Lab 2: Voltage and Current Measurements and

Voltage Source Characterization

Abstract
Simple circuits were used to demonstrate the various concepts of voltage division and current
division between branches of circuits using resistors. A voltage divider was created to divide the
voltage provided by a 1.5V source in a 1/3 2/3 ratio as well as a current divider using the same
splitting ratio. Resistors were chosen to demonstrate this split once the circuit was analyzed
using Kirchoffs Voltage and Current Laws (KVL and KCL) to determine the resistances that
would provide this division in the voltage and current of the circuits. The internal resistance of
the 1.5V voltage source was also determined. Using a known resistance to produce a change in
voltage and Ohms Law, the internal resistance of the voltage source was able to be determined
using the difference in the open circuit voltage and the voltage read across the resistor.

Introduction
After covering the basic concepts of simple circuits and learning how to apply Ohms Law and
Kirchoffs Current and Voltage Laws, these concepts were then applied in lab on physical
circuits. By creating physical voltage and current dividers the relationships between circuit
elements and their effects of voltage, current, and resistance were able to be seen and the
concepts that determine their effects were given a tangible form allowing the connection between
what is learned in a book and lecture to the real world. Power sources are idealized in many
beginning applications but the lab demonstrated that ideal sources do not exist as a power source
will have an internal resistance, albeit a negligible one in most instances. By assigning a
resistance to a power source the element was shown to be able to shown as another topic learned,
a Thevenin equivalent circuit (figure 1) which simplifies the analysis of a circuit. Digital
multimeters (DMMs) and their uses were demonstrated by taking the readings of voltage,
current, and resistance of the circuit elements, showing how values are determined through tools
as opposed to calculations. The DMM was also used to show that even though resistors have a
given value, their actual value will vary due to many different factors and hence, they are given
tolerances to account for such effects.

Procedure
The internal resistance of a power source was determined first. A 1.5V AA battery, a digital
voltage source, and a function generator were used as power sources. In order to find the internal
resistance, the open circuit voltage of the power source was read using a DMM. Next, resistors
were chosen arbitrarily until a drop in voltage could be measured but not a drop greater than 10%
of the open circuit voltage. The power source and resistors were installed onto the circuit board
for the readings to be taken. The current through the resistor was measured next, knowing that
the internal resistance would be considered in series with the added resistor so that the equivalent
resistance would be added. Using the DMM again, the actual resistance provided by the resistor
was measured. Once the values for voltage, current, resistance was known, the internal resistance

was able to be calculated using Ohms Law and Kirchoffs Voltage Law knowing that the voltage
around the circuit when added must be zero.

Figure 1: Ideal versus real voltage sources and their Thevenin equivalent circuits.
To create the voltage divider, the resistances to be used had to be determined first. Using KVL
the resistances were determined knowing that the voltage measured across the resistors was to
consist of a 1/3 2/3 split of the source voltage. The resistors needed for the split were found to
be related by R1=2R2 if the desired split was VR2=1/3VB. The power source was connected to the
circuit board as well as the resistors in series so that the voltage across the resistors could be read
using the DMM. This circuit was created twice using resistors in the k and then the M range,
the second circuit using two resistors in series to provide the resistance for R1.

Figure 2: Voltmeter (DMM) connected to a voltage divider circuit.

The current divider circuit was determined in a similar way as the voltage divider circuit in that
the resistances were calculated prior to assembling the circuit on the board. Using KCL, the
resistances required to divide the current were found to be R2=2R1 if the desired current split was
i2=1/3i. The circuit elements as well as the voltage sources, 1.5V, were then assembled onto the
circuit board. The DMM was used in series with each resistor to measure the current flowing
through them. This circuit was created twice using resistors in the k range and then resistors
less than 100, the second circuit using two resistors in series to provide the resistance for R2.

Figure 3: Ammeter (DMM) connected to a current divider circuit.

