PRACTICAL WORK BOOK

For Academic Session 2015

Linear Circuit Analysis (EE-116)

For
BE (EE)

Name_:_____ _________________________________________________________________
_Roll Number: _________________________________________________________________
_Class:________________________________________________________________________
_Batch:

________________ Semester /Term: _________________________________

_Department:__________________________________________________________________

Department of Electrical Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lab.
No.

Dated

List of Experiments

Introduction to the Measuring Instruments

Introduction to the measuring methods of Resistance and

Capacitance.

To Verify the following two equivalent forms of

Ohms Law:
(a) Express I as a function of V and R.
(b) Express V as a function of I and R.
To investigate the characteristics of a series
DC circuit.
To investigate the characteristics of a parallel
DC circuit.
To verify experimentally Kirchhoffs
Voltage and Current laws.

4(A)
4(B)
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

To become familiar with Star/Delta

conversion and calculate power dissipated
In each configuration.
Use nodal analysis as a tool to find
Different node voltages.
Use mesh analysis as a tool to find different loop
currents and common branch currents
To verify superposition principle in DC Circuits
To experimentally validate Thevenin theorem using a
resistive circuit.
To experimentally validate Norton theorem using a
resistive circuit
Experimentally Validate maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
Study how to use Oscilloscope and Function Generator
.
To note the effect of frequency on basic R, L and C
components.
Experimentally validate Transient response of basic RC
circuit
Project

Remarks

LAB SESSION # 01

INTRODUCTION TO LAB INSTRUMENTS

Objective:
To get a comprehensive understanding of various laboratory instruments

Equipment:
Oscilloscope, Digital Multi-meter, Function Generator, DC Power Supply.

General Laboratory Operating Procedures:

Listed below are the operating procedures that you are expected to follow in the
laboratory.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Please treat the instruments with care as they are very expensive.
Read the laboratory documentation prior to each lab meeting.
Follow the instructions carefully.
Return the components to the correct bin when you are finished with them.
Before leaving the lab place the stools under the lab bench.
Before leaving the lab, turn off the power to all instruments.

OSCILLOSCOPE

We should be familiar to the following four things about oscilloscope.

1. What does an oscilloscope do?

2. How does it work?

3. Setting Up
4. Other Controls

What does an oscilloscope do?

An oscilloscope is easily the most useful instrument available for testing circuits
because it allows you to see the signals at different points in the circuit. The best way
of investigating an electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and output of
each system block, checking that each block is operating as expected and is correctly
linked to the next. With a little practice, you will be able to find and correct faults
quickly and accurately. An oscilloscope is an impressive piece of kit.

Figure 1.1: Hameg HM 203-6 Oscilloscope

The diagram shows a Hameg HM 203-6 oscilloscope, a popular instrument in UK

schools. Your oscilloscope may look different but will have similar controls.
Faced with an instrument like this, students typically respond either by twiddling every
knob and pressing every button in sight, or by adopting a glazed expression. Neither
approach is especially helpful. Following the systematic description below will give
you a clear idea of what an oscilloscope is and what it can do.

The function of an oscilloscope is extremely simple: it draws a V/t graph, a graph

of voltage against time, voltage on the vertical or Y-axis, and time on the horizontal
or X-axis.
As you can see, the screen of this oscilloscope has 8 squares or divisions on the vertical
axis, and 10 squares or divisions on the horizontal axis. Usually, these squares are 1 cm
in each direction:

Many of the controls of the oscilloscope allow you to change the vertical or horizontal
scales of the V/t graph, so that you can display a clear picture of the signal you want to
investigate. 'Dual trace' oscilloscopes display two V/t graphs at the same time, so that
simultaneous signals from different parts of an electronic system can be compared.
Setting up the Oscilloscope:
1. Someone else may have been twiddling knobs and pressing buttons before you.
Before you switch the oscilloscope on, check that all the controls are in their
'normal' positions. For the Hameg HM 203-6, this means that:
all push button switches are in the OUT position
all slide switches are in the UP position
all rotating controls are CENTRED
the central TIME/DIV and VOLTS/DIV and the HOLD OFF controls are in the
calibrated, or CAL position

Check through all the controls and put them in these positions:

2. Set both VOLTS/DIV controls to 1 V/DIV and the TIME/DIV control to 2 s/DIV,
its slowest setting:

VOLTS/DIV

TIME/DIV

3. Switch ON, red button, top centre:

The green LED illuminates and, after a few moments, you should
see a small bright spot, or trace, moving fairly slowly across the
screen.

4. Find the Y-POS 1 control:

What happens when you twiddle this?
The Y-POS 1 allows you to move the spot up and down the screen. For
the present, adjust the trace so that it runs horizontally across the centre of
the screen.
5. Now investigate the INTENSITY and FOCUS controls:

When these are correctly set, the spot will be reasonably bright
but not glaring, and as sharply focused as possible. (The TR
control is screwdriver adjusted. It is only needed if the spot moves
at an angle rather than horizontally across the screen with no
signal connected.)

6. The TIME/DIV control determines the horizontal scale of the graph which appears
on the oscilloscope screen.
With 10 squares across the screen and the spot
moving at 0.2 s/DIV, how long does it take for
the spot to cross the screen? The answer is 0.2 x
10 = 2 s. Count seconds. Does the spot take 2
seconds to cross the screen?
Now rotate the TIME/DIV control clockwise:
With the spot moving at 0.1 s/DIV, it will take 1
second to cross the screen.
Continue to rotate TIME/DIV clockwise. With each new setting, the spot moves
faster. At around 10 ms/DIV, the spot is no longer separately visible. Instead, there is a
bright line across the screen. This happens because the screen remains bright for a
short time after the spot has passed an effect which is known as the persistence of the
screen. It is useful to think of the spot as still there, just moving too fast to be seen.
Keep rotating TIME/DIV. At faster settings, the line becomes fainter because the spot is
moving very quickly indeed. At a setting of 10 s/DIV how long does it take for the spot
to cross the screen?
7. The VOLTS/DIV controls determine the vertical scale of the graph drawn on the
oscilloscope screen. Check that VOLTS/DIV 1 is set at 1 V/DIV and that the
adjacent controls are set correctly:

The Hameg HM 203-6 has a built in source of signals which allow you to check that
the oscilloscope is working properly. A connection to the input of channel 1, CH 1, of
the oscilloscope can be made using a special connector called a BNC plug, as shown
below:

The diagram shows a lead with a BNC plug at one end and crocodile clips at the other.
When the crocodile clip from the red wire is clipped to the lower metal terminal, a
2 V square wave is connected to the input of CH 1.
Adjust VOLTS/DIV and TIME/DIV until you obtain a clear picture of a 2V signal,
which should look like this:

Check on the effect of Y-POS 1 and X-POS:

What do these controls do? Y-POS 1 moves the whole trace vertically up and down
on the screen, while X-POS moves the whole trace from side to side on the screen.
These controls are useful because the trace can be moved so that more of the picture
appears on the screen, or to make measurements easier using the grid which covers
the screen.
You have now learned about and used the most important controls on the
oscilloscope. You know that the function of an oscilloscope is to draw a V/t graph.
You know how to put all the controls into their 'normal' positions, so that a trace
should appear when the oscilloscope is switched on. You know how the change the
horizontal scale of the V/t graph, how to change the vertical scale, and how to connect
and display a signal.
How does an oscilloscope work?
An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block
diagram shown below:

Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube.
Although the size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same. Inside
the tube is a vacuum. The electron beam emitted by the heated cathode at the rear end
of the tube is accelerated and focused by one or more anodes, and strikes the front of
the tube, producing a bright spot on the phosphorescent screen.
The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates
fixed in the tube. The horizontal deflection plates or X-plates produce side to side
movement. As you can see, they are linked to a system block called the time base.
This produces a saw tooth waveform. During the rising phase of the saw tooth, the spot
is driven at a uniform rate from left to right across the front of the screen. During the
falling phase, the electron beam returns rapidly from right or left, but the spot is
'blanked out' so that nothing appears on the screen.
In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph. The slope of the rising
phase varies with the frequency of the saw tooth and can be adjusted, using the
TIME/DIV control, to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope screen
into squares allows the horizontal scale to be expressed in seconds, milliseconds or
microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, s/DIV). Alternatively, if the squares are 1
cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or s/cm.
The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually
kept in the DC position (switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Yamplifier. In the AC position (switch open) a capacitor is placed in the signal path.

The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y- axis of
the V/t graph. The overall gain of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the
VOLTS/DIV control, so that the resulting display is neither too small nor too large,
but fits the screen and can be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given in
V/DIV or mV/DIV.
The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section
of the input signal is displayed on the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect
of this is to give a stable picture on the oscilloscope screen, making it easier to measure
and interpret the signal.
Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful to be able to change the positions of the axes.
This is possible using the X-POS and Y-POS controls. For example, with no signal
applied, the normal trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen. Adjusting
Y-POS allows the zero level on the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace
up or down on the screen to give an effective display of signals like pulse waveforms
which do not alternate between positive and negative values.
Other oscilloscope controls:
The diagram below is a image map of the Hameg HM 203-6 oscilloscope. Some
controls are more useful than others and one or two are rarely if ever used in an
introductory electronics course.

Screen: usually displays a V/t graph, with voltage V on the vertical axis and time t on
the horizontal axis. The scales of both axes can be changed to display a huge variety
of signals.

.
On/off switch: pushed in to switch the oscilloscope on. The green LED illuminates.

X-Y control: normally in the OUT position.

When the X-Y button is pressed IN, the oscilloscope does not display a V/t
graph. Instead, the vertical axis is controlled by the input signal to CH II.
This allows the oscilloscope to be used to display a V/V voltage/voltage
graph. The X-Y control is used when you want to display component
characteristic curves.
TV-separation: Oscilloscopes are often used to investigate waveforms inside
television systems. This control allows the display to be synchronized with the television
system so that the signals from different points can be compared.

You must not try to investigate television systems because of the

dangerously high voltages inside. The correct position for this control
is OFF.

TIME / DIV: Allows the horizontal scale of the V/t graph to be changed.

Trigger controls: This group of controls allows the oscilloscope display to be

synchronized with the signal you want to investigate.

When the AT/NORM button is in the OUT position, triggering is automatic. This
works for most signals. If you change the AT/NORM button to its IN position, the
most likely result is that the signal will disappear and the oscilloscope screen will be
blank. However, if you now adjust the LEVEL control, the display will be reinstated.
As you adjust the LEVEL control, the display starts from a different point

on the signal waveform. This makes it possible for you to look in detail at any
particular part of the waveform.
The EXT button should normally be in its OUT position. When it is pushed IN, triggering
occurs from a signal connected to the trigger input, TRIG INP, socket. The slide switch
to the left of TIME/DIV gives additional triggering options. AC is the normal position
and is suitable for most waveforms. In the DC position, you use the LEVEL control
to select a particular DC voltage on the signal waveform where triggering will
occur. The +/- button gives triggering on the upward slope of the signal waveform in
the OUT position, and triggering on the downward slope in the IN position.
The green TRIG LED illuminates when a trigger point is detected. HF
gives triggering in response to high frequency parts of the signal; LF gives triggering
for low frequency components and
indicates that triggering will occur at 50 Hz,
corresponding to UK mains frequency. You are not likely to need any of these slide
switch positions.
The HOLD OFF control allows you to introduce a delay relative to the trigger point so
that a different part of the signal can be seen.
Normally, you will want to leave the HOLD OFF control in its minimum
position, as illustrated. With more experience of using the oscilloscope,
you will develop a clear understanding of the functions of the important
trigger controls and be able to use them effectively.

Intensity and Focus: Adjusting the INTENSITY control changes the brightness of
the oscilloscope display. The FOCUS should be set to produce a bright clear trace.
If required, TR can be adjusted using a small screwdriver so that
the oscilloscope trace is exactly horizontal when no signal is
connected.

X-POS: Allows the whole V/t graph to be moved from side to side on the oscilloscope
screen.
This is useful when you want to use the grid in front of the screen to
make measurements, for example, to measure the period of a
waveform.

X-MAG: In the IN position, the horizontal scale of the V/t graph is increased by 10
times.
For example, if TIME/DIV is set for 1 ms per division and X-MAG is
pushed IN, the scale is changed to 0.1 ms per division.

CAL outputs: The top terminal gives a 0.2 V peak to peak square wave, while the
lower terminal gives a 2 V peak to peak square wave, both at 50 Hz.
The signals from these outputs are used to confirm that the
oscilloscope is correctly calibrated.

Component tester: The output socket provides a changing voltage which allows
component characteristic curves to be displayed on the oscilloscope screen.
When the button is IN, the oscilloscope displays a V/V
graph, with the component tester voltage connected
internally to provide the horizontal axis. To get normal
V/t graph operation the component tester button must be
in the OUT position.

Y-POS I and Y-POS II: These controls allow the corresponding trace to be moved
up or down, changing the position representing 0 V on the oscilloscope screen.
To investigate an alternating signal, you adjust Y-POS so that the 0 V
level is close to the centre of the screen. For a pulse waveform, it is
more useful to have 0 V close to the bottom of the screen. Y-POS I
and Y-POS II allow the 0 V levels of the two traces to be adjusted
independently.
Invert: When the INVERT button is pressed IN, the corresponding signal is turned
upside down, or inverted, on the oscilloscope screen. This feature is sometimes useful
when comparing signals.

CH I and CH II inputs: Signals are connected to the BNC input sockets using BNC
plugs.
The smaller socket next to the BNC input socket provides an
additional 0 V, GROUND or EARTH connection.

VOLTS / DIV: Adjust the vertical scale of the V/t graph. The vertical scales for CH I
and CH II can be adjusted independently.

DC/AC/GND slide switches: In the DC position, the signal input is connected directly
to the Y-amplifier of the corresponding channel, CH I or CH II. In the AC position,
a capacitor is connected into the signal pathway so that DC voltages are blocked
and only changing AC signals are displayed.
In the GND position, the input of the Y-amplifier is connected to 0 V.
This allows you to check the position of 0 V on the oscilloscope screen.
The DC position of these switches is correct for most signals.

Trace selection switches: The settings of these switches control which traces appear
on the oscilloscope screen.

