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Introduction
In the flow of fluids inside pipes, there are three pressure loss components:
Friction
Hydrostatic
Kinetic energy
Of these three, kinetic energy losses are frequently much smaller than the others, and are usually ignored
in all practical situations.
All the pressure loss procedures calculate the Hydrostatic Pressure Difference and Friction Pressure Loss
components individually, and then add (or subtract) them to obtain the total pressure loss. There are many
published correlations for calculating pressure losses. These fall into the two broad categories of "single
phase flow" and "multi-phase flow".
Single Phase
There exist many single-phase correlations that were derived for different operating conditions or from
laboratory experiments. Generally speaking, they only account for the friction component, i.e. they are
applicable to horizontal flow. Typical examples are :
For Gas : Panhandle, Modified Panhandle, Weymouth and Fanning
For Liquid : Fanning (Moody)
However, these correlations can also be used for vertical or inclined flow, provided the hydrostatic
pressure drop is accounted for, in addition to the friction component. As a result, even though a particular
correlation may have been developed for flow in a horizontal pipe, incorporation of the hydrostatic
pressure drop allows that correlation to be used for flow in a vertical pipe. This adaptation is rigorous, and
has been implemented into all the correlations used in VirtuWell. Nevertheless, for identification purposes,
the correlations name has been kept unchanged. Thus, as an example Panhandle was originally
developed for horizontal flow, but its implementation in this program allows it to be used for all directions of
flow.
where:
P1,2=upstream and downstream pressures respectively (psia)
@ T,P)
where:
Pf=pressure loss due to friction effects
f=Fanning friction factor (function of Reynolds number)
=density
v=average velocity
L=length of pipe section
g=acceleration of gravity
D=inside diameter of pipe
This correlation can be used either for single-phase gas (Fanning Gas) or for single-phase liquid (Fanning
- Liquid).
Single-Phase friction factor (
):
The single-phase friction factor can be obtained from the Chen (1979) equation, which is representative of
the Fanning friction factor chart.
where:
f = friction factor
References:Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
For a gas, the density varies with pressure. Therefore, to evaluate the hydrostatic pressure loss/gain, the
pipe (or wellbore) is subdivided into a sufficient number of segments, such that the density in each
segment can be assumed to be constant. Note that this is equivalent to a multi-step Cullender and Smith
calculation.
Liquid
Correlations
Vertical
Horizontal
Fanning-Gas
Fanning-Liquid
Panhandle
Modified Panhandle *
Weymouth
Mechanistic
Vertical
Horizontal
Multiphase
Multiphase pressure loss calculations parallel single phase pressure loss calculations. Essentially, each
multiphase correlation makes its own particular modifications to the hydrostatic pressure difference and
the friction pressure loss calculations, in order to make them applicable to multiphase situations.
The friction pressure loss is modified in several ways, by adjusting the friction factor (f), the density (
and velocity (v) to account for multiphase mixture properties. In the AGA type equations (Panhandle,
Modified Panhandle and Weymouth), it is the flow efficiency that is modified.
The hydrostatic pressure difference calculation is modified by defining a mixture density. This is
determined by a calculation of in-situ liquid holdup. Some correlations determine holdup based on defined
flow patterns. Some correlations (Flanigan) ignore the pressure recovery in downhill flow, in which case,
the vertical elevation is defined as the sum of the uphill segments, and not the "net elevation change".
The multiphase pressure loss correlations used in this software are of two types.
Important Note: These three correlations can give erroneous results if the pipe described deviates
substantially (more than 10 degrees) from the horizontal. For this reason, these correlations are only
available on the Pipe and Comparison pages.
The second type (Beggs and Brill, Hagedorn and Brown, Gray) is the set of correlations based on
the Fanning friction pressure loss equation. These can be used for either gas-liquid multiphase
flow, single-phase gas or single-phase liquid, because in single-phase mode, they revert to the
Fanning equation, which is equally applicable to either gas or liquid. Beggs and Brill is a
multipurpose correlation derived from laboratory data for vertical, horizontal, inclined uphill and
downhill flow of gas-water mixtures. Gray is based on field data for vertical gas wells producing
condensate and water. Hagedorn and Brown was derived from field data for flowing vertical oil
wells.
Important Note: The Gray and Hagedorn and Brown correlations were derived for vertical wells and
may not apply to horizontal pipes.
Below is a summary of the correlations available in this program and the connection between the singlephase and multiphase forms. Note that each correlation has been adapted to calculate both a hydrostatic
and a friction component.
Procedure
(The phrases "pressure loss," "pressure drop," and "pressure difference" are used by different people but
mean the same thing).
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, the pressure loss calculations for vertical, inclined or horizontal pipes follow the
same procedure:
1. Total Pressure Loss = Hydrostatic Pressure Difference + Friction Pressure Loss. The total pressure loss,
as well as each individual component can be either positive or negative, depending on the direction of
calculation, the direction of flow and the direction of elevation change.
