of livelihood
for more than 70 per cent of Indias population,
most of whom are dependent on agriculture for
their livelihood.
The southwest monsoon between June and
September, and the northeast monsoon between
October and November are the main sources of
water in the country. The annual precipitation in
India stands at 4000 sq km and includes both rainfall and snowfall, as H Pathak et al. have pointed
out in their 2014 paper, Climate change and water
availability in Indian agriculture: Impacts and
adaptation, published in the Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences. Presently, more than 45 per
cent of Indias average annual precipitation flows
away as natural runoff into the sea.
In India, demand for water has already increased
manifold due to urbanisation, agricultural expansion, increasing population, rapid industrialisation
and economic development. At present, changes
in cropping and land use patterns, overexploitation of stored water and changes in irrigation and
drainage are modifying the hydrological cycle in
many climatic regions and river basins. According to
estimates by the Central Water Commission (CWC)
made in December 2013, the per capita water availability of the country will drop to 1140 cubic m by
2050 as compared to 1608 cubic m in 2010.
Assessing the potential socio-economic impact
involves comparing two future scenarios, one with
and one without climate change. Among many of
the uncertainties involved regarding assessment of
water resources are:
the ability of ecosystems to adapt either naturally
22
or through managed intervention to climate

change; and,
future increase in population and economic
activities and their impact on natural
resources systems.
Both these uncertainties hold good even for
surface water resources. It is with robust evidence
and high agreement that J Cisneros et al., in their
2014 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), Working Group II, AR-5 paper, stated
that projections regarding reduction in renewable
surface water resources in dry subtropical regions
will result in intensifying competition for
water among agriculture, ecosystems, settlements,
industry, and energy production, affecting regional
water, energy, and food security
Many of the above mentioned river systems are
perennial, while some are seasonal as precipitation
over a large part of India is strongly concentrated
around the summer monsoon (June to September/
October) and the tropical storm season (May to
October). This apart, the recent rise in erratic weather
patterns has drastically jeopardised river flow
regimes. As Stocker et al. (eds.), have stated in their
The physical science basis: Working group I, fifth
assessment report of IPCC, in 2013the climate is
changing, and so are both the variables of climate,
namely, precipitation and evapotranspiration.
Climate Change
Widespread changes have been observed in extreme

temperatures over the last 50 years. Cold days, cold
nights and frost extremes have become frequent,
just as hot days, hot nights and heat waves have
become more common. Global average surface
warming is likely to be in the range 0.4-4.8C with a
best estimate of about 3C, and is very unlikely to be
less than 1.5C, with spatial and temporal changes
in rainfall pattern, as per the estimates of Stocker
et al. (eds) ibid. Recent measurements undertaken by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) show carbon dioxide
concentrations at 402.80 ppm (estimate until June
2015), which is 1.65 ppm higher as compared to the
June 2014 level.
It is well known that water resources are inextricably linked to trends in weather patterns, which
indicates that global climate change would have
serious implications for water resources, as B C
Bates et al. have pointed out in Climate change and
water, Technical Paper of IPCC Secretariat 2008.
Fig 1: The major river basins of India

Ladakh and not draining into Indus
Indus
Brahmaputra
Area of Inland
drainage in Rajasthan
Ganga
Western flowing
rivers of Kutch and
Saurashtra
including Luni
Barak
Major River
draining into
Myanmar and
Bangladesh
Sabarmati
Mahanadi
Mahi
Subrnarekha
Narmada
Godarvari
Brahmani and
Baitarani
Tapi
Western flowing
from Tapi to Tadri
Eastern flowing
between Mahanadi
and Pennar
Krishna
Pennar
Western flowing from

Tadri to Kanyakumari
Cauvery
Eastern flowing
between Pennar
and Kanyakumari
Map not to scale
Source: National Water Mission, Ministry of Water Resources, New Delhi, 2008.
Table 1: Projected Change in Water Yield for the 17

River Basins of India
Change in Water Yield
Basin
2021-2050
2071-2098
Baitarani
-2.8
-17.6
Brahmani
Bramhaputra
-12.6
3.5
-24.9
-8.7
Cauvery
3.4
-4.7
Ganga
0.5
-27
Godavari
-27.2
-33.6
Indus
-20
-17.5
Krishna
-4.3
-4.4
Luni
-51.9
-7.5
Mahanadi
-19
-29.3
Mahi
-26
-25
Meghna
-33.8
-37.8
Narmada
-27
-34.5
Sabarmati
30.9
-7.4
Pennar
-38.6
-29.8
Subarnarekha
-1.4
-17.1
Tapi
-32.5
-32.6
Source: A K Gosain et al., 2011
Though both climatic and non-climatic drivers

control the regulation of the hydrological cycle,the
essay will confine itself to climatic factors alone.
Indias national Water policy
Under its National Water Mission 2010, the government modified the National Water Policy of 1987.
The Mission suggested strategies to tackle water
management in keeping with climate change.
Encompassing 2.6 per cent of the worlds land
area, and saddled with just 4 per cent of the worlds
renewable water resources and an ever growing
population, India needs to be serious about regularly updating its water management strategies.
A new draft of the National Water Policy (NWP)
was sanctioned in 2012 at the 14th meeting of the
National Water Board. The NWP aims to take
cognizance of the existing water resources of the
nation and propose a framework for the creation
of a system of laws and institutions for a unified
national perspective, as stated in the National Water
Policy of India document, 2012, of the Ministry of
Water Resources, Government of India.
23
Water resources are closely

linked to weather patterns.
Volatile weather patterns in
the recent past have imperilled river flow regimes.
simulation Modelling
There have been major improvements in the development and use of simulation models during the
last two decades. Thus, current models are better
equipped to give us reliable projections in connection to climate change for refined decision making.
The ability of models to simulate important aspects
of the current atmospheric processes in conjugation to interfaces with the hydrosphere, cryosphere
and land surface processes through comparison of
simulations with observations has vastly improved.
A number of research studies using simulation
modelling have already been conducted for runoff
projections for the major river basins. A 2011
study by A K Gosain et al.,Climate change impact
assessment of water resources of India, published
in Current Science, on Indias 17 river basins (Fig.1)
had evaluated the possible impacts of climate
change on water resources.
The evaluation was conducted within the uncertainty constraints of climate change predictions for
the A1B scenario of PRECIS, a Regional Climate
Model (RCM), for near term (2021-2050) and long
term (2071-2098) water availability. Providing
regional climates for impact studies (PRECIS), is
a regional climate model developed by the Hadley
Centre of Meteorology, UK and A1B is a future
scenario of forcing agents specified in the IPCC
special report on emission scenarios (SRES). The
cumulative change in water yield for all these river
basins (considering both near and long terms) at
the end of the long term were estimated to be fairly
negative (Table 1).
Estimates of runoff for Brahmaputra in a study
conducted by S Ghosh and S Dutta in 2012, Impact
of climate change on flood characteristics in Brahmaputra basin using a macro-scale distributed
24
hydrological model, published in the Journal of

Earth System Science were found to be similar to
that obtained by Gosain et al. in 2011.
Of course, some researchers have a different
opinion as regards the Ganga and Narmada. The
estimates by D Raje et al., as revealed in their article
on Macro-scale hydrological modelling approach
for study of large scale hydrologic impacts under
climate change in Indian River basins, in Hydrological Processes, 2013 indicate an increased runoff
in these rivers. These differences could be due to the
resolution differences in the set of climate and hydrological models chosen to carry out the projections.
endnote
With a population count of 1.25 billion occupying

a mere 2.6 per cent of the worlds land, and its
population projected to outdo all other countries
in the world by 2028, India needs to be judicious
with its water resources. To sustain its economic
growth as against economies like that of China
and the US, India will need to embark on pathbreaking measures to manage its fast diminishing
and deteriorating surface waters. An assessment of
the availability of water resources in the context of
future national requirements and expected impact
of climate change and its variability is critical for
relevant national and regional long-term development strategies and sustainable development. For
this, science and governance will have to walk hand
in hand to take up the challenge of ensuring water
security for the nations inhabitants.
The authors are professor and research scholar,
respectively, Institute of Environment & Sustainable
Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi.
rkmall@bhu.ac.in
Term Power
Answers on PAge 55
Understanding
Water
1. Hydrograph
a. A hydrograph depicts the rate

of flow (discharge)/time elapsed at
a specific point in a river, or other
channel.
b. A hydrograph shows the total
amount of water present in a
specific region.
c. A hydrograph represents the
relatively unsteady contribution
to stream discharge from groundwater flow.
2. Artesian Well
a. A naturally occurring well

with the use of mechanised
techniques.
b. Well from which water flows
under the pressure of the aquifer
without pumping.
c. All wells dug on fossil water
aquifers are called artesian wells.
3. Bed Flow
a. Bed flow refers to the lowest

layer of rapidly moving water of a
stream.
b. The phenomenon of getting
ensured flow from a captured
stream in the upper reaches.
c. Bed flow is the sustained flow in
a stream that comes from groundwater discharge or seepage.
4. Hydraulic
Conductivity
a. It is the term used to describe the

permeability of water through
a medium.
b. It is the pressure with which

groundwater flows through dilated
cracks, joints, bedding planes
or other features of secondary
porosity.
c. This refers to the intermittent
movement of recharge water
through fractures in a dual-porosity
aquifer.
b. Fossil water is the term coined for

the trapped moisture in fractures in
sedimentary rocks.
c. Fossil waster refers to groundwater that has remained trapped
in aquifers for thousands or even
millions of years.
5. Recharge
a. A text formatting programme

on the multics-operating system.
b. A term that refers to water
that flows over land to surface
streams, rivers, and lakes.
c. The extra water that seeps
out once an aquifer is optimally
recharged.
a. Recharge refers to quantity of

water per unit of time that replenishes or refills an aquifer.
b. Recharge refers to the replenishment of an aquifer by natural or
artificial methods.
c. Water held in the soil in the
unsaturated zone that may be
evaporated, taken up by plants, or
discharged at topographic lows.
6. Geoengineering
a. It indicates the engineering

processes involved in the field
studies of geology.
b. Is a term coined for ongoing
global climate modification
programmes that aims to tackle
climate change by removing CO2
from the air.
c. Geoengineering is the branch
of engineering that deals with
geographic information system.
7. Fossil Water
a. The water found in surface water

bodies during the Jurassic and the
Cretaceous Period.
8. Run off
9. Aeration Zone
a. The zone immediately below the

land where the pores contain both
water and air, but are not totally
saturated with water.
b. It refers to that portion of the
subsurface, beneath the water
table, where all pore spaces are
filled with ground water.
c. Aeration zone refers to the
place where oxygen deficiencies
of rain water are cured for
household use.
10. Aquiclude
a. Sedimentary beds with very low

permeability.
b. Aquifers with very high porosity.
c. An impermeable body of rock
that acts as a barrier to flow
of water.
25
The riparian contention of the Cauvery river

between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka has been
going on for centuries. The construction of the
Harangi, Kabini, Hemavathi and Suvarnavathy
reservoirs further aggravated the wrangle. In
1990 the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal was
constituted to address this.
26
RipaRian Vs CatChment
Hydropolitics
By NayaN Sharma, SubaSh PraSad rai and
hariNarayaN Tiwari
Inter-state water disputes have been the countrys bane ever since
reorganization of India into linguistic states. A paradigm shift in water
management, wherein riparian hydropolitics is discarded in favour
of catchment hydropolitics, can put an end to disputes and promote
overall development of river basins.
27
ncreasing industrialisation, growing

population, pollution, changing
resource
and
energy needs bring into
light the precarious situation in which riparian
states find themselves.
Since transboundary
water
management
mostly deals with specific
cases, scientific knowledge on rivers is often lacking.
Studies indicate that water allocation is the
major cause of conflict, whether between sovereign
nations or regions within a state. However, we need
to recognise that water is a transient resource that
changes its form, quantity, quality, and location.
We can neither store it indefinitely, nor be sure of its
return on any given schedule. We are limited in our
ability to control water. Small shifts in the distribution of this resource can have major impacts on
societies that have evolved, thus leading to prospective conflicts between them.
There is no developed water allocation theory to
facilitate inter-state water sharing. Contribution
and need are the factors that can be broadly summarised. With reference to water, contribution refers to
the relative volumes of precipitation received on the
territorial dominion of a particular nation whereas
need refers to the minimum required withdrawal
of water for the sustenance of life. The basic issue
of conflict with respect to water is that of allocation
and equitable sharing of water. Water scarcity or
drought-like situations are not alone responsible for
conflicts. It is the lack of equitable water allocation
during droughts that causes conflict. As Mohamed
Suliman, Chair, Institute for African Alternatives
(IFAA) Network, states, . . . violent conflicts arise
mainly out of economic and ecological distortions.
India is gifted with many rivers but inter-state
water disputes plague many regions. Since almost
all major Indian rivers flow through two or more
states, inter-state disputes are an inevitable fallout
of increased demand for water owing to rapid
economic development. Some major inter-state
river water disputes worth mentioning are:
The Aliyar and Bhavani river water dispute
between Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The Barak river water dispute between Assam
28
and Manipur.
The Cauvery water dispute between Tamil Nadu,