QUESTIONS:
1. Calculate the frequency of waveforms with periods of (a) 10 s, (b) 5 ms, (c)
200 s.
2. What is the period of waveforms with frequencies of (a) 20 Hz, (b) 150 kHz, (c)
0.5 Hz.
3. Find values for the period, frequency, peak amplitude, peak-to-peak amplitude and
rms amplitude for the sine wave shown below

Use graph paper and choose appropriate scales to sketch V/t graphs for sine waves
as follows:
(a) period 10 ms, peak-to-peak amplitude 5 V.
(b) frequency 250 Hz, peak amplitude 10 V.
(c) frequency 4 kHz, rms amplitude 6 V.

LAB SESSION 02
INTRODUCTION TO THE MEASURING METHODS OF
RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE.
OBJECTIVE:

Introduction to the Measuring Methods of Resistance and Capacitance

APPARATUS:

Different Valued Resistors, Capacitors

VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter)
DMM (Digital Multimeter)

THEORY:
NOTE:

The purpose of this experiment is to acquaint you with the equipment, so do not rush. Learn how
to read the meter scales accurately, and take your data carefully. You must become comfortable
with the instruments if you expect to perform your future job function in a professional manner.
Part 1: Resistance Measurement
METHOD 1: Resistance Measurement using VOM/ DMM:

1. Resistance is never measured by an ohm-meter in a live network, due to the possibility of

damaging the meter with excessively high currents and obtaining readings that have no meaning.
2. Always start with the highest range of the instrument and switch down to the proper range
successively.
3. Use the range in which the deflection falls in the upper half of the meter scale.
4. Try to ascertain the polarity of dc voltages before making the measurement.
5. Whenever measuring the resistance of a resistor in a circuit, note whether there are any other
resistive elements that could cause an error in the reading. It may be necessary to disconnect one
side of the resistor before measuring.
6. Check the zero and ohms adjustments each time the range is changed.
7. When making measurements, grip the test prods by the handles as close to the lead end as
possible. Do not allow the fingers to touch the prod tips while measuring.

8. Keep the instruments away from the edge of the workbench, and away from heat and
dangerous fumes.
9. There is no zero adjustment on a DMM, but make sure that R=0 ohm when the leads are
touching or an adjustment internal to the meter may have to be made. Any resistance above the
maximum for a chosen scale will result in an O.L. indication.
10. The ranges are usually marked as multiples of R. For example, Rx 1; Rx 10;Rx 100; Rx 1
K.The value of the resistor can be found by multiplying the reading by the range setting. For
example, a reading of 11 on the R x 1 k range is 11 x 1 K = 11 K or 11, 000 K.
METHOD 2: Resistance Measuring Using Color Coding:

1- The resistance of many resistors can be determined by reading a series of colored bands
imprinted on the resistor body. In this scheme called Resistor Color Code each color represents
a different decimal digit, as shown below.
2- The first three bands of the color code are used to specify nominal value of the resistance, and
the fourth, or tolerance band, gives the percent deviation from the nominal value that the actual
resistor may have. Due to manufacturing variations, the actual resistance may be anywhere in a
range equal to the nominal value plus or minus a certain percentage of that value.

20

3- The first two color bands specify the first two digits of the nominal value, and the third band
represents the power of 10 by which the first two digits are multiplied.
4- The example below demonstrates these computations.
Solution:Yellow, Violet, Orange, Silver
47 x 103 10%
Thus,
Nominal resistance = 47 x 103 = 47k
The possible range of actual values is: 47 k (0.1) 47 k = 47k 4.7k
Or From 42.3 k to 51.7 k
21

Part 2: Capacitance measurement:

CAPACITOR:

There are two types of capacitors, i.e. Electrolyte and non - electrolyte capacitors. The nonelectrolytic capacitors use Paper, Mica, Ceramic, Mylar, Glass, Porcelain, Polycarbonate, and
Wax as Insulator. Figure 2 shows symbols of the two types of the capacitor. The difference in
the use of the two types o f capacitors is that non-electrolytic capacitors can be charged in any
direction, where as the Electrolytic ones can only be charged in one direction. Electrolytic
Capacitors are Polar; i.e., one of its two plates is Positive and other is Negative, whereas in nonelectrolytic capacitors, both the plates are same, having no polarity.
NUMERICAL CODES are used with non - electrolytic capacitors to specify their capacitance.
Usually, these codes are 3 digit long, specifying the capacitance in Pico Farads; the first two
digits are Tens and Units, where as the third digit is power of 10. For example, a code 102
means:

For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)

For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance). For example: 333K means
33000pF = 33nF (K means 10% tolerance).

22

23

OBSERVATIONS:TABLE A:

Resistors Color Bands

1
Sample

Color Bands
4

1 2

Red,Red,Black,Gold 2 2

0 5%

Nominal

Maximum

Minimum

Resistance

Resistance

Resistance

22

23.1

20.9

1
2
3
4

TABLE B:

Resistor

Sample

Measured Value

Falls Within specified

( VOM/DMM)

tolerance (Yes/No)

23

Yes

1
2

3
4

24

Answer the following:

Q-1) Is there any difference in measured and calculated value of resistance? If yes then

what could be the reason?

Q-2) Practically, how can you differentiate between negative and positive terminals of an

Electrolytic capacitor?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

25

LAB SESSION 03
OBJECTIVE:

To verify the following two equivalent forms of Ohms Law:

(a) Express I as a function of V and R.
(b) Express V as a function of I and R.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

Variable DC power supply(maximum 30V)

DMM/Analog multimeter
1k resistor(Brown,Black,Red)
Variable resistor (maximum 10 k)

THEORY:

Ohms law describes mathematically describes how voltage V, current I, and

resistance R in a circuit are related. According to this law:
The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage and inversely proportional to the circuit resistance.
Formula for Voltage:
For a constant value of R, V is directly proportional to I
I.e. V = IR
Formula For current:
For a constant value of V, I is inversely proportional to R
I.e. I = V/R

Ohm's Law makes intuitive sense if we apply it to the water-and-pipe analogy. If we have a
water pump that exerts pressure (voltage) to push water around a "circuit" (current) through a
restriction (resistance), we can model how the three variables interrelate. If the resistance to
water flow stays the same and the pump pressure increases, the flow rate must also increase. If
26

the pressure stays the same and the resistance increases (making it more difficult for the water to
flow), then the flow rate must decrease. If the flow rate were to stay the same while the
resistance to flow decreased, the required pressure from the pump would necessarily decrease.

27

PROCEDURE:

a) Current versus voltage:

1) Construct the circuit of fig 2.1.
2) Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the variable resistor R from the circuit and set
it to 2000 by using ohmmeter. Now reconnect it.
3) Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 5V. Measure the current I in amperes and record it
in the table.
4) Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the voltage settings shown in
the table, for R = 2,000 .
5) Calculate the value of current I by using I=V/ RT. Use measured value of resistance.
6) Plot a graph of I versus V. (use measured values)
b) Current versus resistance:
1) Construct the circuit of fig 2.2.
2) Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the variable resistor R from the circuit and set
it to 1000 by using ohmmeter. Now reconnect it.
3) Turn on the power supply and adjust it to 20V. Measure the current I in amperes and record it
in the table.
4) Measure and record in turn, the current I (in amperes) at each of the resistance settings shown
in the table, for V= 20V.Be sure to set the resistor values in the same way as described in step
(I).
5) Calculate the value of resistance RT by using R=V/I. Use measured value of Voltage and
current.
6) Plot a graph of I versus R. (use measured values)

28

OBSERVATIONS:
a) Current versus voltage:(I v/s V)
S.
Voltage ( V) R (
NO
K)

Measured RT (K)
I
(Amp)

10

15

20

25

Calculated
I
(Amp )

b) Current versus resistance:(I v/s R)

R ( K)

S.
N
O:
1

Voltage ( V)

20

20

2.2

20

3.3

20

3.9

20

4.7

RT
(K)

29

Measured I
(K)

Calculated
RT (K)

30

31

CALCULATIONS:

32

Answer the following:

Q-1) What can you say about the relationship between voltage and current, provided that the resistance is
fixed?