2. Subdivide the pipe length into segments so that the total pressure loss per segment is less than twenty
(20) psi. Maximum number of segments is twenty (20).
3. For each segment assume constant fluid properties appropriate to the pressure and temperature of that
segment.
4. Calculate the Total Pressure Loss in that segment as in step #1.
5. Knowing the pressure at the inlet of that segment, add to (or subtract from) it the Total Pressure Loss
determined in step #4 to obtain the pressure at the outlet.
6. The outlet pressure from step #5 becomes the inlet pressure for the adjacent segment.
7. Repeat steps #3 to #6 until the full length of the pipe has been traversed.
Note: As discussed under Hydrostatic Pressure Difference and Friction Pressure Loss, the hydrostatic
pressure difference is positive in the direction of the earths gravitational pull, whereas the friction pressure
loss is always positive in the direction of flow.
Fanning the Fanning correlation is divided into two sub categories Fanning Liquid and Fanning
Gas. The Fanning Gas correlation is also known as the Multi-step Cullender and Smith when
applied for vertical wellbores.
Panhandle the Panhandle correlation was developed originally for single-phase flow of gas
through horizontal pipes. In other words, the hydrostatic pressure difference is not taken into
account. We have applied the standard hydrostatic head equation to the vertical elevation of the
pipe to account for the vertical component of pressure drop. Thus our implementation of the
Panhandle equation includes BOTH horizontal and vertical flow components, and this equation
can be used for horizontal, uphill and downhill flow.
Weymouth the Weymouth correlation is of the same form as the Panhandle and the Modified
Panhandle equations. It was originally developed for short pipelines and gathering systems. As a
result, it only accounts for horizontal flow and not for hydrostatic pressure drop. We have applied
the standard hydrostatic head equation to account for the vertical component of pressure drop.
Thus, our implementation of the Weymouth equation includes BOTH horizontal and vertical flow
components, and this equation can be used for horizontal, uphill and downhill flow.
In our software, for cases that involve a single phase, the Gray, the Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs
and Brill correlations revert to the Fanning single-phase correlations. For example, if the Gray correlation
was selected but there was only gas in the system, the Fanning Gas correlation would be used. For cases
where there is a single phase, the Flanigan and Modified Flanigan correlations devolve to the single-phase
Panhandle and Modified Panhandle correlations respectively. The Weymouth (Multiphase) correlation
devloves to the single-phase Weymouth correlation.
References
Knudsen, J. G. and D. L. Katz (1958). Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York.
Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
Panhandle Correlation
The original Panhandle correlation (Gas Processors Suppliers Association, 1980) was developed for
single-phase gas flow in horizontal pipes. As such, only the pressure drop due to friction was taken into
account by the Panhandle equation. However, we have applied the standard equation for calculating
hydrostatic head to the vertical component of the pipe, and thus our Panhandle correlation accounts for
horizontal, inclined and vertical pipes. The Panhandle correlation can only be used for single-phase gas
flow. The Fanning Liquid correlation should be used for single-phase liquid flow.
where:
The Panhandle equation incorporates a simplified representation of the friction factor, which is built into the
equation. To account for real life situations, the flow efficiency factor, E, was included in the equation. This
flow efficiency generally ranges from 0.8 to 0.95. Although we recognize that a common default for the flow
efficiency is 0.92, our software defaults to E = 0.85, as our experience has shown this to be more
appropriate (Mattar and Zaoral, 1984).
Nomenclature
D = pipe inside diameter (inch)
E = Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency factor
G = gas gravity
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbmft)/(lbfs2))
L = length (mile)
P = reference pressure for standard conditions (psia)
P1 =upstream pressure (psia)
P2 = downstream pressure (psia)
PHH = pressure change due to hydrostatic head (psi)
QG = gas flow rate at standard conditions,
, ft3/d
References
Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Field Engineering Data Book, Vol. 2, 10th ed., Tulsa (1994)
Mattar, L. and Zaoral, K., "Gas Pipeline Efficiencies and Pressure Gradient Curves," JCPT 84-35-93
(1984)
Fanning Correlation
The Fanning friction factor pressure loss ( Pf) can be combined with the hydrostatic pressure difference (
PHH) to give the total pressure loss. The Fanning Gas Correlation (Multi-step Cullender and Smith) is the
name used in this document to refer to the calculation of the hydrostatic pressure difference ( PHH) and
the friction pressure loss ( Pf) for single-phase gas flow, using the following standard equations.
This formulation for pressure drop is applicable to pipes of all inclinations. When applied to a vertical
wellbore it is equivalent to the Cullender and Smith method. However, it is implemented as a multisegment procedure instead of a 2 segment calculation.
The method for calculating the Fanning Friction factor is the same for single-phase gas or single-phase
liquid.