Karnataka and Kerala.
The Godavari water dispute between Andhra
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha

and Karnataka.
The Karmanasa water dispute between Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.
The Krishna water dispute between Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
The Mahi river dispute between Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
The Narmada water dispute between Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
The Ravi and Beas river water dispute between
Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Jammu and Kashmir and Delhi.
The Sutlej-Yamuna link canal dispute between
Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
The Tungabhadra water dispute between Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.
The Yamuna river water dispute between Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi.
The Interstate River Water Disputes Act, 1956
(IRWD Act) was enacted under Article 262 of the
Constitution on the eve of reorganisation of states
on linguistic basis. The Act was meant to resolve
disputes that might arise regarding the use, control
and distribution of inter-state rivers and river
basins. Article 262 provides a role for the Central
government in adjudicating conflicts surrounding
inter-state rivers that arise among the states/
regional governments.
The Central Government has often pitched in
to resolve disputes through negotiations amongst
the basin states, using the universally accepted
principle of equitable apportionment of waters
among states. Adjudication through appointment
of water disputes tribunals has also been resorted to
as and when required. A few tribunals appointed to
resolve inter-state water disputes have been:
Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal;
Krishna Water Disputes Tribunal;
Mahadayi/ Mandovi River Tribunal;
Ravi and Beas Waters Tribunal; and,
Vansadhara Water Disputes Tribunal.
Other inter-state water disputes include the Babhali
Barrage and the Mullaperiyar dam issue.
Conflicts over sharing of waters are on the rise in
the Indian subcontinent, with some even ending in
Table 1: Few incidents of violent water conflict in India

Date
Parties Involved
Description
1999
Gujarat
Three people died and 20 are injured in December 1999 in Falla, Gujarat when the police opened
fire on 300 people protesting against the state governments decision to reserve water from
the nearby Kankavati Dam for Jamnagara neighboring town. The dam had become the only
source of water for about 60 villages near Falla, with groundwater shortage contributing to a
water crisis.
2002
Kashmir
Two people were killed and 25 others injured in Kashmir when police fired at a group of villagers
clashing over water. The incident took place in Garend village over a dispute involving sharing
of water from an irrigation stream.
2004
Rajasthan
Four people were killed in October and more than 30 injured in November in ongoing protests by
farmers over allocation of water from the Indira Gandhi Irrigation Canal in Sriganganagar district,
which borders Pakistan. Curfews had to be imposed on Gharsana, Raola and Anoopgarh towns.
2009
Madhya Pradesh
A family in Madhya Pradesh was killed by an irate mob for illegally drawing water from a municipal
pipe. Others ran to collect water for themselves before the pipe ran out. Drought and inequity in
water distribution have resulted in more than 50 violent clashes in the state capital, Bhopal in May,
(2009 ) alone. Since January, 12 people were killed and many injured.
2009
Maharashtra
Police clashed with hundreds of Mumbai residents protesting water cuts. One man was killed
and dozen others injured. The authorities were forced to ration supplies after the worst monsoon
in decades.
2010
Andhra Pradesh
At least three deaths and dozens of injuries were reported during protests over land and water given
away for a power plant in Sompeta in Srikakulam district.
2013
Maharashtra
Acute water shortage in Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India led to fights among locals,
causing one death. Large-scale public unrest reported due to a severe drought and water
shortages.
violence. Events involving violence related to water

that resulted in loss of lives have been highlighted
in Table 1. The data has been collected from the
world conflict chronology formulated by the World
Water Council.
Political boundaries rarely embrace the boundaries of surface water resources i.e. lakes and rivers.
Conflict may hence arise because the upstream
riparian regions consumptive use may adversely
affect the water available for use by the region
downstream.
Often, differing cultures and their concepts
regarding the value of water and its use can be
an obstacle to the spirit of cooperation and trust
necessary for an effective agreement. Water is
now acknowledged as a major limiting factor in
the socio-economic development of a world with
a rapidly expanding population. This necessitates
understanding the pattern of water allocation in the
past as against present demands that must be taken
into account in international water agreements.
Some agreements promote the entitlement to
a state to draw a certain quantity of water from
a particular source whereas other agreements
promote obligation of a state to deliver a certain
quantity of water to another state. Such agreements,
often, fail to note the risk of shortages or drought.
When an agreement authorises a state to draw
a certain amount of water, the other state receives

the left over volume. It confers the benefit of wet
years on the residuary states but puts the entire risk
of shortage on the same residuary state. When it is
obligatory to provide a certain volume of water to
another state on its border, the benefits of wet years
as also the risks of shortage are placed upon the
obligatory state. Risks and benefits can be shared
by all states if allocation is done with regard to
percentage rather than volume. But, since allocation by percentage is difficult to administer, such
agreements are never articulated.
The Way Ahead
Keeping the diverse aspects of transboundary rivers

and the various degrees of disputes and conflicts
that arise, a paradigm shift in water management is
in order, wherein riparian hydropolitics is replaced
by catchment hydropolitics. Riparian hydropolitics
caters to differing developing objectives, needs and
requirements, which make it difficult to administer. On the other hand, catchment hydropolitics
is built on a common objective of sustainable water
resources development and management. In this,
the varying objectives of riparian states can be
merged for the welfare of the inhabitants of the
basin, thereby reducing the possibilities of future
water resources conflict. Thus, the technical and
29
People of Dharwad protesting over the unresolved Mahadayi water dispute. The discord acquired political colours
as the BJP led Goa overruled Congress ruled Karnatakas pleas of diversion of water, stating that the river is
already oversubscribed.
30
be carried out by respective RBAs and not the

states. This will not only help generate cooperation,
but check disputes, thereby promoting socioeconomic development. For this the government of
India needs to overhaul its present policies of water
management and thereby usher in an era wherein
states become the major stakeholders to catchment
hydropolitics and sustainability.
endnote
Riparian hydropolitics has given rise to several

inter-state disputes related to sharing of water and
water resources. It is time for the government to
bring in a paradigm shift in its water management
policies and switch to catchment hydropolitics,
wherein river basins are developed under the aegis
of respective RBAs. This will promote the wellbeing of the population of an entire basin, with
states co-operating to make the best use of water
resources, thereby bringing in much-needed socioeconomic development.
The authors are Professor, and Research Scholar,
respectively, Department of Water Resource Development
and Management, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee.
subashbitsindri@gmail.com
Photo: GnY Archives
financial capabilities of the riparian states can be

merged for socio-economic development as well as
ecological conservation.
Most water resources projects have certain
built-in biases in favour of some states. Thus,
hydropower projects may supply proportionately
less hydropower to the riparian states and more
to non-basin states. This can be a major cause of
tension among states. At the planning stage of water
resource projects, the catchment approach needs
to be introduced wherein the requirements of the
riparian states should be down played and those
of the basin promoted. The new approach would
then consider fulfilling the water, environment,
energy and food (WEEF) demands of the catchment as a whole and not of the states in particular.
The needs and uses can also be prioritised so as to
supplement sustainability of water resources. After
the WEEF demands of the basin are fulfilled, interbasin transfer of waters can be considered. This
can also generate inter-basin cooperation on water
resources projects.
This could be done through a River Basin
Authority (RBA) formed by the central government to develop and manage river basin resources.
The planning and execution of projects could then
Photo courtesy: AAshIsh sheetAL
In | br Ief
The Black Damodar
Damodar originates from Chulhapani in Lohardagga district of Jharkhand,

flowing 258 km through the State and another 283 km in West Bengal, before
it merges into the Hooghly-Ganga. This river has a command area of 24,235
sq km and is one of the largest sub-basins of the Ganga. The Konar and the
Barakar are its important tributaries. The Damodar was the first river to be
dammed in free India, with the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) being set
up as early as 1948. In the early to mid-50s, dams set up in Tilaiya, Panchet,
Konar, Maithon and Durgapur, contributed to the Damodar basin developing
into Indias earliest industrial belt. The central basin of the Damodar valley is
home to Indias richest deposits of prime coking coal, with massive coalfields
in Jharia, Raniganj, Ramgarh forming the backbone of integrated steel
plants in Bokaro, Burnpur and Durgapur. Unfortunately, industrialisation has
killed the river; choking it with industrial effluents, and urban sewage from
industrial towns on its banks. Thermal power stations built by the DVC to feed
industries in the belt have polluted the air and soil in the region, and killed all
aquatic life. Aquatic biodiversity around the plant sites is extinct, points out
environmental activist and Jharkhand Minister for Food and Civil Supplies,
Saryu Roy, who has been spearheading the Damodar Bachao Andolan
since 2004.
The coal mines have

contributed to increased
electrical conductivity,
chloride and sulphate
concentration in the
river water
31
The Banasura Sagar Dam, impounds the Karamanathodu tributary of the Kabini River. Despite abundant
rainfall and availability of reservoirs the freshwater
availability in Kerala is less than that in neighbouring
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
32
Keralas
dwindling freshwater
resources
Photo: Gracy PhilliP
Acute wAter concerns of the stAte during summer
33
By D PaDmalal and Staff RePoRteR

Water related problems are acute in many parts of Kerala during summer.
The situation could worsen further as rapid urbanisation, indiscriminate
sand mining and salinity intrusion into groundwater reservoirs gradually
transform the States environmental scenario for the worst.
t would appear
that with about
3m of annual
average rainfall
and a variety
of natural and manmade
freshwater
sources, Kerala, is a
land of surplus water.
But, studies by reputed
research institutions
in the State reveal that
Kerala is no safe state as regards fresh water availability. Ensuring uninterrupted year-round fresh
water supplies remains the greatest challenge to
water managers owing to high human stress in this
densely populated State.
Although Kerala receives a large amount of
rainfall, its distribution is erratic. Storing the water
in surface and subsurface, natural and man-made
reservoirs seems an attractive solution. However,
rapid economic growth and human interference in
the past 3-4 decades has deteriorated the capability
of hills, forests, and wetlands to serve as water
reservoirs for the population. This has a telling
effect on the availability of water during summer.
The scenario is grim between January and May,
when most irrigation needs are to be met, salinity
intrusion is to be arrested, hydel power has to be
generated and drinking water scarcity is acute.
The total discharge of water in all the 44 rivers
in Kerala together amounts to 77,900 million cm
(mcm). This figure is only about 75 per cent of the
water discharge of a single major river like the
34
Godavari. Thus, despite the presence of so many

rivers in Kerala, it is no guarantor in terms of freshwater availability.
In fact, studies by N M Basak, Former Executive
Director, Centre for Water Resources, Development
and Management, prove that freshwater availability
in Kerala is lower than that in neighbouring Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka. High population density,
rapid economic development, higher per capita
consumption of water in Kerala (160 litres per day)
compared to the national average (135 litres per
day), higher level of personal hygiene, poor water
resource development have combined to bring in
a problematic mismatch in the demand and supply
of water in Kerala. Of late, indiscriminate sand
mining along rivers and sea coasts has contaminated fresh water resources such as wells, and has
made matters worse.
Keralas freshwater resources
The prime source of fresh water in Kerala is rain

about 3062 mm annually, which is about 2.5 times
more than the national average. About 60 per cent
of the annual rainfall comes from the southwest
monsoon (June to August), while 25 per cent
comes from the northeast monsoon (September
to November) with the remaining coming from
sporadic spells throughout the year. However, the
steep and undulating topography causes a major
portion of the rainwater to drain out into the sea
through rivers and groundwater pathways.
Kerala has 41 west flowing and three east flowing
rivers. But, all the rivers are short, with catchment areas less than 6200 sq km. As per national
Photo: arvind Balaraman
The Athirampalli falls in Kerala. The State is also endowed with many springs. The combined water potential of all
the springs in Kerala is estimated to be 125 lakh litres a day.
norms, Kerala does not have a single major river.