_____________________________________________________________________________________
Q-2) Two parallel resistors (1K and 3300) are supplied by 15 V battery. It has been found that 3300
resistor draws more current? Is the statement correct? Why?

33

LAB SESSION 04(A)

OBJECTIVE:

To investigate the characteristics of a series resistive circuit at DC.

APPARATUS:

DMM
DC Supply (20V)
Resistors of 220(R, R, Br), 330 (Or, Or, Br) & 470(Y, Vio, Br).

THEORY:

In a series circuit, (Fig 3.1), the current is the same through all of the circuit elements.
The total Resistance

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 .

By Ohms Law, the Current I is

I = E/ R T
Applying Kirchhoffs Voltage Law around closed loop of Fig 3.1, we find.
E = V1 + V2 + V3
Where, V1= IR1 , V2= IR2 , V3= IR3
Note in Fig 2.1, that I is the same throughout the Circuit. The voltage divider rule states that the
voltage across an element or across a series combination of elements in a series circuit is equal to
the resistance of the element divided by total resistance of the series circuit and multiplied by the
total impressed voltage. For the elements of Fig 3.1

V1 =R1 E/R T , V2 =R2 E/R T , V3 =R3 E/ R T

34

35

PROCEDURE:

1- Construct the circuit shown in Fig 3.2.

2- Set the Dc supply to 20V by using DMM. Pick the resistances having values 220,
330 & 470. Also verify their resistance by using DMM.
3- Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table (b).
4- Measure Current I delivered by source.
5- Shut down and disconnect the power supply. Then measure input resistance R T using
DMM. Record that value.
6- Now Calculate, Total current (using I= V/ RT ) and Total Resistance R T (R T = E/I).
7- Calculate V1,V2, V3 &V4 using voltage divider rule and measured resistance value.
8- Create an open circuit by removing R3 & measure all voltages and current I.
Note: Use measured value of resistance for all calculations.

36

OBSERVATIONS:
a) Resistors.
S No.

Nominal
Values()

RT

Measured
Value()

(Measured)

()

R T (Calculated)
R T = E/I)()

1
2
3
4

b) Voltages.
S.No. Measured Value(V)

Calculated Value
(V)(VDR)

Measured Values
When R3 is Open
circuited (V)

1
2
3
4

c) Current.
S. No.

Measured Value Calculated Value (A)

of I (A)
(Ohms Law)

1
2
3
4

37

Measured
Values
When R3 is Open
circuited (A)

CALCULATIONS:

38

Answer the following:

Q-1) What can you deduce about the characteristics of a series circuit from observation
Table b & c?

________________________________________________________________________________
Q-2) Viewing observation table b, comment on whether equal resistors in series have
Equal voltage drops across them?

Q-3) Referring observation table (a). Would you recommend using measured rather than
Color coded nominal values in the future? Why?

Q-4) Referring to observation tables b & c compare open circuit condition & normal
Circuit with reference to current & voltage values.

_____________________________________________________________________________

39

LAB SESSION 04(B)

OBJECTIVE:

To investigate the characteristics of parallel resistive circuits at DC.

REQUIRED:

12V DC Power Supply.

DMM.
470 (Y, Violet, Br).
1K (Br, Black, Red).
1.8K (R, Grey, Red).

THEORY:

In a parallel circuit (Fig4.1) the voltage across parallel elements is the same.
The total or equivalent resistance (RT) is given by.
1/RT=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+ ------------------- +1/RN
If there are only two resistors in parallel, it is more convenient to use.
RT =

R1 R2
R1 + R2

In any case, the total resistance will always be less than the resistance of the smallest resistor
Of the parallel network.For the network of Fig 4.1. The currents are related by the following
expression.
IT =I1 + I2 + I3+-----------+ IN
Applying current divider rule (CDR) & the network of Fig 4.2.
I1=

R2 IT

and

R1 + R2

40

I2=

R 1I T
R 1+R 2

41

For equal parallel resistors, the current divides equally and the total resistance is the value of One
divided by the N number of equal parallel resistors, i.e:

RT=

For a parallel combination of N resistors, the current Ik through Rk is.

1
Rk
IK= IT X 1 1 1
1
+ + +
R1 R2 R3
RN

PROCEDURE:

1- Construct the circuit shown in Fig 4.3.

2- Set the DC supply to 12V by using DMM.Pick the resistances values 470, 1K & 1.8K. Also
verify their resistance by using DMM.
3- Measure voltage across each resistor with DMM and record it in the Table b.
4- Measure the currents IT , I1, I2, I3.
5- Shut down & disconnect the power supply. Then measure input resistance RT using DMM.
Record that value.
6- Now calculate respective voltages (using V=IR) and RT (using equivalent resistance Formula).
7- Calculate I1, I2 , I3 using CDR.
8- Create an open circuit by removing R2 and measure all voltages and currents.

Note: Use measured value of resistance for all calculations.

42

OBSERVATION:
a) Resistors:
S.
No.

Nominal Values
()

R1=470

R2=1k

R3=1.8k

b) Voltages:
S.
No.
1

V1

V2

V3

Measured Value
()

Measured Value
(V)

R T(Measured)

R T(Calculated)

()

()

Calculated Value
(Ohms Law)
(V)

Measured Values
When R2 is Open
Circuited(V)

c) Current:

S.No

Measured Value

Calculated Value

(A)

(A) (CDR)

Measured Value (A)

When R2 is Open
circuited

I1=

I1=

I1=

I2=

I2=

I2=

I3=

I3=

I3=

IT=

IT=

IT=
43

CALCULATIONS:

Answer the following:

Q-1) How does the total resistance compare to that of the smallest of the three parallel
resistors?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Q-2) Is IT under normal circuit condition less than IT for open circuit condition?
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Q-3) What can you deduce about the characteristics of a parallel circuit
from observation table b & c?

__________________________________________________________
44

LAB SESSION 05
OBJECTIVE:

To experimentally validate Kirchhoffs Voltage and Current Law

REQUIRED:

Resistors,
DMM,
DC power supply.

THEORY:
1) KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:
Explanation:

Consider the simple series circuit Fig. 5-1. Here we have numbered the points in the Circuit for
voltage reference.
As we are dealing with dc circuits, therefore we should carefully connect the voltmeter while
measuring voltage across supply or any of the resistances as shown in fig.5.2, keeping in mind
the similarity of polarities of voltage across the element and that of the connected probes of
meter. In such case, we will observe that,

This principle is known as Kirchhoff's Voltage Law, and it can be stated as such:

"The algebraic sum of all voltages in a loop must equal zero"

45

46

2) KIRCHHOFFS CURRENT LAW:

Let's take a closer look at the circuit given in Fig 5-3:

Then, according to Kirchoffs Current Law:
"The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero"
Mathematically, we can express this general relationship as such:

That is, if we assign a mathematical sign (polarity) to each current, denoting whether they
enter (+) or exit (-) a node, we can add them together to arrive at a total of zero, guaranteed.
Note:
Whether negative or positive denotes current entering or exiting is entirely arbitrary, so long as they are
opposite signs for opposite directions and we stay consistent in our notation, KCL will work.
PROCEDURE:
a) For KVL

1. Construct circuit of fig. 5-1 using the values R1 , R2, R3 as shown in the figure 5-1.
2. Adjust the output of the power supply so that Vs = 20V. Measure and record this voltage
in table. 5-1, also measure and record the voltages V1, V2, V3 and enter the sum in the
same table.
b) For KCL:

1-

Connect the circuit of Fig.5.3 with Vs =12 V.

