ECW445

EC2204

1.

Describe the sources of water.

2.

Explain on the conventional water treatment

process.

Environmental Engineering & Open Space Planning

09.06.2009

VORTRAG FLINTENBEK - REGENWASSERBEWIRTSCHAFTUNG

Seite 6

Groundwater
shallow wells
deep wells
(or Direct pumping)

Surface water
rivers
lakes
Reservoirs

Rainwater
Open area
Building

Groundwater
constant composition
high mineral content
low turbidity
low color
low or no D.O.
high hardness
high Fe, Mn

Surface water
variable composition
low mineral content
high turbidity
colored
D.O. present
low hardness
taste and odor

Rainwater
variable composition colorless
low mineral content D.O. present
low hardness
low turbidity
taste and odor

10

Remove iron, which leaves rust-colored stains on clothing,

sinks, tubs, etc.

Reduce hardness, or dissolved minerals, which decrease the

effectiveness of soap and cause "scale" in water heaters,

boilers, etc.

Remove dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulfide, which can

contribute to taste and odor problems.

Remove harmful pathogen, such as bacteria, virus and

microorganism

11

Total Hardness
Technically - the sum of all polyvalent cations
Practically - the amount of calcium and magnesium

ions (the predominant minerals in natural waters)

It is divided into carbonate and noncarbonate
hardness.

12

A term often used to characterize the ability

of a water to:
cause soap scum
Ca2+ + (Soap)- Ca(Soap)2

(s)

OR

Ca2+ (aq) + 2 C17H35COO- (aq) (C17H35COO)2Ca (s)

increase the amount of soap needed
cause scaling on pipes

cause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium

carbonate crystals
leave stains on plumbing fixtures

13

Description
Soft
Moderately hard
Hard
Very hard

Hardness range
(mg/L as CaCO3)
0 - 75
75 - 100
100 - 300
> 300

14

Precipitation
Topsoil
Subsoil
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Limestone CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2
MgCO3(s) + H2CO3 Mg(HCO3)2

15

Carbonate Hardness
Often called "temporary hardness" because heating
the water will remove it. When the water is heated,

the insoluble carbonates will precipitate and tend

to form bottom deposits in water heaters.
Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with HCO3-, CO32 CH = TH or Total alkalinity, whichever is less

16

Non-Carbonate Hardness
Called permanent hardness because it is not
removed when the water is heated. It is much more
expensive to remove non-carbonate hardness than

carbonate hardness.
Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with other ions, Cl-, NO3-,
SO42 NCH = TH - CH
If Alkalinity Total hardness, then NCH = 0

17

milligrams per liter (mg/L) as calcium

carbonate (most common)

parts per million (ppm) as calcium carbonate

grains per gallon of hardness (to convert

from grains per gallon to mg/L, multiply by
17.1)

equivalents/liter (eq/L)
18

19

coagulation/flocculation

Sedimentation

Filtration

Stabilization

fluoridation

chlorination

20

Coagulation/flocculation
Sedimentation
Filtration

Stabilization
fluoridation
chlorination

21

Goal: To alter the surface charge of the

particles that contribute to color and turbidity
so that the particles adhere to one another
and are capable of settling by gravity

22

Small particles (0.001 to 1 m)

Usually negatively charged

Particles repel so suspension is considered

stable

23

Coagulation (process)

Colloidal particles
(0.001 - 1 m)

+ +
+

+
+
+ +
+ ++
++
+
+ +
+
++
+
+ ++ + +
+ +
++ +
++
+
+ +
+

floc
(1 - 100 m)
24

Non-toxic and relatively inexpensive

Insoluble in neutral pH range - do not want

high concentrations of metals left in treated

water

Concentration

25

Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
Ferric chloride: FeCl3

Ferric sulfate: FeSO4

Polyelectrolytes

26

Al2(SO4)314H2O 2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O

2Al3+ + colloids neutralize surface charge

2Al3+ + 6HCO3- 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2

If insufficient bicarbonate is available:

Al2(SO4)314H2O 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 -+ 14H2O

Optimum pH: 5.5 to 6.5

Operating pH: 5 to 8
27

Turbidity remaining (TU)

Turbidity remaining (TU)

Jar test result

14
12
10
8
6
4
4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

7.5

8.0

Jar Test apparatus

pH

16
14

12
10

Quantity of coagulant

where

8
6
4
4

10 12 14 16 18 20

Alum Dose (mg/L)

m
= amount of coagulant needed (M/T)
Q
= design flow (L3/T)
22 Cdosage = dosage of optimum coagulant (M/L3)

28

Paddle units rotate

slowly, usually <1

rpm

Velocity of water:
0.5 - 1.5 ft/sec

Detention time of
at least 20 min

(Source: Water Supply and Pollution Control, 5th

ed. W. Viessman, Jr. and M.J. Hammer, Harper Collins
College Publ. 1993)

29

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Surface water treatment

Groundwater treatment

Lake water treatment

31

Screen
Sedimentation
basin
Surface water
from supply
Rapid Flocculation
Mix
Sand Filter
Basin
Sludge

Disinfection
Storage

To
Distribution
System

32

Used to blend chemicals

and water being treated

Retention time from 10

- 30 sec.