There are only four medium-sized rivers (Chaliyar,
Bharathapuzha, Periyar and Pamba), with a total
drainage area of 16,742 sq km. The remaining 40
are minor rivers with a total catchment area of
19,489 sq km (much less than the catchment area
of any major Indian river). The total discharge of all
44 rivers comes to about 77,900 mcm. With erratic
rainfall, and uncertainty rife in water availability,
rivers in Kerala have been dammed in many parts
for irrigation, power generation and drinking
purposes. At present, Kerala hosts 32 reservoirs of
variable dimensions in its uplands. Most of these
reservoirs were commissioned in the second half of
the 20th century .
In addition to these, Kerala has several lakes, the
important ones being Sasthamkotta, Vellayani and
Pookode. Unfortunately, anthropogenic factors
and human interference have caused many lakes
along the coastal region to degrade, with water
levels dropping over the years, notwithstanding
steady and substantial rains. This is a problem that
needs careful evaluation given the fact that the lake

system is the lifeline for several lakhs of people in
Kollam town and adjoining areas. Recently, lake
Sasthamkotta was declared a Ramsar site, to protect
it from further degradation and encroachment. The
State also has a total of 837 private, 746 panchayat
and 632 holy ponds. Only about 15 per cent of these,
though, are currently in use for domestic water
supply or for minor irrigation schemes. In addition,
there are about 270 pit lakes that have resulted from
mining and quarrying activities. Kerala has about
212 irrigation tanks. The total water spread of all the
ponds and tanks comes to about 65200 hectares.
Apart from all these sources, Kerala is endowed
with many springs. A survey conducted in
2010 by the Centre for Earth Science Studies
(presently NCESS) in the coastal lands of Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts revealed that
the region had 204 springs. The combined water
potential of the springs is estimated to be 125 lakh
litres a day, which is enough to meet 15.26 per cent
of the water demand in 35 panchayat and three
35
municipalities falling within the area covered by

the study.
With most homes equipped with wells, it is a
major source of potable water in the State. Open
wells, filter point wells and tube wells are major
ground water extraction structures in the State.
Kerala hosts over thirty lakh dug wells with a well
density varying between 100 and 250 wells per
sq km. Over 90 per cent of the wells are used for
drinking purposes, with a traditional dug well
capable of yielding 10-20 cubic m of water per day.
Of late, wells in the State are getting increasingly
contaminated. Microbial pollution is the major
source of contamination, and the cause of waterborne diseases in Kerala. A paper by Harikumar
et al., 1995, Dispersion of domestic pollutants in
ground water sources of Palghat district of Kerala,
from the Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRS) has revealed
that more than nine lakh people are annually
affected in Kerala by water-borne diseases owing to
this problem.
To counter this menace, the government of
Kerala has already embarked on a chlorination
programme with the help of local womens organisations. Volunteers not only train households
members about well maintenance, but also teach
them how to chlorinate water, and refrain from
using it until two hours after. Recently, water cards
have been introduced by the CWRS in collaboration with local self governments for household
wells. These water cards list all relevant details
relating to water quality parameters, mentioning
water quality standards, with required treatments
necessary to improve the quality. Currently a pilot
project, it is slated to be upscaled to cover every
household in the State.
Impact of sand mining on surface and

ground water sources
Unscientific human intervention in the form of
careless quarrying of soils, levelling of hillocks,
deforestation, reclamation of wetlands, sand
and clay mining from flood plains, and indiscriminate sand mining from rivers and beaches
have aggravated water scarcity in coastal Kerala.
According to ecological researcher Dr A D Shobana
Raj, nearly 80 per cent of the water resources
in coastal areas have become saline, making matters
extremely difficult for the resident population.
36
Indiscriminate sand mining adversely affects the

quality and quantity of both surface and ground
water sources. Rivers subjected to intense sand
mining exhibit overloading of suspended particulates, besides marked changes in pH, electrical
conductivity, and deposition of sulphates/iron in the
overlying waters. Channel incision consequent to
sand mining can accelerate the lowering of ground
water tables in areas close to river channels. A study
carried out in Achankovil river basin draining
through the Pathanamthitta district of Kerala
revealed that mining induced channel incision
and subsequent changes in the groundwater table
primarily accounted for the drinking water scarcity
in the area. Out of the total 53 wells studied in the
Thumpamon Gram Panchayat in the Achankovil
river basin, 36 per cent are perennial and 64 per
cent seasonal. Most wells that dried up in summer
were the older ones. A similar scenario prevailed in
the lowlands and midlands of the Manimala river
basin as well. Out of the 90 wells surveyed (NCESS),
65 per cent dried up in summer. The majority of the
wells in this category were older and perennial prior
to the onset of indiscriminate sand mining.
Deepening of wells in the flood plains was inevitable for ensuring continued water availability.
It is estimated that the riverbed in the surveyed
stretch had lowered by about 2 m with respect to
the level in 1990. Another adverse effect of river bed
lowering is that it reduces the flood pulse events in
the riparian wetlands in high flow regimes, mainly
because of the increased height of the river banks
due to channel incision resulting from mindless
sand mining. This automatically leads to drying
up of riparian wetlands. Water level lowering and
deepening of master channels can also reduce the
gradient between the master channel and riparian
wetlands and/or floodplain lakes. The best example
is Sasthamkotta where indiscriminate sand
mining in the Kallada River and its flood plains has
significantly reduced the subsurface movement
of water towards the lake system. Lowering of the
river channel also aggravates salt water intrusion
in river mouths. A 2012 study carried out in the
Muvattupuzha river, by K Maya, Senior Scientist,
NCESS, reported high concentrations of Ca, Mg,
Na, K, and Cl in the water samples collected from
the flood plain pits left after sand mining using high
power jet pumps. The results of the study reiterated
that the ground water resources in many stretches
Fig 1: Lowering of well water table and drying up of riparian wells due to indiscriminate sand mining
Elevation (m) from mean sea level (msl)
Off channel
(Bank area)
Old well
Well 1
In channel
New well
Well 2
Legend
Water level
6
5
4
3
Water level (1990)
1
msl
1990
Water level (2009)
-1
Water
Sandy mud
Silty mud
Sand
Clayey mud
Impermeable (peaty) layer
Silty sand
Basement rock
2009
-2
-3
-4
0
RP
10
20
30
40
50
60
Distance (m) from reference point (RP)
along the lower reaches of the Muvattupuzha river

had been destroyed due to saline intrusion.
Sand mining from beaches along this coastal State
is directly responsible for the collapse of beaches
all along Thiruvanthapuram and several coastal
districts. When beaches collapse due to indiscriminate mining of sand, there is no barrier left between
the sea and the groundwater reservoirs that feed
wells and water bodies. Saline water from the sea
rushes in and contaminates the groundwater, and
destroys wells and other freshwater resources.
Collapsed beaches result in the sea moving inland,
and destroying fishing villages. This is a major
cause of concern in this coastal region, especially
since it has resulted in thousands of fishermen and
fish-workers becoming environmental refugees.
problems plaguing Keralas water

resources
Analysis of available data reveals that during the last

100 years, while the per capita rainwater availability
in India has decreased fourfold, the respective drop
in Kerala is fivefold. Meanwhile, the demand for
water has been rising exponentially over the years.
It is estimated that while the demand for fresh water
in the state in 1901 was 1026 million litres, it rose to
five times to (5342 million litres) by 2011.
A few important measures could be adopted for
judicious management of fresh water in the State.
Firstly, water storage capability of natural (soil,
sub-soil, wetlands, forests) and man-made (dams,
70
80
ponds) systems ought to be enhanced to the best

possible level. Then, residence time of water in the
terrestrial environment needs to be enhanced to
improve the rate of infiltration/percolation into
subsurface formations followed by efforts to bridge
the gap between demand and supply of drinking
water by finding new sources of water (ie., nonconventional sources) and reducing the loss and
leakage of fresh water during the transfer and end
use phases. Also there is an urgent need to evolve
strict norms for utilisable water resources and use
of high quality water should be avoided for irrigation. An immediate ban on direct disposal of liquid
and solid waste into rivers and reservoirs must be
put in place and scientific waste management to
minimise pollution of urban water bodies must
be adopted. Application of chemical fertilisers in
agricultural lands must be minimised and organic
methods for agricultural productivity promoted.
A limit to the extraction of sand within the lands
carrying capacity must be put in place. Also suitable engineering structures must be constructed,
such as check dams in upstream areas to reduce
run-off and siltation. Finally, the right to drinking
water for the economically poor must be ensured
and awareness created on the finite nature of water
at all levels.
The author is Scientist F, National Centre for Earth
Science Studies, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. Article is
supplemented by GnY team. drdpadmalal @gmail.com
37
Escalating faecal coliform levels in

the highly oxygenated stretches of
Rudraprayag indicate increase in
sewerage along the upper reaches
of the River.
38
Quality
Upper
Ganga
Water
of the
39
By RAMESH C SHARMA
Several natural and anthropogenic drivers have contributed towards
the degradation of water quality in the region of the Upper Ganga. An
integrated effort involving every stakeholder is the only way to improve
the water quality of Ganga today.
irst settled by
the Aryans
around 1200
BC, the flood
plains of
Ganga have been venerated and worshipped
as the symbol of our
traditions and values
ever since. The entire
ecosystem of the Ganga
has provided innumerable goods and services to the people of India,
hence earning it the sobriquet of being the mother
of our civilization.
Originating at Gomukh on the Gangotri glacier
at an altitude of 4,100 m above mean sea level, the
river begins its journey as Bhagirathi, traverses
a distance of above 2,700 km and confluences
at Gangasagar with the sea. The entire stretch
of the Ganga can be divided into three major
segments: Upper Ganga (Gomukh to Haridwar),
Middle Ganga (Haridwar to Varanasi) and Lower
Ganga (Varanasi to Gangasagar) based on the
geomorphology, stream order, bottom substrates,
physico-chemical environmental variables of water
and the biodiversity.
The Upper Ganga begins where the Bhagirathi
meets the Alaknanda at Devprayag. About 294 km
from Gomukh, the river leaves the mountains to
enter the alluvial plains at Haridwar at an elevation
of about 290 m above mean sea level. After passing
through Gangotri, Bhairo Ghati, Harshil, Maneri,
Uttarkashi, Tehri, Devprayag, and Rishikesh, the
Upper Ganga ends at Haridwar.
40
The fluvial system of the Upper Ganga is