2-

Measure and record in Table 5-2 currents IR1,IR2,IR3 and Itotal.

47

OBSERVATIONS:

Table 5-1:
VT

V1

V2

IR1

IR2

V3

Sum (V1+V2+V3)

Table 5.2:
Itotal

IR3

48

Sum (IR1+IR2+IR3)

CALCULATIONS:

Answer the following:

For KVL:

Q-1) In fig.5-1 V1=10V, V2=12V, V3=20V, V4=15V. The applied voltage Vs must then
equal ____________ V.
Q-2) In Fig.5-1,V1=15V,V2=20V and Vs = 100V. The Voltage V3 = ____________V.
Q-3) Is KVL verified practically as well as mathematically in the above performed
lab? If no, why?

_________________________________________________________________
49

For KCL:

Q-1) In fig 5-3, if IR1=5A,IR2=2A and IR3=1A, then Itotal should be equal
to _____________ A.

Q-2) Is KCL verified practically as well as mathematically in the above performed

lab? If no, why?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

50

LAB SESSION 06

OBJECTIVE:

To become familiar with Star/Delta conversion and calculate power dissipated in each
configuration.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

6x100 ohm resistors

3x130 ohm resistors
6x390 ohm resistors
DMM
DC power supply

THEORY:

In series or parallel combination of resistors, we define connection by focusing at two resistors at

a time, and then declaring the nature of connection that either it is series or parallel. However,
when we have to analyze three resistances at a time then instead of series and parallel, we define
the connectivity of resistors as star connection or delta connection. Such type of connections
becomes more important when we study three phase power systems. Also, these connections are
applicable not only for resistor, they are defined either for individual R (resistance), XL
(inductive reactance), Xc (capacitive reactance) or Z (impedance) as whole according to the
nature of system under consideration.

51

52

To convert a delta in to star or vice versa we use the following conversion equations:
Delta to Star:

R1 =

RB x Rc
RA+RB+RC

R2 =

RA x RC
RA+RB+RC

R3 =

RA x RB
RA+RB+RC

Star to Delta:
RA= R2 + R3 + R2 x R3
R1
RB=R1+R3+ R1 x R3
R2
RC=R1+R2+ R1 x R2
R3
If RA=RB=RC, then
RY=R/ 3
If R1=R2=R3, then
R= 3 x R Y
PROCEDURE:

1-Construct the network of fig: 6.1.

2-Measure the current I and voltage Vab and record in the observation table.
3- Calculate the equivalent Y for the formed by three 390 ohm resistors (using RY=R/ 3)
4- Insert the values of resistors in the Y as shown in fig: 6.2.
5- Measure the current I and voltage Vab and record in the observation
table.
6- Construct the network of fig: 6.3.
7-Measure the current I and voltage Vab and record in the observation table.
8- Calculate the power absorbed by using the formula P=I x Vs and record it in
the observation table.
53

OBSERVATIONS:

Vab

Fig: 6.1
Fig: 6.2
Fig: 6.3

54

P=I VS

CALCULATIONS:

55

RESULT:

The star/Delta transformations are equivalent because the current I and the
power absorbed P are the same in both the configurations (Fig: 6.1 and Fig: 6.2).

Answer the following:

Q-1) Referring to the observation table, column 2, how much current will be flowing
through resistor RL across (a-b)? Justify your answer mathematically.

____________________________________________________________________

Q -2) The power absorbed for the networks of figs 1 and 2 is the same but for the Network of fig 3 it is not,
what can you infer from it? [Hint: Talk in terms of resistance]

_____________________________________________________________________________________

56

LAB SESSION 07
Nodal Analysis
OBJECTIVE

Experimentally employ nodal analysis as a tool to find different node voltages

THEORY

Node is a point at which one or more branches terminate. Nodal analysis is used when
We require node voltages. Nodal analysis is an extension of Kirchhoff`s Current Law
(KCL) which states that Sum of entering / leaving currents at a node is zero. Reference
Node is normally defined as node with zero voltage or rounded.
The best network analysis method to use depends not only on the network to be analyzed
But also on the information required. However, it is wise to pick the method that result in
Smallest set of equation. The set of node equations can easily be reduced to the number
Of nodes minus the number of reference nodes, minus the number of voltage sources.
Circuit shown in Fig.1 can be best solved with nodal analysis where it results in 2 rather than 3
equations for mesh analysis.
Node equations for the circuit of Fig.1 can be written as under,

57

EXERCISE

1. Find out the values of given resistances using resistance color coding and fill in the first
row of Table 4.1.
2. Measure the values of the given resistances using multi-meter and fill in the
corresponding columns of Table 4.1.
OBSERVATION
Table 4.1

R( Nominal)

R( Calculated)

3. Calculate V1 & V2 using equations 1 and 2 and fill in corresponding columns of Table
4.2. These are nominal values.
4. Measure the voltages V1 & V2 using multi-meter. Fill the values in the corresponding
columns of Table 4.2.
5. Compare the values of V1 & V2 from step 3 and step 4.
CALCULATIONS:

Table 4.2

V1

V2

Nominal(Calculated)
Measured

58

LAB SESSION 08
Mesh Analysis
OBJECTIVE
Experimentally employ mesh analysis as a tool to find different loop currents and common
branch currents

APPARATUS

Power supply

Multimeter

Resistors

Connecting wires

Bread board
THEORY

A closed path of circuit components that does not pass through the same node twice, is
Called a loop. Mesh is a loop which does not have sub-loops. Mesh analysis is used as a
Tool when we require loop currents rather than node voltages as in nodal analysis.
Mesh analysis is an extension of Kirchhoff`s Voltage Law (KVL) which states that In a
Closed loop, sum of all voltages is zero.
The best network analysis method to use depends not only on the network to be analyzed
but also on the information required. However, it is wise to pick the method that result in
Smallest set of equation. The set of mesh equations can easily be reduced to the number
of meshes minus the number of current sources if present.
Mesh equations for the circuit of Fig.1 can be written as under,

59

EXERCISE
1. Find out the values of given resistances using resistance color coding and fill in the first row
of Table 1.
2. Measure the values of the given resistances using multi-meter and fill in the corresponding
columns of Table 1.
3. Calculate I1, I2 and I3 using equations 1, 2 & 3 and fill in corresponding columns of Table 2.
These are nominal values. Mark proper directions only for positive current values according to
sign and show arrows ( ). (NOTE: Do calculations for I1, I2 and I3 in the blank space
provided.)
OBSERVATION
Table 5.1

R(Nominal)

R(Actual)

Table 5.2
IR1

IR2

IR3

IR4

IR5

(I1)

(I1I2 / I2 I1)

(I2)

(I2I3 / I3 I2)

(I3)

Nominal
(Calculated)

60

CALCULATIONS

4. Connect the circuit as in Fig1.

5. Measure the current through the resistors R1, R2, R3, R4 & R5. Make sure the multi-meter reads
positive value and mark arrow from red probe of the multimeter to black one. Fill the
corresponding values in Table 1.3 and mark current directions ( ) as in step 3.
6. Compare Table 5.2 and Table 5.3, give your comments.
7. Verify the mesh equations with measured and nominal values.
Table 5.3
IR1

IR2

IR3

IR4

IR5

Measured
Comments
Compare the measured and calculated results:

_________________________________________________________________________________
61

LAB SESSION 09
OBJECTIVE:

To verify superposition principle in DC Circuits

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

DMM,
2 DC Power Supplies,
Resistances (1k , 3.3k , 5.6k).