Mechanical mixing using

vertical-shaft impeller in

tank with baffles

(Source: Water Supply and Pollution Control, 5th
ed. W. Viessman, Jr. and M.J. Hammer, Harper
Collins
33
College Publ. 1993)

34

35

Oxidation of reduced metals

4Fe2+ + O2 + 10H2O 4Fe(OH3)(s) + 8H+
2Mn2+ + O2 + 2H2O 2MnO2(s) + 4H+

Stripping of dissolved gases

H2S(aq) H2S(g)

40

For a large capacity of

treatment plant:
Treats 6 to 7 MGD
Operates 24 hrs/day, 7 days/wk
Water is tested on average 249 times/day

41

Primary objectives are to

1. Remove suspended material

(turbidity) and color

2. Eliminate pathogenic organisms

Treatment technologies largely based on

coagulation and flocculation
42

Removal of turbidity
rapid mix tank
flocculation tanks

settling (sedimentation) tanks

43

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Following flocculation, the water then flows

into the settling basins

Water is nearly quiescent low flow with little

turbulence

Water resides for at least 3 hours and the

flocs settle out and collect at the bottom.

45

46

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g (s ) 2
vs
d
18
where
s = settling velocity (m/s)
s = density of particle (kg/m3)
= density of fluid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational constant (m/s2)
d = particle diameter (m)
= dynamic viscosity (Pas)
Viscosity: A measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by
shear stress or tensile stress.

49

At 20

Liquid

Absolute
Viscosity

Air

1.983 x 10-5

Water

1 x 10-3

Olive Oil

1 x 10-1

Glycerol

1 x 100

Liquid Honey

1 x 101

Golden Syrup

1 x 102

Glass

1 x 1040

*)

(Pa s)

50

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There are four types of sedimentation processes:

Type 1 - Dilutes, non-flocculent, free-settling.

(Every particle settles independently.)

Type 2 - Dilute, flocculent. (Particles can flocculate

as they settle.)

Type 3 - Concentrated Suspensions, Zone Settling

(Sludge Thickening).

Type 4 - Concentrated Suspensions, Compression

(Sludge Thickening).
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Q
v
As

where
v = overflow
rate (m/s)
Q = water flow
(m3/s)
As = surface
area (m2)
57

Type I settling applies to particles that settle with

constant velocity -- particles will be removed if v <
vs

If particles flocculate during settling, velocity

generally increases Type II settling

As particle concentration increases with depth,

zone settling occurs

At bottom of tank compression settling occurs

58

The final step in removing particles is filtration.

Removal of those particles that are too small to be

effectively removed during sedimentation

Multiple removal mechanisms depending on design

Sedimentation effluent: 1 - 10 NTU

Desired effluent level: <0.3 NTU

59

Single media: sand

Dual media: anthracite coal and
sand
Multimedia: anthracite coal, sand and
garnet

Source: Back to Basics Guide to Surface Water Treatment, American Water Works Association, 1P-2.5M-73026-11/92-MG

60

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Q
va
As
where
va = face velocity (m/day) or

va = 2.9 7.6 m3/daym2

As = filter surface area (m2)

Rapid sand filters:

va = 120 m3/daym2

loading rate (m3/daym2)

Q = flow rate (m3/day)

Slow sand filters:

Removal mechanisms are

different

Rapid sand widely used in

US, slow sand more

common in other countries

62

As particles are removed - filter becomes

clogged - headloss increases, turbidity
increases

Must backwash (takes about 10-15 min) done

about once per day

Must design to handle flow with one filter out

of service
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Backwashing is accomplished
by forcing water (and
sometimes air) up from the
clearwell back through the
filter.

The particles in the filter

become suspended, releasing
the trapped particles.

Backwash water retreated or

disposed of.