characterised by high velocity, icy cold waters
and a three dimensional fluvial ecosystem.
It is connected longitudinally; laterally and
vertically with different biotopes. The average
rainfall in the region of Upper Ganga varies
between 1,000 mm to 2,500 mm, of which 50-80
per cent arrives during the June to September
monsoon period. The Upper Ganga river basin
experiences strong seasonal climatic variations,
characterised by the monthly variations in the
stream flow. Snow and glacier melt during
the hot months (March-June) provides large
summer flows in the Upper Ganga.
As per the ecological classification of J Illies
and L Botosaneann (1963), the Upper Ganga
is the rhithron zone of the river, marked by
maximum mean monthly water temperature
of 20oC, with high dissolved oxygen and
turbulent water currents. The rhithron is again
subdivided into three zonesthe epi, meta
and hypo-rhithron as classified by Ramesh C
Sharma, in his book, Rithronology of Bhagirathi, published by Gyanodayain in 1991. The
stretch from Gomukh (4,100 m) to Gangnani
(1,855 m) can be designated as the epirhithron
(no fish zone) with dominant rapids, runs,
riffles, waterfalls and cascades. The Gangnani
to Devprayag (460 m) stretch termed the snow
trout zone is characterised by hill fish and
is the metarhithron section with few pools.
From Devprayag to Haridwar (290 m) is the
mahseer zone inhabited by sport fish. This is
the hyporhithron zone with dominating pools
and few runs and rapids.
surface Water Quality
For a river to function as a water body satisfying its

desired use, it must have a certain corresponding
degree of water quality. Each water use has a specific
quality requirement, with drinking water accorded
the highest.
In India, the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) has developed a concept of designated best
use. Classifying water quality in terms of five designated best uses, that is, drinking water without
conventional treatment; outdoor bathing; drinking
water after conventional treatment; propagation
of wildlife and irrigation; industrial cooling; and,
controlled waste disposalit specifies the pH
quality, and parameters for each respectively.
Considering that worshippers ritualistically use
the waters of Ganga for aachaman (ritual sipping),
the quality of the river water assumes utmost
The quality of water of a river

is inversely proportional to
the density of settlements
along the bank.
importance. The findings of an indepth study on

the environmental variables characterising surface
water quality of Upper Ganga for more than four
decades are given in Table 1. In the Upper Ganga,
heavy metals like cadmium, manganese, lead and
mercury were below the detectable limit. However,
a considerable concentration of radioactive radon
was present.
Table 1: Variables of surface water quality (mean SD) in epirhithron, metarhithron and hyporhithron
stretches of the Upper Ganga.
Environmental Variable
Epirhithron
Metarhithron
Hyporhithron
Air temperature (oC)
10.65 3.4
17.7 4.25
21.78 2.75
Water temperature (oC)
7.30 2.85
12.9 3.15
18.12 2.12
Water velocity (m sec-1)
2.75 0.75
1.74 0.38
1.32 0.167
HMD (m)
1.21 0.71
2.21 1.72
2.64 1.74
Turbidity (NTU)
65.25 109.6
138.13 244.75
156.32 160.02
Transparency (m)
0.98 0.81
0.35 0.01
0.25 0.12
Conductivity (Scm-1)
0.13 0.34
0.15 0.52
0.17 0.54
TDS (mg.l-1)
14.1 12.24
34.0 33.39
96.17 39.12
Dissolved oxygen (mg.l-1)
11.44 2.60
10.55 0.84
8.65 0.42
Free CO2 (mg.l-1)
0.62 0.12
1.02 0.32
1.32 0.42
pH
7.32 0.17
7.56 0.19
8.083 0.37
BOD (mg.l-1)
0.24 0.5
1.29 0.28
2.45 0.32
Phosphate (mg.l-1)
0.102 0.10
0.150 0.12
0.175 0.15
Nitrate (mg.l-1)
0.101 0.01
0.140 0.10
0.162 0.13
Sodium (mg.l-1)
5.19 1.72
7.85 1.85
8.95 1.95
Potassium (mg.l-1)
3.62 0.50
6.23 0.65
7.25 0.72
Total hardness (mg.l-1)
86.2919.09
107.020.22
111.6728.44
Calcium (mg.l-1)
33.0614.16
48.3035.65
42.0217.92
Magnesium (mg.l-1)
38.8322.01
41.017.79
51.022.78
Sulphates (mg.l-1)
18.864.36
15.573.38
12.282.54
Iron (mg.l-1)
0.220.25
0.360.39
0.370.24
Chromium (mg.l-1)
0.030.03
0.030.02
0.050.02
Zinc (mg.l-1)
0.410.58
0.790.90
0.871.12
Copper (mg.l-1)
0.790.43
0.680.39
1.110.51
Total coliform (CFU 100ml-1)
2412
1,220410
4,100850
Source: A K Gosain et al., 2011

41
Rishikesh lies in the hyporhithronic zone of the Ganga. The stretch extends upto Haridwar and the water quality
surprisingly falls in the C category.
Surface water quality of the Upper Ganga has

been evaluated on the basis of pollution indicators
(dissolved oxygen, pH, BOD and density of total
coliform). Most physico-chemical parameters
including dissolved oxygen, pH and BOD revealed
that the water conformed to the A to B categories
classified by CPCB and IS 2296: 1992 standards.
However, studies on total coliform density
revealed that only the epirhithron zone of the
Upper Ganga qualified for A category of water.
The upper metarhithronic zone satisfied the B
category parameters; whereas the lower stretch of
metarhithronic zone did not qualify for B category.
The hyporhithronic zone from Rishikesh to
Haridwar stretch of the river had to be placed in
the C category, due to the presence of high coliform
density. This indicates that the river in the epirhithronic stretch (Gomukh and Gangotri) alone
is acceptable for drinking purposes. The water in
the metarhithronic stretch (Harshil, Uttarkashi)
is acceptable for outdoor bathing, while the water
in the hyporhithronic stretch does not qualify as
acceptable even for outdoor bathing. This could be
mainly due to dense settlements along the rivers in
this stretch, resulting in open defecation, mixing
of organic matter, besides discharge of untreated
sewage into the waters of the lower stretch of the
Upper Ganga.
drivers for degradation of Water Quality
The Upper Ganga is exposed to various natural

stresses such as frequent flash flood, cloud bursts,
42
river blockade due to major landslides and earthquakes. Prominent flash floods and ecological
disasters encountered by the fluvial system of the
upper Ganga included the Alaknanda floods in
1970; massive Bhagirathi floods in August 1978
caused due to river blockade; bursting of Gohna
Tal in 1984; the Uttarkashi earthquake of 1991; Assi
Ganga and Bhagirathi flash floods in 2012; and the
recent flashfloods in the Mandakini, Bhagirathi
and Alakananda in June 2013. All these natural
eco-disasters caused major geomorphic transformations and degradation of the water quality in the
Upper Ganga.
In addition to natural drivers there are many
anthropogenic pressures such as hydropower
projects, construction and widening of roads and
highways along the river, excessive extraction of
boulders, pebbles and rocks from the riparian
zone, unplanned urbanisation and construction of
hotels, restaurants, ashrams and even government
buildings in the natural flood plains of the river,
mixing of untreated sewage, open defecation along
river banks, dumping of solid wastes and muck
directly into the water.
Besides these, religious activities that include
mass bathing, submerging of puja samagri, flowers,
jal samadhi by seers and saints and asthi visarjan
(immersion of funerary ashes) also contribute to
the deterioration of water quality.
Attempts to Clean ganga
Initial inertia in initiating action to clean the Ganga
stemmed largely from the belief that the holy river,

could easily purify itself of pollutants. Although
there is some scientific evidence about the Gangas
high capacity to assimilate a large quantities of
organic waste, including pathogens, through
bacteriophage, as pointed out by Ernest Hanbury
Hankin in 1896 and Felix dHerell in 1917, no river
can sustain its self-purifying power when subjected
to present levels of over use, misuse and abuse.
The first tangible Ganga cleaning programme
originated from the personal intervention of late
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi who had directed
the then Central Board for the Prevention and
Control of Water Pollution, (presently CPCB) for a
comprehensive survey of the Ganga in 1979. CPCB
published two reports, which formed the basis of
GAP in October 1984. On June 14, 1986, the late
Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi launched the GAP in
Varanasi. However, despite incurring an expenditure of over Rs 2,000 crore, GAP failed to achieve
the desired results. There were three major reasons
for the failure of GAP I and GAP II. Firstly, there
was no ecosystem centric approach; secondly, no
integrated effort involving every stakeholder was
undertakenit was a mere engineering centric
sectoral project; and, thirdly, there was no public
participation.
Recognising the need to improve the river
conservation strategy, the Government of India
set up the National Ganga River Basin Authority
(NGRBA) on February 20, 2009, declaring Ganga
as a national river.
Prime Minister Narendra Modi has recently
launched the Rs 2037 crore Namami Gange
project, wherein proposed interventions will
involve maintaining the rivers Nirmal Dhara
sewage free waters through sustainable sewage
management; Aviral Dharaundeterred, free
flow by enforcing river regulatory zones on banks
through restoration and conservation of wetlands,
and a riverfront management action plan for
Chaar Dhaam yatra and guidelines for river bed
sand mining. These interventions are aimed at
conserving the upper Ganga ecosystem. However,
it is too early to comment on the performance and
success of the programme.
The Way Ahead
For any programme aimed at improving the water
The hyporheic or self

purification zone of
the Ganga should be
urgently protected.
quality of the Ganga, certain features are essential.

It is imperative that a holistic ecosystem centric
approach taking care of all the three dimensions
of the Gangalongitudinal, lateral and vertical,
is adopted. The natural flood plains, especially the
riparian zone should be restored and protected
with a massive plantation drive involving riparian
vegetation. No construction should be allowed in
this zone. The hyporheic (self purification) zone of
the Ganga should be protected. All muck/debris
should be disposed away from the river in carefully
identified dumping sites. No untreated sewage or
source of pollution should be allowed to drain into
the river and no domestic solid waste should be
thrown/dumped on the banks of the Ganga. Seers,
saints and other people involved in religious rituals
should be refrained from submerging flowers, puja
paraphernalia or immersing idols into the river.
Unsustainable sand mining should not be allowed.
However, sustainable river bed mining in lower
stretches may be permitted, only if care is taken to
replenish the material mined. Release of data on
appropriate environmental flows with required
water depth and velocity must be made compulsory
for all hydropower projects so that downstream
ecology is maintained. New policy interventions
should be introduced to balance development
with ecological concerns through active public
participation. An integrated effort involving
every stakeholder, that is, the Indian government,
academia, volunteers, devotees, saints, priests,
media persons, not-for-profit organisations, gram
panchayats and local self government functionaries should be put in place so that all rounded
efforts brings time bound results.
The author is a Professor & Head, Department of
Environmental Sciences, HNB Garhwal University,
Srinagar-Garhwal, Uttarakhand.
drrameshcsharma@gmail.com
43
anga
G
Doomed
By Staff RepoRteR
Time and again, plans for cleaning of the Ganga have been put forth by
the central government, with little success. For a river like the Ganga
that drains through nine states, this is easier said than done.
44
The Ganga receives an estimated 87.2 mld

of wastewater from 22 grossly polluting
industries along the Hoogly stretch of West
Bengal, as per the Pollution Assessment
Report of CPCB, July 2013.
45
arendra Modi, standing on the

banks of Ganga in holy city of
Varanasi, promised to the world a
rapid transition towards restoration of pristine heath of the present
dismal river. Assurance from the dynamic head
of the new National Democratic Alliance (NDA)
kindled hopes for a clean Ganga. He made his first
move by extending the mandate of the Ministry of
Water Resources to include River Development and
Ganga Rejuvenation. This was meant to bring in a
unified command for schemes and plans, which
were all transferred from the Ministry of Environment and Forests to the new Ministry.
However, as per the report of the Parliamentary
Standing Committee on Water Resources on
Demands for Grants (2015-16), plans are yet to be
underway and none of the schemes for cleaning
the Ganga have been provided separate allocations. In fact there was no expenditure during
2014-15 for want of approvals. The situation on
the ground has compelled Indias apex court to
make scathing observations and the views of
Parliamentary Committee point towards an inert
and hopeless state of affairs.
The history of ganga Cleaning
Way back in 1980, on being returned to power,