THEORY:

The superposition principle states that:

The current through or voltage across, any resistive branch of a multisource network
Is the algebraic sum of the contribution due to each source acting independently?

When the effects of one source are considered, the others are replaced by their internal
Resistances. This principle permits one to analyze circuits without restoring to
Simultaneous equations. Superposition is effective only for linear circuit relationship. Non-linear
effects, such as power, which varies as the square of the current or voltage, cannot be analyzed
using this principle.
PROCEDURE:

1. Construct the circuit in Figure 2 and measure the voltage drop across the 5.6k resistor.
2. Suppress the 15V source and measure the voltage drop across the 5.6k resistor.
3. Restore the 15V source and suppress the 10V source, measure the voltage drop across the 5.6k
resistor.
4. Add the results of 2 and 3.
5. Tabularize and interpret your results.

62

Figure 3
63

Figure 4
OBSERVATIONS:

Resistors: ( Table 8.1)

Nominal Values ()
1
2
3

Measured Values ()

1 K
3.3k
5.6K

Current :( Table 8.2)

Calculated Values for the network of figure 2,3 &4
Due to V1 (Figure 3)
I1=
I2=
I3=

Due to V2 (Figure 4)
I1=
I2=
I3=

64

Algebraic sum (Figure 2)

I1=
I2=
I3=

Voltage :( Table 8.3)

Calculated Values for the network of figure 2,3 &4
Due to V1 (Figure 3)
V1=
V2=
V3=

Due to V2 (Figure 4)
V1=
V2=
V3=

Measured Values
Figure 2
V1 = _____________________
V2 = ___________________
V3 = ____________________
I1 =

___________________

I2 =

__________________

I3 = ___________________

Figure 3
V1 = _____________________
V2 = ___________________
V3 = ____________________
I1 =

___________________

I2 =

__________________

I3 = ___________________
65

Algebraic sum (Figure 2)

V1=
V2=
V3=

Figure 4
V1 = _____________________
V2 = ___________________
V3 = ____________________
I1 =

___________________

I2 =

__________________

I3 = ___________________

Answer the following:

Q-1) Whether superposition applies to average power absorbed? If not state why?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Q-2) Is superposition principle verified?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Q-3) In your words, explain significance of this theorem in circuit analysis, if any:

_______________________________________________________________________________

66

LAB SESSION 10
OBJECTIVES:

To experimentally validate Thevenin theorem using a resistive circuit.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

DC power supply
Ohmmeter
DC ammeter
DC voltmeter
Resistances of values 47,220,330, 1K

THEORY:

Thevenin's Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter
how complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and
series resistance connected to a load. Thevenin's Theorem is especially useful in
analyzing power systems and other circuits where one particular resistor in the circuit
(called the "load" resistor) is subject to change, and re-calculation of the circuit is
necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine voltage across it and
current through it. Thevenin's Theorem makes this easy by temporarily removing the
load resistance from the original circuit and reducing what's left to an equivalent circuit
composed of a single voltage source and series resistance. The load resistance can then
be re-connected to this "Thevenin equivalent circuit" and calculations carried out as if
the whole network were nothing but a simple series circuit.

. . . after Thevenin conversion . . .

67

The "Thevenin Equivalent Circuit" is the electrical equivalent of B 1, R1, R3, and
B2 as seen from the two points where our load resistor (R2) connects.
The Thevenin equivalent circuit, if correctly derived, will behave exactly the same as the
original circuit formed by B1, R1, R3, and B2. In other words, the load resistor (R 2)
voltage and current should be exactly the same for the same value of load resistance in
the two circuits. The load resistor R2 cannot "tell the difference" between the original
network of B1, R1, R3, and B2, and the Thevenin equivalent circuit of EThevenin, and
RThevenin, provided that the values for EThevenin and RThevenin have been calculated correctly
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the above 8.1(a)

2. Remove the RL from the circuit across which the Thevinin equivalents have to
be evaluated.
3. To find the RTH remove the voltage-source from the circuit and short circuit
the terminals from which the supply was connected. Now place an ohmmeter
across the terminals A and B.
4. Also confirm the value of the equivalent resistance from calculations and record
it in the table.
5. To find the value of VTH place a voltmeter across the terminals A and B
after retaining the voltage source in the circuit back.
6. Also confirm the value of the equivalent voltage from calculations and record
it in the table.
68

7. Now construct the thevenin equivalent circuit and measure V AB and IL.

69

70

OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE (a): Resistors

S:No:

Nominal Value()

1
2
3
4

47
220
330
1000

Measured Value()

TABLE (b): Thevinin Theorem

RL VTH (volts)
RTH (ohms)
I L (A)
VAB (V)
Measured Calculated Measured Calculated Measured Calculated Measured

71

Calculated

CALCULATIONS:

Answer the following:

Q-1) How much power is absorbed by RL? Show it. Is this the maximum power
that can be drawn from the supply?

Q-2) What value of RL will draw the maximum power from the circuit?
Calculate the maximum power

72

LAB SESSION 11
OBJECTIVES:

To experimentally validate Nortons Theorem and the theory of source transformation using a
resistive circuit.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

DC power supply
Ohmmeter
DC ammeter
DC voltmeter
Resistances of values 47 ,220 330 , 1K

THEORY:
Norton's Theorem

Norton's theorem states that any two terminal network may be replaced by a
simple equivalent circuit consisting of a constant current source IN, shunted
by an internal resistance RN, Figure 9-1a shows the original network as a block
terminated by a load resistance RL. Figure 9-lb shows the Norton equivalent
circuit. The Norton current IN is distributed between the shunt resistance RN and
the load RL. The current IL in RL may be found from the equation

The rules for determining the constants in the Norton equivalent circuit are as follows:
1. The constant current IN is the current that would flow in the short circuit between
the load resistance terminals if the load resistance were replaced by a short circuit.
2. The Norton resistance RN is the resistance seen from the terminals of the
open load, looking into the original network, when the voltage sources in the
circuit are replaced by their internal resistance. Thus RN is defined in exactly the
same manner as is RTH in Thevenine's theorem.
The theory of source conversion says that the Norton and Thevenine circuits can be terminally
equivalent and related as follows:

73

74

75

76

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 9.2(a).