Data
Resisto
r

Actual
Resistance ()

Measure
Resistance ()

Voltage Source
(V)

Battery Source
(V)

R1

2k

1.974k

1.993

0.533

R2

1k

0.984k

0.966

1.070

R1

2M

196.9k

2.007

0.531

R2

1M

98.7k

0.965

1.063

Table 1: Resistor values and voltage readings for the voltage divider circuit using both the digital
voltage source set to 3.0V and a 1.5V AA battery.
Resisto
r

Actual
Resistance ()

Measure
Resistance ()

Voltage Source
(A)

Battery Source
(mA)

RS

5.1k

5.012

303.5

0.28

R1

1k

0.984k

88.9

0.19

R2

2k

1.975k

177.1

0.09

RS2

5.1k

5.012

310.4

0.32

R1

30

30.5

64.9

0.20

R2

60

59.9

129.1

0.10

Table 2: Resistor values and current readings for the current divider circuit using both the digital
voltage source and a 1.5V AA battery.
Source
Battery 1.5 V
Function

Measured Voltage
(V)

Resistor Used
()

Actual ()

Resistor
Voltage (V)

Internal
Resistance (

1.61
2.444 (peak sin)

47
1k

47.4
0.966

1.57
1.656

2.96
61.7

Generator 4.0V

Table 3: Data showing the voltages used to determine internal resistance of sources.

Analysis
The most accurate readings were taken with a Fluke 1587 DMM while the more inaccurate
readings were taken with the DMMs provided in lab. The resistors that were used were all
measured to be within their respective 5% tolerances marked on the resistors. It was noticed
that the resistors that had values over 1k tended to read below their actual values and the
resistors below 100 read over their actual values.
The voltage divider circuit demonstrated a clear 1/3 2/3 split of the source voltage for both the
digital voltage source and the battery that were used. The circuit with the battery source yielded a
split with R1 and R2 reading 0.533V and 1.070V for the k resistors, and 0.531V and 1.063V for
the M resistors, which, when added, are 1.603V and 1.595, both of which are less than 1% off
from the open circuit voltage of 1.610V. Total voltages given by the digital source added up to
within 2% of the source voltage, values that were acceptable given that the percent error is so
small.
The current divider circuit tended to provide inaccurate and varying readings when used with the
digital power source. Although the currents were as intended, i2 being near double of i1, but the
source current was near 100A more than what the two branch currents added up to and
demonstrated a violation of KCL. The current divider circuit used with the battery provided
results that held true to KCL but the Fluke DMM was used in these measurements as opposed to
the DMM provided in lab. The currents provided by the battery source were divided exactly for
the k resistors but off by 0.2mA total for the M resistors but in this case they added up to the
source current as opposed to the digital source that gave the correct current splits but not in the
amounts that would add up to the source current.
After finding a resistor that provided a measurable drop in voltage on the power source, both the
battery and the function generator, finding the internal resistances showed a very small internal
resistance for the battery, 2.96, and a fairly high internal resistance for the function generator,
61.7. The DMM used when measuring the voltage on the function generator fluctuated greatly
showing readings as low as 1.006V to 1.656V, the value of 1.656V was settled on after
discussing this with the TA but it is believed to be inaccurate and therefore giving a value of
internal resistance for the function generator that was much greater than the true value.

Conclusion
The voltage divider circuit yielded results that matched the intended 1/3 2/3 split the closest
with both of the power sources, the battery and digital voltage source, demonstrating that

applying circuit analysis techniques to design a circuit can yield consistent results. The current
divider circuit proved to be a greater challenge as many of the DMMs were inoperable or gave
inconsistent readings when used to read current values in lab. It is believed that they may be out
of calibration after years of use and possible incorrect use of the equipment leading to blown
fuses and overloaded internal circuits.
Despite setbacks with equipment malfunctions, the circuits demonstrated the difference between
idealized circuit elements and their actual values in the real world. A battery may have small
internal resistance but the fact that it does have an internal resistance shows how many aspects of
electronics and circuits need to be considered when creating them in order for them to function
as intended. While on paper, the circuits drawn and values for resistances determined were
correct, the values that were measured were different which showed that not only do circuit
elements have variances when manufactured, but the equipment used to measure values also has
an internal resistance. The DMMs, when used in series with circuits, have an internal resistance
as well although these are designed to be as small as possible or the values outputted are
calibrated to adjust for these. In the future, proper use of equipment and more careful selection of
circuit components based upon calculations could lead to more accurate results.