Indira Gandhi expressed her desire to abate the
pollution in the Ganga. Extensive surveys culminated in two voluminous reports by the Central
Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The torch was
carried forward by Rajiv Gandhi and in February
1985, the Central Ganga Authority (CGA) was
established with the prime minister as Chairman,
with an initial budget of Rs 350 crore to administer the cleaning of the Ganga and to restore it
to pristine condition. In June 1985, the Ganga
Project Directorate (GPD) was established as a
wing of the Department of Environment and the
Ganga Action Plan (GAP) was launched on June
14, 1986 in Varanasi by Rajiv Gandhi. GAP I was
integrated into GAP II, launched in 1993, which
has been in place until it was replaced by Namami
Gange in 2014.
What dirties the ganga?
One of the biggest rivers in the world, the Ganga

drains through nine states of India. The 2,525 km
long river supports 66 districts on the banks of the
main stem of the river, 118 towns, and over 1650
46
gram panchayats as per the information provided

by the Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, while appearing
before the Parliamentary Standing Committee.
Nearly all the sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, chemical fertilisers, pesticides
and solid waste finds its way into the river.
The ganga Action plan (gAp)
GAP II is an attempt to extend GAP I and cover

four major tributaries of the GangaYamuna,
Gomti, Damodar and Mahananda. In 1995, the
project was widened further to include other rivers
within its ambit and was renamed as the National
River Conservation Plan (NRCP). It is ironic that
while Ganga still remains to be rid of its pollution,
the failed GAP model has been extended to clean
up 34 other rivers. Under the NRCP scheme, the
CPCB had conducted river basin studies and
had identified 19 grossly polluted stretches and
14 less polluted stretches along 19 rivers (Rakesh
K Jaiswal, 2007, Ganga action plan: A critical
analysis, ecofriends.org). But little work followed.
When GAP was launched, the declared objective
was to make the river clean, stop further pollution,
and make the river pure, a term ascribed by Rajiv
Gandhi towards the objective. Later, realising the
enormity of the task, the objective was redefined
to improving the river to acceptable standards,
which was equated to bathing standards. But
even this was found tough; hence, standards were
further diluted. Ultimately, even these diluted
standards could not be met, and hence the objective was confined to reducing the pollution load
on the river (ibid.).
In 2003, the National River Conservation
Authority (NCRA) recast the objective of the
Plan and mandated wholesomeness of the water
quality of major riversa yet to be defined entity.
The major component of controlling pollution in
the Ganga river system was capacity creation in
the sewage treatment plants (STPs) but until 2009,
only 969.37 million litres per day (mld) capacity
had been created, as against the sanctioned
capacity of 1722.13 mld as per the Ministry of
Water Resources, River Development and Ganga
Rejuvenation.
A study conducted by CPCB on the Status of
sewage treatment plants in Ganga basin in
2001, with the respective state pollution control
boards, noted several flaws that had prevented the
The Ganga at Garhmukteshwar, Uttar

Pradesh. This stretch is the recipient of all
the industrial effluents that dot the affluent
western part of the State.
47
successful implementation of the Plan. Although

most STPs sanctioned had been commissioned,
there were problems related to power supply,
pumping stations, and the construction and
operation of sewerage lines. There was also a
shortage of sufficiently trained personnel. As
a result, most STPs were working below their
capacity. Vinod Tare, head of the IIT Consortium (IITC) responsible for preparing Ganga
river basin management plan, puts in that these
shortcomings could easily be overcome with a
slight shift in approach. Implementing the PPP
business model would be a very good option as
it would add transparency and accountability.
Private establishments should be invited to invest
on sewage treatment plants with the government
regularly assessing the quality of the water and
grading it so that it could be circulated back. The
government could buy back the treated water and
then levy charges in a way such that the treated
water is cheaper than groundwater. Half of Indias
pervading water problems would be solved by this
model, he informed GnY.
present scenario
According to the governmental data, at present

75 per cent of the pollution is generated from
municipal waste and 25 per cent from the
industrial waste. While the total sewage generation is 7,300 mld, along the five basin states on
the Ganga main stem, the capacity of existing
STPs for treating this sewage is only 2,126 mld.
This indicates that there will be a huge amount
of untreated water, estimated to be 6,334 mld for
11 Ganga basin states as per the Indian Institute
of Technology Consortium report (Ganga River
Basin Environ Management Plan [GRBMP]:
Interim Report) which unless treated adequately,
will nullify the efforts for cleaning the river in the
intervening period.
ganga rejuvenation plan
The dictionary meaning of rejuvenation is to

make younger or more youthful or in geomorphic terms, to develop youthful topographical
feature. Further rejuvenation entails upliftment
of the land, which enables rivers or streams to
erode with renewed vigour. Thus in re-naming
the Plan and then the Ministry, the metaphorical
nomenclature seems misplaced. As river rejuvena48
tion has a definite connotation, it is an ill-advised,

unscientific and inappropriately named addition.
Mission namami gange
Two important tasksrestoring the Aviral Dhara,

and Nirmal Dhara of the river are to be undertaken
(nmcg.nic.in) in the Mission. The 2014-15 Union
Budget set aside Rs 2037 crore for this mission, in
addition to another Rs 100 crore for the beautification and development of the ghats and riverfronts
at Kedarnath, Haridwar, Kanpur, Varanasi,
Allahabad, Patna and Delhi. The long-term vision
for Namami Gange is yet to emerge from the
Ganga River Basin Management Plan presented
by the IITC and placed on the website in January
this year. According to Tare, the Namami Gange
features a few novel approaches that were absent in
the previous GAPs. The new programme, along
with the concerns of sewage and industrial waste,
also encompasses the key issue of maintaining
the natural flow and connectivity of the river by
addressing the menace of dams and barrages. Also,
the basin approach that aims to involve people
living on the banks is certainly noteworthy and can
yield sustainable results if implemented desirably.
Also, the proposal of involving the respective states
and grassroots level institutions such as urban
local bodies and panchayati raj institutions in the
process is very laudable in my opinion.
Budgetary provisions and schemes
Budgetary provisions for cleaning the Ganga

has been made under the schemes of National
River Conservation Plan and National Ganga
River Basin Authority, National Ganga Plan and
Ghat works for beautification of River Fronts,
included in the sub headprevention and pollution of national rivers. National Ganga Plan is
a new scheme which has been included in the
budget of the Ministry of Water Resources, River
Development and Ganga Rejuvenation during
the Financial Year 2014-15. The expenditure for
schemes to be undertaken by the Namami Gange
Mission will be met from National Clean Energy
Fund (NCEF). Ghat works and Beautification
of River Front is a new scheme which has been
included in the budget of the Ministry of Water
Resources during the Financial Year 2014-15.
During 2010-11 to 2013-14, in addition to already
ongoing 26 projects, 40 projects were sanctioned
The governments mandate

of wholesomeness of the
water quality of river Ganga
is yet to be a defined entity.
related to Ganga cleanup under NGRBA.

Further, with regard to the total expenditure
proposed to be incurred, the Government
proposes to invest around INR 20,000 crore
for cleaning the river over five years, upto 2020.
However, the IIT consortium which has been
entrusted to prepare the GRBMP has indicated
the requirement of nearly INR 74,000 crore for
the development of sewage infrastructure and
another INR 17,400 crore for its operation and
maintenance. This indicates a clear under estimation or lack of understanding of the financial
implications involved. When asked about the
financial gap, Vinod Tare commented, you will
have to consider that what the government did is
allocate whereas the amount presented by us is an
estimation based on detailed analysis and study
by a profusion of scientists across seven of the best
engineering institutes of the country.
Apex court and ganga Cleaning
The Courts have also been involved in the issue

with public interest litigations (PILs) being filed
since the mid-80s. The Supreme Court has been
involved since 1985 when M C Mehta filed a PIL on
pollution in the Ganga. Another case And quiet
flows the maili Yamuna has been in the Supreme
Court since 1994. Two ongoing high profile legal
suits (RK Jaiswal vs State and Swami Harchetan
vs. State) are in the Allahabad High Court. A PIL
dealing with pollution in the Ganga was also filed
in the Patna High Court in 2006. It was but natural
for the Supreme Court to remark on September
3, 2014, about the progress of government, after
seeing your action plan, it seems Ganga will not be
cleaned even after 200 years. Evaluate the dream
project. You have to take steps to restore Ganga to
its pristine glory.
Again, in January 2015, the apex court had called
on the Centre to be more keen and hold true to its
promise of bringing the Ganga back to its pristine

glory. It had also asked the Centre whether there
was any chance of the 2,500 km-long river getting
cleaned during its current term. Notwithstanding
the governments assurances to the Court of
achieving a complete clean-up by 2018, the Courts
apprehensions do not seem unfoundedas the
Namami Ganges lofty plans are yet to take-off.
parliamentary Committee report
There have been other grounds for apprehension too. Analysing the progress made so far,
the Department related Parliamentary Standing
Committee on Water Resources in its Third Report
on Demands for Grants (2015-16) has noted that
although budgetary allocations for NRCP and
NGRBA, National Ganga Plan and Ghat Works
and Beautification of River Front worth INR 530
crore, INR 1500 crore and INR 100 crore were
respectively made in 2014-15, no expenditure
was incurred for want of approvals. Examining
the budgetary provisions for the above schemes
during the 2015-16 financial year, the Committee
found allocations to have been increased to INR
546 crore for NRCP and NGRBA and INR 2100
crore. The Committee expressed surprise that
although the details of various components under
the Scheme had been prepared, allocations were
yet to be made, with the government still to take
the first step towards cleaning up the Ganga.
endnote
Notwithstanding the various plans made since

1985 to clean up the Ganga, faulty implementation and planning in utter disregard of the ground
realities has prevented success. For Namami
Gange to succeed, a comprehensive time bound,
transparent and target oriented plan of action
is needed. It might be an uphill task but its
not impossible, adds Tare. I believe there are
only point sourcesnothing is non-point. Such
sources are highly controllable. All it requires is a
coordinated effort from all the agencies involved
along with a paradigm shift in the laws and the
institutional framework. The entire world is aware
of the muck; disseminate information about diminution measures and everyones respective roles
so that the rivers of our country embellish our
drawing rooms instead of the back yard that they
are now flowing through.
49
While spillways facilitate safe

release of surplus water and
ensures that the water does not
overtop and damage the dam,
it also severely decreases the
amount of water reaching downstream, thereby causing water
stress and affecting aquatic life.
50
Photo courtesy: Piyoosh rautela
Surface water
Storage
and diSaSterS
DAM fAilures AnD flooDing in extreMe event scenArios
By Sulagna Chattopadhyay
Ever since independence, dams were looked upon as the temples of modern
India, our saviour against droughts, and partners in Indias development.
However, ill-conceived structures devoid of environmental assessment and
lack of upstream and downstream flow data have turned them into killers
throughout the length and breadth of the country.
ndia is increasingly becoming an extreme

weather event hotspot. From cold and heat
waves to thunderstorms, hailstorms, dust
storms, cyclones, droughts, floods and
extreme rain episodes are causing heavy loss
to life and property. Even dams, that were perceived
as our saviours in preventing droughts and stemming floods, are emerging as killerscausing heavy
erosion and sweeping off entire villages. Collapsing
structures and the release of water from reservoirs
during heavy rains have swept away many, with
ensuing floods rotting away acres of crops. As per
the Central Water Commissions (CWC) National
Register of Large Dams, India has 4857 large dams,
with 314 under construction dams, above the height
of 10 m, as per information last updated in 2014.
Apart from these large structures, smaller, below
10 m reservoirs are in abundance, numbering well
over 20,000.
dam failures and downstream flooding
India has a long history of dam failures. The