2. Remove the RL from the circuit across which Norton equivalents have to be
found out.
3. For RN or RTH of the circuit, remove the voltage source and short circuit the open
terminals. Now place an ohm meter across A and B.
4. Verify your observation, by calculating the RTH.
5. For IN, retain the source back into the circuit and place an ammeter connecting
the terminals A and B.
6. The value of the current is the short circuit current i.e. IN.
7. Also compute the value of the Nortons equivalent current and record it in
the table.
8. Now construct the Nortons equivalent circuit and measure the IL and VAB.
(That is vary the supply voltage until DMM indicates the value IN )Also
calculate the value of IL and VAB by using methods other than Nortons
theorem.
(b) Source Transformation:

1. Construct the Nortons equivalent circuit (That is vary the supply voltage until DMM
indicates the value IN ).
2. Measure the supply voltage. Construct the thevinine equivalent circuit fig no: 8.1(d) from
previous exp.
3. Measure VAB and IL. Are these values the same as obtained in part (a)?
OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE (a): Resistors
S:No:
1
2
3
4

Nominal
Value()
47
220
330
1000

Measured Value()

77

TABLE (b): Nortons Theorem

CALCULATIONS:

Answer the following questions:

Q-1) Compare the values of VAB and IL in part (a) with those obtained in the last
experiment? Is theory of source transformation verified?

Q-2) On what grounds one can say that Thevinine and Norton are the source
transformation of each other?
_____________________________________________________________________________________

78

LAB SESSION 12
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
OBJECTIVES:

a. Experimentally validate maximum power transfer theorem.

b. To construct a graph, using measured values of voltage, current and load resistance and
calculated power to verify graphically Objective 1 above.
APPARATUS:

a. Digital Multimeter
b. Power Supplies
c. Resistors of various values
d. Breadboard

THEORY:

The maximum power transfer theorem states that when the load resistance is equal to the source's
internal resistance, maximum power will be developed in the load. Since most low voltage DC
power supplies have a very low internal resistance (10 ohms or less) great difficulty would result
in trying to affect this condition under actual laboratory experimentation. If one were to connect
a low value resistor across the terminals of a 10 volt supply, high power ratings would be
required, and the resulting current would probably cause the supply's current rating to be
exceeded. In this experiment, therefore, the student will simulate a higher internal resistance by
purposely connecting a high value of resistance in series with the DC voltage supply's terminal.
Refer to Figure 11.1 below. The terminals (a & b) will be considered as the power supply's
output voltage terminals. Use a potentiometer as a variable size of load resistance. For various
settings of the potentiometer representing RL, the load current and load voltage will be measured.
The power dissipated by the load resistor can then be calculated. For the condition of RL = RInput,
the student will verify by measurement that maximum power is developed in the load resistor.

79

PROCEDURE:

1. Refer to Figure 10.1, select Rin equal to 1 K representing the internal resistance of the
power supply used and select a 10 K potentiometer as load resistance RL.
a. Using the DMM set the potentiometer to 500 ohms.

b. Connect the circuit of Figure.1. Measure the current through and the voltage across RL. Record
this data in Table 10.1.
c. Remove the potentiometer and set it to 1000 ohms. Return it to the circuit and again measure
the current through and the voltage across RL. Record.
d. Continue increasing the potentiometer resistance in 500 ohm steps until the value 10 k ohms is
reached, each time measuring the current and voltage and recording same in Table 1. Be sure the
applied voltage remains at the fixed value of 10 volts after each adjustment in potentiometer
resistance.
2. For each value of RL in Table 10.1, calculate the power input to the circuit using the formula:
Pinput = Vinput x IL
=10 x IL ,
Since Vinput is always a constant 10 volts.
80

3. For each value of RL in Table 10.1, calculate the power output (the power developed in RL )
using the formula:
Pout = VRL x IL.
4. For each value of RL in Table 10.1, calculate the circuit efficiency using the formula:
% efficiency = Pout/Pin x 100.
5. On linear graph paper, plot the curve of power output vs. RL . Plot RL on the horizontal axis
(independent variable). Plot power developed in RL on the vertical axis (dependent variable).
Label the point on the curve representing the maximum power.

81

Table 10.1

82

LAB SESSION 13
Oscilloscope.
OBJECTIVE:

Studing & using Oscilloscope and Function Generator.

APPARATUS:

a. Oscilloscope
b. Digital Multimeter ( DMM)
c. AC Power Supplies/Function Generator
d. Resistors of various values
e. Breadboard
THEORY:

An oscilloscope (commonly abbreviated to scope or O-scope) is a type of electronic test

equipment that allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a two-dimensional graph of one or
more electrical potential differences (vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or of some other
voltage (horizontal axis). The oscilloscope is one of the most versatile and widely-used
electronic instruments.
Oscilloscopes are widely used when it is desired to observe the exact wave shape of an electrical
signal. Oscilloscopes are used in the sciences, medicine, engineering, telecommunications, and
industry. Originally all oscilloscopes used cathode ray tubes as their display element, but modern
digital oscilloscopes use high-speed analog-to-digital converters and computer-like display
screens and processing of signals. Oscilloscope peripheral modules for general purpose laptop or
desktop personal computers can turn them into useful and flexible test instruments.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown. Take four resistors of different values.
R1 = ___________
R2 =___________
R3 =___________
R4 =___________
83

2. The input is sine wave provided from function generator of amplitude 5V.
3. Using oscilloscope, determine the voltages across each resistor and verify your Readings with the
help of DMM.

OBSERVATIONS:
Resistance

VDMM (VRMS)

VOSCILLOSCOPE (VP-P)

84

LAB SESSION 14
OBJECTIVE:
Observing frequency response of R, L and C circuit elements.
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:

DMM
Oscilloscope
Function Generator
Resistors: 1k , 2x120.
Inductor: 15 mH
Capacitor: 0.1 F

THEORY:

The resistance of resistor is unaffected by frequency which can be seen mathematically through
Law of resistivity as:

The reactance of an inductor is linearly dependent on the frequency applied. That is, if we double
the frequency, the reactance gets doubled, as determined by:

For low frequencies, the reactance is correspondingly very small, while for increasing
frequencies, the reactance will increase to a very large value. For DC conditions, we find that XL
= 2 (0) L is zero Ohms, corresponding with short circuit representation that we used in our DC
analysis. For very high frequencies, XL is so high that we can often use an open circuit
approximation. The capacitor behaves (as far as reactance is concerned) in a manner opposite to
that of the inductor. The capacitive reactance is non-linearly dependent on the frequency, as can
be seen by the following mathematical relation:

In this experiment, we will practically verify above stated behaviors of the three basic Electrical
passive elements.
85

86

87

PROCEDURE:
Part 1: For Resistors:

1- Voltage across resistor will be held constant while only frequency will be varied, if the
resistance is frequency independent, the current through the circuit should not change as
a function of frequency.
2- Construct the network of Fig: 10.1
3- Set the voltage Vab to 2V (p-p) (measure this voltage with the oscilloscope).
4- Set the frequencies to those shown in table (A), each time monitoring Vab
[always 2V (p-p)}] and I.
5- Since we are using DMM for current measurements this value is given as Irms.
6- Record the values in table A.
Part 2: For Inductors:
1- Construct the circuit of Fig: 10.2. Measure dc resistance of coil with DMM and
record that value as Rl on the Fig: 10.2
2- The voltage across the inductor will be kept constant while we very frequency
and monitor the current in the circuit.
3- Set Vab to 2V (p-p). Use Oscilloscope to measure Vab.
4- Set the frequencies to those shown in table (B). Each time making sure that Vab =2 V (p-p)
and that you measure the current I. (Remember I will be in rms).
5- Plot measured XL (on y-axis) versus frequency (on x-axis).
6- From the plot, determine the inductance at 500 Hz. and compare to the defined value.
L calculated = ________________ L defined =______________
Part 3: For Capacitors:

1-Construct the Circuit of fig: 10.3

2-Following steps as performed in part 2, note down observations in table (C).
3-Plot Xc (measured) on Y-axis versus frequency on X-axis.
4-Determine the reactance of capacitor at 500 Hz from the plot and calculate
capacitance using C = 1/ (2fXc). Compare with the defined value.
C Calculated = _________________

C defined = ___________
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OBSERVATIONS:

Table A:
S.No

Frequency

Vab (p-p)

2V

2V

2V

2V

2V

Vab (rms) = 2/2

(Vab)p

Vab (p)

Irms

R= Vab (rms)
Irms

Table B:
S.No

Frequency

Vab (p-p)

Irms

X L(measured)=
Vab (rms)
Irms

XL(Calcula
ted)=

2fL

2V
2V

1
2
4

2V
2V

2V

Table C:
S.No

Vab (rms)

Vab (p-p)

2V

2V

2V

2V

2V

Vab (rms)

Irms

X C(measured)=
( Vab(rms)/Irms)

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Xc(Calculated)=(1/2fC)

CALCULATIONS:

90

Answer the following:

i) For resistor:
Q)-Is R changing with frequency?

_______________________________________________________________________________
ii) For Inductor:
Q-1) Is the plot straight line? Comment on the shape of the graph?

_______________________________________________________________________________
Q-2) Is the plot passing through XL = 0, at f = 0 Hz. As it should?

_______________________________________________________________________________
Q-3) Why 100 resistor is inserted in the circuit?

____________________________________________________________________

iii) For Capacitor:

Q-1) Comment on the shape of plot. Is it linear? Why?

Q-2) Why 100 resistor is included in the circuit?

_______________________________________________________________________________
91

EXPERIMENT NO. 15
NATURAL RESPONSE OF AN RC CIRCUIT

Objectives:
1. The time constant of an RC circuit will be measured experimentally and
compared with the theoretical expression of it.
2. The behavior of a first-order RC circuit will also be analyzed.
3. Students will also become familiar with using the oscilloscope to make
voltage measurements.
Equipment:
Resistor (1k), capacitor (1F), oscilloscope, function generator, breadboard, and connecting wires

Theory:
Any circuit configuration that consists only of resistors and capacitors is known as an RC circuit.
An example RC circuit is shown below. For circuits containing more than one resistor or
capacitor, the series- parallel- simplification rules outlined in the textbook can be applied to
reduce the combinations to a single equivalent resistor and a single equivalent capacitor

Figure 12.1: An example RC circuit (t < 0)

The switch is positioned at a for a long time. The current flows through the
circuit causing the capacitor to gradually charge. As the capacitor charges, it opposes
the flow of current causing the current to decrease. The buildup of charge causes the
voltage across the capacitor to increase while the voltage across the resistor
decreases and the current decreases. All the source voltage (vs) appears at the capacitor
terminals, since a capacitor is an open-circuit to dc. Now if the switch is moved to
position b at time t = 0, the capacitor discharges causing current to flow in the circuit.
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The energy stored in the capacitor is dissipated by the heating of the resistor. The
voltage, current, and charge dissipate exponentially in time. For t 0, the above
circuit is reduced to

Figure 12.2: Reduced RC circuit (t 0)

Apply the node-voltage method with ground as reference node, we obtain:

dv v
C
0

dt

(12.1)

Using elementary calculus, the expression for voltage v(t) can be derived:

V(t)= v(s)

where v(0) denotes the initial voltage on the capacitor i.e. the voltage on the capacitor
before the switch is moved to position b. It has been already noted, the initial
voltage on the capacitor equals the voltage source voltage vs. Equation 12.2 is termed
as the natural response of an RC circuit.
In this experiment, the time constant for a discharging RC circuit will also be measured using
an oscilloscope. The time constant is defined as the time required for a physical quantity to fall
to 1/e i.e. 36.8% of its initial value. Time constant for an RC circuit is the product of R and C.
Numerically, 1/e can be approximated, to within a 2% difference, by the fraction

v (t) v(0)et

vC (t )
V(0)
93

3
8

e1

In other words, when a time interval equaling the time constant has passed, the
voltage across the capacitor is of the initial voltage. The oscilloscope will be used
to measure how long it takes for the voltage to fall to this fraction of the initial
Voltage. A comparison between theoretical and experimental values of the time constant will be
determined after recording appropriate measurements of the analyzed circuits
Lab Exercise:

Safety Precautions

Look at each exercise carefully before connecting the circuits.

Make sure all power is off before connecting or disconnecting components.
Ask your TA to check the circuit before turning on the power.
When measuring voltage or current, make sure the measuring instrument is
correctly set for what you need to measure.

6. Consider the circuit diagram shown in figure 12.3. A square wave of 50% duty
cycle is used at the input to analyze the natural response of an RC circuit. The
capacitor will be charged during the positive cycle and will gradually discharge
during the negative (0V) cycle.
7. Switch ON the function generator and the oscilloscope.
8. The vertical axis represents voltage and the horizontal axis represents time. Make sure
that the trace of the oscilloscope (yellow line) is correctly set at 0.00 divs. The
vertical position of the trace is established by adjusting the associated knob.
9. Attach the BNC adapter cable to the function generator output and CH1 of the
oscilloscope.
10. Adjust the function generator to generate a 2V peak-to-peak 100Hz square wave with
1V dc offset.
11. On the oscilloscope set the VOLT/DIV for CH1 to 1.00V and the TIME/DIV to
1ms.

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Figure 12.3: Circuit diagram for RC circuit with Oscilloscope

12. On the oscilloscope change COUPLING to DC and SOURCE to CH1. Create a

standing wave by adjusting the TIME/DIV control. It may be necessary to change
the ADJUST control in order to obtain the desired standing wave pattern.
13. Record the FREQUENCY value from the function generator on your data sheet and
verify it through the waveform showing on the oscilloscope.
14. Connect on breadboard the circuit arrangement as shown in figure 12.3.
15. Feed the function generator output to CH1 of the oscilloscope whereas the volt- age
drop across the capacitor is fed to CH2 of the oscilloscope.
16. On the oscilloscope set the VOLT/DIV for CH2 to 1.00V, the TIME/DIV to 1ms and
change COUPLING to DC.
17. Adjust the HORIZONTAL POSITION control on the oscilloscope so that the
cycle begins at an initial time of zero. An example trace is shown in figure 12.4.

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18. Notice that the voltage across the capacitor, in the above figure, decays through four
units along the vertical; each of the four units can be divided into five divisions
for a total of twenty divisions. The value at 7.5 divisions (along the vertical)
marks the point where the voltage across the capacitor is of the initial voltage.
(total no. of divisions on vertical axis) = x divisions

Measure and record the time constant corresponding to the initial voltage at x
divisions. You will first need to determine the time-scale. This value can be
found at the TIME/DIV knob. The experimental time constant is determined from
the number of divisions along the horizontal axis where the capacitor voltage drops
to 36.8% of its initial value i.e. at x divisions on the vertical axis.

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97