65

Following filtration, water is

disinfected

Chlorine gas is most commonly

used

2 design goals
kill majority of organisms in water
provide residual disinfection capability

to prevent growth of organisms in

distribution system

66

Cl2

(g)

+ H2O = HOCl + H+ + Cl-

pH dependent
essentially complete within a few milliseconds

HOCl = H+ + OCl HOCl is about 80 - 100 times more effective than is OCl- for E. Coli
[HOCl] + [OCl-] = free available chlorine

HOCl + NH3 = NH2Cl + H2O

NH2Cl (monochloramine) is less effective but longer lasting
combined chlorine

Chlorination for groundwater treatment

ClO2 + 5Fe(HCO3)2 + 2H2O 5Fe(OH)3 + 10CO2 + H+ + Cl-

Mn+2 + 2ClO2 + 4OH- MnO2 + 2ClO2- + 2H2O

(pH > 7)

5Mn+2 + 2ClO2 + 6OH- 5MnO2 + 12H+ + 2Cl-

(pH < 7)

Metal precipitation

67

Hypochlorite salts: NaOCl and Ca(OCl)2

more expensive to purchase
easier to handle
more common for small supplies

Chloramines (NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3)

longer contact time if primary disinfectant
used in combination with other disinfectants

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)

very effective
must be produced on site

68

Ozone (O3)
very powerful oxidant kills cysts
no taste and odor problems, no residual
widely used in Europe
more expensive than chlorine (produced on-site)

69

Ultraviolet radiation
effective bactericide and viricide

water must be free of turbidity and lamps free of slime and

precipitates
no residual protection

70

Ultrasound
Attack cell-wall by using OH radical

no residual protection
But, energy intensive technology

71

Chicks Law:

Design requirements may

include

dN

kN
dt

reduction in number of
organisms (e.g. 99.9% kill or 3log reduction)

where
N = number of
organisms
k = first-order rate
constant (day-1)

number of organisms allowed in

finished water (e.g. < 1/100 mL)
contact time

residual chlorine

Requirements can be both at

plant and at consumer

72

Trihalomethanes: CHCl3, CHCl2Br, CHClBr2 and CHBr3

sound epidemiological evidence linking THMs to

gastrointestinal tract cancers

current regulations require water supplies to limit total THM
levels, new rules reduce them

Haloacetic acids
new rules require limits for 5 compounds

Bromate and Chlorite

new rules

73

Recarbonation for softened

water
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Purpose is to reduce pH
following softening (pH > 11
required for Mg removal)

Sodium hydroxide addition

for surface water
coagulant chemicals reduce pH
increase pH to reduce
corrosivity

74

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pH 3, pE 10
(Fe2+)

pH 8, pE 10
(Fe(OH)3)

pH 8, pE 10
(Fe(OH)3)

76

Polyphosphate addition
Added for corrosion control as it forms a
protective film on pipes
Also helps to control lead levels in tap water
as it complexes with lead

77

Fluoride addition
Added either as NaF, Na2SiF6, H2SiF6
React in water to yield fluoride ion
(F-)

Well documented that fluoride

levels of ~ 1 ppm reduce
incidence of dental caries
(cavities)

Some controversy remains

78

Advanced Oxidation Processes

improved disinfection

oxidize synthetic organic chemicals

taste and odor control

Activated carbon adsorption

remove recalcitrant synthetic organic chemicals, THMs, taste and odor
compounds
concern with bacterial growth problems

Membrane process
discriminate on both size and chemistry
selective removal including desalinization

79

Sludge from
clarifiers

Finished
water
80

Lagoons

Sand-dying beds

Freeze treatment

Centrifugation

Vacuum filtration

Continuous belt filter press

Plate Pressure filters

Assignment 5

81

On-site storage

Landfilling

Land application soil amendment

Reclamation/recycling new products

Ocean dumping banned in US

Assignment 5

82

83

1.

The design flow for a water treatment plant

is 3.8103 m3/d. The rapid mixing tank will
have a mechanical mixer and the average
alum dosage will be 30 mg/L. The
theoretical man hydraulic detention time of
the tank will be 1 minute. Determine the
following:
a) the quantity of alum needed on a daily basis in
kg/d
b) the dimensions of the tank in meters for a tank
with equal length, width, and depth

84

2.

3.

Using Stokes Law, calculate the settling

velocity in m/hr of a 100 m particle with a
density of 1050 kg/m3 for water
temperature of 4, 10, 20, and 30oC.
Tabulate your results.
Compute the settling velocity (in m/hr) of
alumn floc particles of 100 and 200 m
diameter at water temperature of 4 and
20oC. Alum floc has a density of 1010
kg/m3. Does Stokes Law for laminar flow
conditions hold for these particles?
85

4.

For a water treatment plant with a design

flow of 5.7103 m3/d, determine the
dimensions (in m) for a rectangular
sedimentation basin with a detention time
of 4 hr, an overflow rate of 28.5 m/d, and
length to width ratio of 3 to 1.

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