Kaddam Project Dam, Adilabad, Andhra Pradesh,
built in 1957-58, collapsed in the later half of 1958,
as it was unable to hold flood waters that breached
sections of the dam leading to its failure. The Kaila
Dam, Kutch, Gujarat, constructed between 1952-55
collapsed in 1959. The Kodaganar Dam, Tamil
Nadu, constructed in 1977 on a tributary of the
Cauvery River, failed due to overtopping of flood
waters. As the dam breached, an earthquake was
also registered. The Nanaksagar Dam, Bhakra,
Punjab, constructed in 1962 breached in 1967, due
to heavy monsoon rains. The Panshet Dam, Ambi,
Maharashtra was built in 1961 and failed the same
yearthe rain caused a rapid rise of the reservoir
water level and the embankment was unable to bear
the increased load. The Khadakwasla Dam, Mutha,
Maharashtra built in 1879, collapsed in 1961 as a
51
result of the breach that developed in the Panshet

Dam upstream. The Tigra Dam, Sank, Madhya
Pradesh was built in 1917 and collapsed the same
year due to structural faults. In more recent time,
in November 2009, the right bank of the Moolathara dam in the Palakkad district of Kerala was
breached following the release of water from the
Aliyar dam by Tamil Nadu. In 2010, more than a
dozen villages were inundated in Gararda Dam in
Bundi, Rajasthan after a newly constructed dam
collapsed flooding houses and drowning livestock.
The Morvi disaster and recent tragedies
But by far the greatest dam disaster in the world

happened in 1979 as the Machhu II Dam in Morvi,
Rajkot, Gujarat, burst, killing an estimated 25,000
people. The rains arrived late; and once it did,
pounded the town of Morvi for 10 consecutive days.
Since the dam was not designed for such heavy
rainfall, it burst, and submerged the entire town of
Morvi, destroying all that came in its wayinfrastructure, humans and animals. The enquiry that
followed proved the governments carelessness and
inadequate planning. The dam was ill designed and
when the investigations brought out facts that were
too embarrassing for the government to face, the
findings were reportedly concealed. It was only a
few years ago, that access to documents revealed
the actual extent of the tragedy. A book was consequently published by Utpal Sandesara and Tom
Wooten No one had a tongue to speak, wherein
the authors pointed out the carelessness of design
and the lack of environmental assessment which
led to the disaster.
Tragedies due to discharge of flood waters by
dam personnel have recently been in the news.
Last year, in June 2014, a group of 25 students on
an excursion were swept away when the gates of the
Larji hydroelectric project on the Beas in Himachal
Pradesh were suddenly opened without warning.
The tragedy was repeated in August, 2015 when
floodwaters were released by officials from the
Amakhal Dam on the Sukhmi river in Harda,
Madhya Pradesh, killing 30 persons.
This year, heavy rains in August compelled the
Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) officials in
Jharkhand to let out water from the Panchet and
Maithon dams. Since West Bengal was already
reeling under heavy rains due to cyclone Komen,
and the effect of a spring tide, the waters from
the dam swamped 12 districts, killing 83 people,
damaging over seven lakh acres of standing crops.
52
dam safety monitoring
Downstream flooding and other operational

problems can be avoided if we understand the need
for dam safety. Unfortunately, dam safety and its
significance is hardly understood, and complications arising out of its negligence have rarely
been documented. In fact, the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) was completely
clueless about dam related disasters when GnY
posed dam safety related questions to them.
A dam safety programme comprises the
designing, construction, operation and maintenance of a dam, along with regular surveillance,
safety review, remedial action, education and
training for emergency operations. The notion that
once a dam is built and operational, only minor
maintenance work will suffice is a fallacy. On the
contrary, operation and maintenance of a dam
should be a routinely organised activity based on
sound engineering procedures and demands of
the topography. In the lower reaches of the Ganga,
high rate of siltation makes dredging an essential
task. In the absence of adequate dredging, the dam
loses its ability to hold enough water. In such a situation, opening of sluice gates becomes necessary,
as happened this monsoon with the dams under
the DVC. West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata
Banerjee highlighted the inadequacies of the DVC
and blamed its engineers for the calamity that befell
the State.
The prime objective of a surveillance system
is to analyse and present data on the dam and its
environ in order to ensure adequate warning of
any unsafe trends in the behaviour of the dam. This
entails monitoring, alongside visual inspection,
checking and testing of instrumentation followed
by reporting and analysis of the data to understand
the structural response to increased loads. Thus,
dam safety covers structural as well as operational
aspects. In the absence of these, tragedies like
that befell the Macchu II at Morvi in 1979 cannot
be averted.
Indian dams are mostly vulnerable to seismic
hazards. This component is well tackled and potential structural damages envisaged and safeguards
ensured. But, post construction, the dam authorities are lackadaisical about the upkeep of the dams,
as Himanshu Thakkar, Coordinator at South Asia
Network on Dams, Rivers and People, pointed out
to GnY. The Sardar Sarovar, the most talked about
dam of the decade, has shoddy dam safety norms. Its
stilling basin was damaged and 30 months elapsed
before a meeting of the dam safety body could be

organised. Dam safety data, along with height of
water, according to Thakkar should be real-time,
and available online, with data archived for five
years or more. Besides, every dam management
committee should remain abreast of the operational information and meet at least once every
quarter, in Thakkars opinion.
Inadequate environmental assessment can also
be the cause of dams becoming unsafe, and putting
regions around them at risk. The Koyna earthquake
in 1967 was the result of building a dam on a seismically active zone that could not take the load of the
water in the reservoir. This triggered an earthquake
of intensity 6.5 on the Richter scale, that flattened
Koynanagar town killing 180 people (injuring 1500
others) and destroyed the power house associated
with the dam. Since then, 19 earthquakes of intensity greater than 5 have struck Koyna, till 2005. The
6.8 magnitude Tehri earthquake of 1991 has also
been attributed to the then under-construction
Tehri dam in Uttarakhand. Although the epicenter
was slightly away from the site of the damwhich
is claimed to be designed to withstand earthquakes
of up to 8.4 magnitude, seismologists predict earthquakes of more than 8.5 intensity in this region in
future. In case such an earthquake were to occur, a
breach in the dam can expose thousands of people
to massive floods.
At times, inadequate data or analyses of the
hydro-geological parameters of a river can result
in long-term environmental disasters too. The
building of the Kosi embankment in Bihar has not
only caused waterlogging of acres of fertile land,
but also impoverished thousands of rural families, turning them into environmental refugees,
as Dinesh Mishra has pointed out in his book,
Trapped between the devil and deep waters: The
story of Bihars Kosi river, published by Peoples
Science Institute and South Asian Network on
Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP) in 2008.
The Farakka Barrage built in 1969 on the IndoBangladesh border is also another example of a
similar folly. The barrage not only dammed the
Ganga to hold back its waters, but plugged its
distributariesKalindri, Pagla and Chhoto Bhagirathi, which had normally absorbed the outflow of
the swollen Ganga in the past. This, along with the
fact that the Ganga is heavily laden with silt, proved
Farakkas undoing. Heavy siltation has rendered
58 of the 109 sluice gates of the barrage defunct. As
a result, following a heavy monsoon upstream in
With dams aging

their susceptibility to
catastrophe resulting in
failures also increases.
Uttar Pradesh or Bihar, the water flows downstream
into Malda and Murshidabad, and swallows entire
villages. Over the years, thousands of acres of fertile
land, mango orchards and farms have been swept
away, and more than three million people in Malda
and Murshidabad districts are affected, with an
estimated eight lakh people having been rendered
homeless, as geographer Kalyan Rudra points
out in his 2004 vernacular book, Ganga bhangan
katha: A fact-finding observation of Ganga river
erosion in Malda and Murshidabad districts.
In a paper presented in a 2002, Dam Safety
Conference in Tampa, Florida, Designing dam
safety monitoring and early warning systems
using failure modes analysis, Barry K Myers has
provided an outline on how advanced detection
of dam health could lead to corrective action and
timely intervention. To accomplish this, Myers
feels, the monitoring system must be focused on
detecting events that are precursors to failure. He
recommends the failure modes analysis as a tool to
understand events that could lead to dam failure,
while recommending the use of automated instrumentation that can warn about dangers in time.
Thakkar, however, is not convinced that automated instruments and other dam safety provisions
are enough. In his opinion, an upstream and
downstream flow pattern should be in place while
taking a decision to release unprecedented amounts
of water that can lead to flooding downstream. He
cites the 2006 Ukai case, when the dam released
11 lakh cusecs, following an extended period of
rainfall, that submerged the city of Surat. The
downstream river is equipped to handle only 3 lakh
cusecs, but the dam authorities initially released
6 lakh cusecs, and then 11 lakh cusecs, delaying
release by waiting for orders that were to come
from Gandhinagar, consequently flooding Surat,
he said.
Dam safety is however, not about the dam only.
It is also about not allowing habitations to come
up along flood plains downstream. Once a dam is
constructed, people are under the impression that
53
the river has been trained. Increases in the built-up

area, construction in the floodplains, filling in
of the riverbed and floodplains, silting up of the
riverbed and construction of embankments, new
bridges and weirs all contribute to reducing both
the capacity of the river and the open space that
allows floodwaters to spread out.
In a country where climate variabilities have
always been difficult to cope with, increasing
extreme weather events are exacerbating uncertainties. For a welfare state, peoples needs should be
of utmost importance but at the same time implementation of safety mandates is equally important.
legislatures and programmes
According to the CWC dam safety is an inherent

function in the planning, design, construction,
maintenance and operation of dams. It has been
recognised that dam safety aspects, particularly of
the existing dams, do not receive adequate attention even as the number of dams are aging.
Further, most of these dams were constructed
using the standards and criteria prevalent at that
time which may either not be safe under todays
river regimes or may not be acceptable in terms of
safety to life and property. It has also been recognized internationally that a successful dam safety
assurance programme requires a dedicated institutional structure with access to top management.
As per news reports, the National Democratic
Alliance government is pushing for a national law
on dam safety. The Bill had been introduced by the
UPA II in 2010 but lapsed with the dissolution of the
15th Lok Sabha. With the private sector engaged in
the construction of dams, it is perhaps imperative
that such a Bill is reintroduced at the earliest. The
plan behind such a dam safety bill is to create a
mechanism for surveillance, inspection and operation of all dams to ensure their safe functioning. It
may also seek to establish a national committee on
dam safety. This will mean earmarking sufficient
funds for maintenance and repair of specified
dams, as also establishing disaster management
and emergency action plans, besides a comprehensive dam safety evaluation every 5-10 years.
However, Thakkar rues, the Bill is a closed
club affair, while calling for independent experts
to make the bill process transparent. Else, it is a
redundant exercise, he remarks.
A World -Bank assisted programme, the Dam
Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIPIndia), approved in 2010, is currently underway in
54
The Sardar Sarovar dam has poor dam safety norms

and 30 months passed before a reported damage to its
stilling basin could be addressed.
India. The objective of the project is to improve

the safety and operational performance of selected
223 existing dams at a cost of INR 2100 crore in
four statesKerala, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and
Tamil Nadu, with provision for taking up some
more dams in other states in future. The project
is in line with an earlier World Bank assisted,
Dam Safety Assurance and Rehabilitation Project
(DSARP) implemented in 1991-99 at a cost of INR
422.95 crore.
In India, a voice-based announcement system
for flood/overflow intimation will further bolster
the dam safety this time around, L A V Nathan,
chief engineer, Dam Safety Organisation, CWC,
told GnY.
However, activists like Thakkar do not set
much in store as regards the present dam safety
norms being followed. In 2007, the Jaswant Sagar
dam in Rajasthan, breached, creating havoc. It
was one of the dams included in the World Bank
aided safety project. In his opinion, a new holistic
regimen involving the right design, environmental
assessment, and regular maintenance is the only
worthwhile alternative to ensure safe and secure
dams in future.
endnote
With its wide network of rivers and growing

demand for power and year-long water supplies,
India needs dams and multi-purpose projects.
But building dams is not the only solution; dam
safety norms must be adhered to lest the dams
meant to nurture life end up as killers. For this,
an environmental impact assessment, followed by
the right design in tune with the hydro-geological
parameters involved, and regular maintenance of
the dam is the only solution.
Term Power raTing
Understanding
Water
1 to 5 Correct - Informed
6 to 8 Correct - Knowledge bank
9 to 10 Correct - Encyclopaedia
1. Hydrograph
Ans. a: It depicts the rate of flow (discharge) versus

time elapsed at a specific point in a river, or other
channel. These graphs are generally employed to
understand the influence of climate such as seasonal
rainfall, flood, drought and climate change on groundwater levels. In addition, hydrographs are also utilised
to understand the response of aquifers to pumping
and irrigation.
2. Artesian Well
Ans. b: These are wells dug into aquifers under

positive pressure. The water in artesian wells rises
to a point where hydrostatic equilibrium has been
reached naturally, without any artificial aid.
3. Bed Flow
Ans. c: Bed flow is the sustained flow in a stream that

comes from groundwater discharge or seepage.
6. Geoengineering
Ans. b: These processes are aimed to mitigate

the effects of global warming. It involves a multitude
of global climate modification programmes that
function to tackle climate change by removing
CO2 from the air.
7. Fossil Water
Ans. c: Also called paleo-water, the term refers to

ancient freshwater reservoirs created millions of years
ago and trapped underground in deep aquifers.
8. Run off
Ans. b: Runoff is the water that flows over the

surface of earth. The flowing water mostly is a result
of storms, glacial melt, floods or other sources.
Runoffs are crucial for aquifer recharge.
9. Aeration Zone
4. Hydraulic Conductivity
Ans. a: The term refers to the comparatively dry soil or

rock located between the ground surface and the
top of the water table. The pores of the soil/rock of
this zone contain both water and air.
5. Recharge
Ans. c: These are sedimentary beds through which zero

flow occurs because of lack of porosity.
Aquicludes generally underlie or overlie an aquifer.
In case of the latter, the pressure could
metamorphose it into a confined
aquifer.
Ans. a: Hydraulic conductivity refers to the permeability

of water through a medium. It describes the ease with
which water flows through the pores or fractures of an
aquifer.
Ans. b: Recharge is the addition of water to an aquifer

to replenish it. It may occur naturally through rain, runoff
or through artificial measures like spreading basins and
recharge wells/irrigation.
10. Aquiclude
55
In dI a | Ou t dOOr s
The LIONs
New hOme
Relocating the lions of gujaRat
56
An Asiatic lioness rests in its last

bastion, the Gir Forest of Gujarat. In the
last decade, conservation efforts have
resulted in a steady rise in the population
of these majestic cats.
57
Story staff RepoRteR

Photographs Bhushan panDYa
Even as the population of lions surpassed its saturation point in
the core area of the Gir National Park, the Gujarat Government
turned a deaf ear to the Supreme Courts injunction of relocating a
few lions to neighbouring Madhya Pradesh.
sundr y
image is
building
up as the
monsoon
drama unfolds over
the sub-continent. Not
long ago, amongst the
several stories of angst,
Gujarats torrential
rains that continued for
three long days in the
last week of June, was in the spotlight. Severe flash
floods in Amreli and Bhavnagar districts, took a
toll on life and property, along with washing away
nine endangered Asiatic Lions from their homes in
the Gir Forest National Park located in the south
western part of Amreli.
Forest officials recovered carcasses of four lions
and lionesses each and a female cub, from the banks
of the flooded Shetrunji River in Bhavnagar district.
The perished lions are believed to be among the 40
odd big cats that forest officials said were missing
from the Krakach range of the Gir forest following
the heavy rains.
As per a news report in the Indian Express,
published in June 27, the deputy conservator of
forests of Bhavnagar, G S Singh alludes that the cats
succumbed due to the overflowing waters of the
Shetrunji dam. Shedding more light on the topic,
veteran conservation biologist, Ravi Chellam,
faculty member, Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra
Dun clarified to a GnY correspondent that the
floods didnt affect the entire forest. The deaths in
fact happened outside the protected area. We believe
58
they were washed away in the strong currents from

the overflowing river due to heavy rainfall.
The news caused furore among wildlife enthusiasts and reinforced their claims that restricting the
lions to just one area puts the endangered species at
the risk of extinction.
The Gir Forest National Park is known all over
the world as the last bastion of the Asiatic Lion for
more than a century. Asiatic lions were once widely
distributed in Asia Minor and Arabia through
Persia to India. The onslaught of human pressure
led to diminution of the lions habitat and today,
the last remaining individuals could be found only
within the custodial 1412.1 sq km protected area
(PA) of the Junagadh, Gir Somnath and Amreli
districts of Gujarat, comprising a national park
and a sanctuary258.7 sq kms and 1153.4 sq kms
respectively. Apart from this, 470.5 sq km designated as a protected unclassified forest, serves as
the buffer zone to the PA.
The Asiatic Lions were included in the critically
endangered category by the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2000. That
very year, it was changed to endangered class in
view of a steady increase in their numbers. But
the status may be easily reversed, as opined by
Chellam, adding that the floods were evidence that
the survival of the species was at risk because the
lions were living in only one PA. Since long, environmentalists and wildlife enthusiasts have been
urging the Indian government to take the pressure
off the Gir and relocate a part of the populace so as
to establish at least one more free ranging population of lions.
Gir habitat is well conserved and local people
extend great support to this cause, but what if this

entire environment is threatened in the wake of
some natural calamity?, says eminent independent
researcher on lions, Meena Venkataraman.
Way back in 1995, The Centre for Environment
Law and WWF-I filed a petition in Indias apex
court to get the Gujarat government to reintroduce
Asiatic lions in to Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary. Citing
the example of the Serengeti National Park in
Tanzania, Ravi Chellam, Justus Joshwa, Christy A
Williams and A J T Johnsingh, on behalf of Wildlife
Institute of India, appealed to the Supreme Court
that confining the last of these cat species to the Gir
Forest National Park exposes them to a plethora
of dangersepidemics, genetic deformities,
forest fires or other unforeseeable calamities, thus
increasing their chances of extinction. An outbreak
of canine distemper in the early 90s claimed a
significant chunk of the lion population of the
Serengeti National Park in Tanzania. The appeal
stated that, If an epidemic of this scale were to affect
the lions in Gir, it would be very difficult to save
them from extinction, given the much smaller area
of the forests and the smaller lion population. The
possibility of the disease spreading to the pockets
of habitat such as Girnar Mityala, Rajula, Kodinar
and the surrounding areas, cannot be ruled out.
The latest census of Indias population of the
endangered Asiatic Lion reveal that their numbers
has increased by 27 per cent from the previous
census conducted five years back. The 14th Asiatic
Lion Census 2015 documents the total number of
lions to be 523, including 109 adult lions and 201
adult lionesses along with 213 sub adults and cubs
Experts argue that the population has almost
reached the saturation point in the core area of
the Gir, which might subsequently expose them
to the vulnerabilities of inbreeding, disease and
extinction. They also revealed that the proliferating
population of these lions has chiefly been observed
outside the protected zonethus bringing them
close enough to human habitations which might
result in man-animal conflicts.
Gujarat might revel in the unwavering rise in
population of these majestic cats, but the fact has
engendered serious concerns among wildlife
enthusiasts and environmentalists. Exposing the
perils, Bhushan Pandya, wildlife photographer and
member of the State Board for Wildlife, Gujarat told
GnY correspondent that protecting the protected
species outside the protected area is an uphill task in
itself. Speeding vehicles on the state and national
highways, rail traffic, illegal electric wire fences in

farms to protect crop from wild ungulates, open
wells in villages and agriculture farms, etc., are
major threats that the lions are susceptible to.
The Supreme Court of India on April 15, 2013,
acknowledged the proposed translocation to
neighbouring Kuno wildlife sanctuary in Madhya
Pradesh as being in the best interest of the species
and rejected the Gujarats objections, instead
ordering Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change (MoEFCC) to enable the translocation by October 2013. So far, not a single lion has
been shifted. As per Live Mint dated June 18, 2015,
an environment ministry official reportedly said
that the population of lions has stabilised after a
lot of hard work. The view that emerged from the
expert meeting, which included wildlife division
officials, was that the move to Madhya Pradesh
could destabilise their population. Thus it has been
decided to prepare a fresh affidavit explaining the
same. It will soon be filed with the Supreme Court
to inform and clarify on the issue.
Gujarat has been objecting to the translocation
plan on several grounds. Firstly, it cites that Kuno
Palpur forests have a population of 6 to 8 tigers
and coexistence of large cats is unlikely. Secondly,
it points out that lions world over are known
to prefer grasslands in sub-topical to near subtropical climates with normal temperature during
the hottest period of the day below 42 degree C
(approx). Kuno, however experiences temperature
well above 45 degree C for a number of days. Such
an environment may thus not be conducive for its
survival. Gujarat also alludes to the lack of prey base
at Kuno and adds that there is in reality no actual
threat to the lion population as the current Asiatic
lion population is not a single confined population
but consists of meta-population spread over several
locations within the Greater Gir Region.
The government of Gujarat further clarifies that
lions are increasing in number and geographical
distribution in the vicinity of Gir in Amreli and
Bhavnagar districts. As lions are the pride of the
entire state the locals do not grudge the occasional
predation of their cattle by lions and are happy to
accommodate the natural increase in home range
of lions. As per the Writ Petition (Civil) No. 337
of 1995 filed in the Supreme Court, besides Gir
National Park and Gir-Paniya-Mithiyal Sanctuary
and Devalia Interpretation Park, lions have made
home in Girnar, grasslands of Savarkundla, Palitana and Mahuva hills and in the coastal regions of
59
Jafrabad and Rajula in Amreli districts. Gujarat is

also preparing a proposal to set up a new sanctuary
in the Junagarh area, close to the present one to ease
the pressure on the Gir forest. The proposed area
spreads across 109 sq km, at a distance of 70 km
from Gir. The identified area, also acts as a corridor
for lions to travel along the banks of Shatrunj river
to relatively newer territories near Bhavnagar and
Amreli regions. The natural expansion of home
range being the effective way of establishing natural
meta population that infrequently interact among
populations located at different places in the Gir
region. Thus effectively isolated populations which
60
may still receive genetic inputs from the base

populations are establishing, providing an efficient
method of conservation.
Madhya Pradesh claims that the biomass per sq
km in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary excluding feral
cattle and langur (3365.32 kg per sq/km) is more
than the biomass in Gir PA (2785 kg per sq/km)
and the area could easily sustain a lion population.
Could it perhaps then be that the Government of
Gujarat is more focused on tourism as opposed to
conservation? As these endangered beasts are high
revenue generators, Gujarat may be reluctant to
share them with its neighbouring states.
The 14th Asiatic Lion Census 2015 documents

the total number of lions to be 523, including 109
adult lions and 201 adult lionesses along with 213
sub adults and cubs. As the population of the lions
rises concerns of human-animal conflict have also
grown in tandem. Asiatic Lions are high revenue
generators, and the government seems reluctant to
share it with the neighbouring states.
On being asked about the impacts of a possible

extinction, Meena Venkataraman told our correspondent, Obviously losing apex predator will
have the usual cascading effect of explosion in wild
ungulate populations and habitat alteration in the
long term. A species which has survived through

evolutionary times despite various changes in
historical time should not be a victim of human
influences.
Endangered species are of aesthetic, ecological,
educational, historical, recreational, and scientific value to the nation and its people as per the
Endangered Species Act of 1973. Preserving a
species before it comes to a critical point of extinction necessitates urgent attention. A sudden dip
in the population of apex species such as the lions,
could upset the equilibrium of the entire ecosystem
besides resulting in a huge loss to the nation.
61
Photo courtesy: Brian Gratwicke
In | br Ief
The Whale Shark
India has a large number of whale sharks inhabiting the tropical waters of Lakshadweep,
Gulf of Kutch and Saurashtra coast of Gujarat. The population, however, is fast depleting
due to its entanglement in fishing nets and consequent stress induced by the extensive
travel time taken by rescuers to reach the site. The Government of India has listed whale
sharks in the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, giving the species
equal protection as the tiger, lion and elephant in 2001. In response to this, in 2004, Wildlife
Trust of India, along with Tata Chemicals and Gujarat Forest Department, launched a
large-scale campaign in Gujarat, which also led to a model relief programme that offered
monetary support to fishermen whose nets were damaged or had to be cut open during the
rescue and release of whale sharks. The fishermen were also encouraged to release the
whale shark quickly and the captured images of a rescue by fishermen served as evidence
to prove the damage to nets and claim financial relief from the government. About 1200
water-proof cameras were distributed in Sutrapada, Dhamlej and Veraval since 2012. In the
next phase of the conservation programme, Indias first ever whale shark satellite as well as
marker tagging programme has been initiated. So far, four whale sharks have been tagged
with satellite transmitter to understand its migratory patterns and 132 fishermen trained to
deploy marker tags on rescued fish.
62
The whale shark is the first fish to be

included in Schedule-I of the Indian
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
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In dI a | Ou t dOOr s
Photo courtesy: sD Biju
Although, several species of dancing

frogs exist in Central America and
South East Asia, experts believe
the Indian species, Micrixalidae, has
evolved separately about 85 million
years ago.
64
are there
still more?
discovering new species
in India
65
By Staff RepoRteR
Discovery of new species have aided the understanding of future
probabilities. It has been analysed that these newly discovered species
are habitants of the few desolate forests that may be home to a diverse
groups of medicinal and natural antidotes.
t may be a wonder of sorts that Indias rich

biodiversity periodically still manages to
throw up a new set of flora and fauna that
was hitherto undiscovered, unreported,
and unclassified. The species discoveries,
perhaps stands testimonial to the alluring natural
wealth of the country. The Botanical Survey of
India (BSI) and the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI)
revealed on the World Environment Day on June 5,
2015 that a total number of 349 plants and animals
have been discovered in the year 2014. Of these 173
are plant species and genera and 176 are animal
species. Of the several discoveries we have brought
forth four, to whet your appetite and drive you to
ferret out discoveries in the still protected bastions
of India.
dancing Frogs
A great run for frog lovers14 new species of

dancing frogs have been discovered by scientists in
the Western Ghats last year. The striking haul pulled
up the number of recognised Indian dancing frogs
to 24 species. The spectacular discovery was a result
of the unrelenting efforts of eminent amphibian
biologist and wildlife conservationist Sathyabhama
Das Biju and his team of young researchers. Fondly
known as the Frogman of India, Biju has been
scouring the Western Ghats for almost a decade
in search of newer species of amphibians. The
miniature amphibians earned their name from
the peculiar side-kicks and leg stretching that the
males display to attract mates. All of the tiny frogs,
the largest of which measures just 35 millimetres,
come from the genus Micrixalus, which is endemic
to the region.
66
According to Biju, the team recognised the

14 new species leveraging both on external
morphology and molecular evidences. We used
138 tissue samples collected from 70 localities of
the Western Ghats over the last 12 years for DNA
barcoding. Our results of multiple mitochondrial
gene (16S and COI) barcoding reveal unexpectedly
high species level diversity in the genus Micrixalus,
he added. Speaking with the GnY correspondent,
he accentuated the fact that the diversity of several
amphibian groups in the Western Ghats has been
highly underestimated. Considering the rich
biodiversity of the Western Ghats, there is an urgent
need to re-examine and document amphibian clusters and endemism of this region, he said.
Mayfly
Recently, researchers from the University of Madras

discovered a new species of mayfly belonging
to the genus Labiobaetis, as part of a continued
effort to explore the Ephemeroptera fauna of the
streams of the south Western Ghats. According to
the Journal of Insect Science, where the discovery
research paper is published, the new species have
been christened Labiobaetis soldani, in the honour
of T Soldan for his substantial contribution to the
understanding of the Ephemeroptera of palaearctic
and oriental realms.It is the first time that this
genus has been discovered in the Indian peninsula,
said C Sevlakumar to the GnY correspondent. We
first came across the specimen in July 2012. It took
us three years to compare it to its 12 congeners and
mark it as a new species.
The insect was discovered in the larva state
in a small perennial river called Gadana in the
Photo courtesy: 1-B sinha, 2-c srinivasulu, & 3-sD Biju
Creteuchiloglanis Arunachalensis is the third species discovered as of yet in the genus Creteuchiloglanis. The
other two are Creteuchiloglanis Kamengensis and Creteuchiloglanis Payjab, found in Arunachals Kalaktang and
Mechuka regions in 1976 and 2015 respectively (Fig 1). Cnemaspis adii features a slightly triangular mental
scale along with two pairs of postmental scales and lacks any spine-like projections that are generally present
in the sides of other day geckos (Fig 2). The dancing frogs, endemic to the Western Ghats of peninsular India,
come from the genus Micrixalus and can grow upto a length of 35 mm. The dancing phenomenon exhibited by
the males is a unique multimodal breeding communication called foot-flagging. (Fig 3).
Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. They observed

that the larvae, that grows up to 4-5 mm in length,
displays distinct light brown coloured heads, and
light yellow antennae. Moreover, the presence
of a distolateral notch on the antennal scape and
the absence of femoral villopore along with the
pointed shape of the labial palp apex distinguish the
species from its close relative L.pulchellus found in
Sri Lanka.
gecko
The Osmania University of Hyderabad came to

prominence after a team of researchers discovered
a new species of gecko lizard at the world heritage
site of Hampi in Karnataka. The species, a daytime gecko endemic to warm climates, has been
named Cnemaspis Adii honouring the young
herpetologist Aditya Srinivasulu who collected
the first specimen of the gecko (holotype) along

with Chelmala Srinivasulu. The research team,
claimed that the worth of the discovery lies in the
fact that this is probably the first time that any
species of day-time geckos was found in the central
regions of peninsular India between Eastern and
Western Ghats. Cnemaspis species have been so
far known only in Eastern and Western Ghats and
their out-spurs, said Chelmala in a conversation
with GnY correspondent. The only other species
known from Bengaluru and its surroundings is
the Mysore Day Gecko (Cnemaspis mysoreiensis).
Our discovery points to the fact that the species
belonging to this genus could be more diverse than
presently known, he added.
The striking feature of the new species is the presence of round pupils; unlike regular day geckos
that have vertical pupils. The dorsal scales on the
67
A De v e l opm e n t A n D
e n v i ron m e n t m AgA z i n e
body of the Cnemaspis Adii are reportedly small,

homogenous, granular and lightly keeled. The
research team also revealed that,the drier regions
of the peninsular India could possibly hold more
species than currently known.
Geographyandyou.com
Catfish
Tucked away in the easternmost corner of the

country, Arunachal Pradesh is referred to as an
undiscovered gold mine. A remote biodiversity
hotspot pullulated with unfathomable varieties
of flora and fauna, it has been under the radar of
most researchers and wildlife enthusiasts of late.
Recently, scientists from the Itanagar branch of
ZSI discovered a new species of catfish in the Lower
Subansiri district of the state. Discovered in the
Pange River, located at an altitude of 1600 m, the
fish was recognised as a Glyptosternine torrential
catfish of the genus Creteuchiloglanis.
The research team led by Bikramjit Sinha have
named the medium sized catfish Creteuchiloglanis
Arunachalensis. The catfish dwells inside flat
boulders, mostly along the middle section of the
hilly rivers where water currents are comparatively
higher. They remain attached to the boulders
with the help of enlarged pectoral and pelvic fins
and scrub fine green algae on the substratum as
its basic food.
In an interview with GnY, Lapka Tamang,
another member of the research team, revealed
that the new species is a high altitude cold water
fish and presently only found in the locality of its
discovery. But we expect its existence in other
drainage systems mostly in the vicinity of Ziro
valley. The exploration work in remote areas within
Arunachal Pradesh have not yet been covered
by ichthyologists/researchers mainly because of
rugged terrain and unavailability of road communication, Tamang added.
At a time when species populations are falling
globally, every new discovery of it is overwhelming.
Each organism fills a niche position within an
ecosystem and hence, with every discovery we gain
better understanding of our biodiversity. Economically, these species also are representative of the
forests that are untouched by the ills of urbanisation
and are probable reservoirs of medicinal and other
life giving templates.
68
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Ography and You - July - August 2015

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GeoGraphy and you.

Gny SINCe 2001 Vol. 15, ISSue 91, 2015

should Girs Lions be

Conserving Indias Groundwater 4 Ganga

Free Fortnightly Magazine

GeoGraphy and you

Conserving Indias Groundwater

For Sustainable Water Security of the Country

3D Imaging and National Aquifer

Groundwater Exploitation in the

Rivers of India : Perilous or

Keralas Dwindling Freshwater

Water Quality of the Upper Ganga

Surface Water Storage and

Air Vice Marshal (Retd)

Fmr Deputy Director General,

Panikkar Professor at ESSO,

Indiscriminate groundwater withdrawal brings down the

The Lions New Home

Are there still more?

Discovering new species in India

GeoGraphy and you

I read the disaster special issue of GnY

Land acquisition issue I complement the

team of GnY for publishing such a

online issue of GnY and I am receiving it

July - auGust 2015 GeoGraphy and you

magazine. However, I want to know whether

reader of GnY and I visit your website

Photo courtesy: Partha sarathi sahana

The Cauvery and its historic

GeoGraphy and you July - auGust 2015

Women thronging near a well in Vasai.

July - August 2015 geogrAphy And you

July - August 2015 geogrAphy And you

of groundwater depletion in India, published in

Fig 2: Poor Water

Map not to scale

Fig. 1: Water Stressed

Poor water quality

geogrAphy And you July - August 2015

the quality of precious aquifers.

Conserving groundwater, saving aquifers

The quantity and quality of groundwater needs to

July - August 2015 geogrAphy And you

tion (SRI) or system of wheat intensification (SWI)

Aquifer risk: Carbon capture and storage

Photo courtesy: NAsA

water-rock reactions and thus change groundwater chemistry.

NGRI personnel marking up one of

July - August 2015 geogrAphy And you

Photo courtesy: DFID, uK

Photo courtesy: shaKeel ahmeD

A futuristic programme that intends to define the geometry and

he alarming depletion of groundwater, amid escalating demand

surveys to map Indias aquifers

Keeping in view the vast areas to be covered for

surface features to assess the recharge potential,

Indias major regions

The six pilot areas selected are representative of the

Hard rock covered by

Granite hard rock at

Sea Coast at Cuddalore,