Roughness
Flow Efficiency
Since
G varies with pressure, the calculation must be done sequentially in small steps to allow the
density to vary with pressure.
The method for calculating the Fanning friction factor is the same for single-phase gas or single-phase
liquid.
Since
does not vary with pressure, a constant value can be used for the entire length of the pipe.
Nomenclature
D = pipe inside diameter (inch)
f = Fanning friction factor
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbm*ft)/(lbf*s2))
k/D = relative roughness (unitless)
L = length (ft)
PHH = pressure change due to hydrostatic head (psi)
Pf = pressure change due to friciton (psi)
Re = Reynolds number
V = velocity (ft/s)
z = elevation change
G
References
Chen, N. H., "An Explicit Equation for Friction Factor in Pipe," Ind. Eng. Chem. Fund. (1979).
Cullender, M. H. and R. V. Smith (1956). Practical Solution of Gas-Flow Equations for Wells and Pipelines
with Large Temperature Gradients, Trans., AIME, 207, 281-287.
Gas Processors and Suppliers Association, Engineering Data Book. Vol. 2, Sect. 17, 10th ed., 1994.
Knudsen, J. G. and D. L. Katz (1958). Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York.
Weymouth Correlation
This correlation is similar in its form to the Panhandle and the Modified Panhandle correlations. It was
designed for single-phase gas flow in pipelines. As such, it calculates only the pressure drop due to
friction. However, we have applied the standard equation for calculating hydrostatic head to the vertical
component of the pipe, and thus our Weymouth correlation accounts for HORIZONTAL, INCLINED and
VERTICAL pipes. The Weymouth equation can only be used for single-phase gas flow. The Fanning Liquid
correlation should be used for single-phase liquid flow.
where:
The Weymouth equation incorporates a simplified representation of the friction factor, which is built into the
equation. To account for real life situations, the flow efficiency factor, E, was included in the equation. The
flow efficiency generally used is 1. Our software defaults to this value as well (Mattar and Zaoral, 1984).
Nomenclature
D = pipe inside diameter (inch)
E = Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency factor
G = gas gravity
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbmft)/(lbfs2))
L = length (mile)
P = reference pressure for standard conditions (psia)
10
References
Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Field Engineering Data Book, Vol. 2, 10th ed., Tulsa (1994).
Mattar, L. and Zaoral, K., "Gas Pipeline Efficiencies and Pressure gradient Curves." JCPT 84-35-93
(1984).
Multiphase Flow
La presencia de fases mltiples complica grandemente los clculos de la cada de
presin. Esto es debido al hecho de que las propiedades presentes de cada uno
elocuente deben ser tomadas en consideracin. Tambin, las interacciones entre
cada fase tienen que ser consideradas. Las propiedades de las mezclas deben
ser usadas, y por eso las fracciones del gas y las lquidas del volumen in-situ a
todo lo largo de la tubera necesitan ser determinados. En general, todas las
correlaciones multifsicas son esencialmente de dos fase y no tres fase.
Consecuentemente, el petroleo y la fase de agua estn combinados, y son
tratados como una sola fase seudoliquida, mientras que el gas es considerado
como una una fase separada. Lo siguiente es una lista de conceptos generales
inherentes para el flujo multifsico
The presence of multiple phases greatly complicates pressure drop calculations. This is due to the fact
that the properties of each fluid present must be taken into account. Also, the interactions between each
phase have to be considered. Mixture properties must be used, and therefore the gas and liquid in-situ
volume fractions throughout the pipe need to be determined. In general, all multiphase correlations are
essentially two phase and not three phase. Accordingly, the oil and water phases are combined, and
treated as a pseudo single liquid phase, while gas is considered a separate phase. The following is a list of
general concepts inherent to multiphase flow. Click on each of them for a brief overview.
11
Many of the published multiphase flow correlations are applicable for "vertical flow" only, while others apply
for "horizontal flow" only. Other than the Beggs and Brill correlation, there are not many correlations that
were developed for the whole spectrum of flow situations that can be encountered in oil and gas
operations; namely uphill, downhill, horizontal, inclined and vertical flow. However, we have adapted all of
the correlations (as appropriate) so that they apply to all flow situations. The following is a list of the
multiphase flow correlations that are available.
1.- Gray: La Correlacin Gray (1978) fue desarrollada para el flujo vertical en fluyo gas
humedo. Lo hemos modificado a fin de que se aplice al flujo en todas las direcciones
calculando la diferencia hidrosttica de presin usando unicamente la elevacin vertical
del segmento de la tubera y la perdida de presin debido a la friccin esta basada en la
longitud total de la tubera.
1.
Gray: The Gray Correlation (1978) was developed for vertical flow in wet gas wells. We have
modified it so that it applies to flow in all directions by calculating the hydrostatic pressure
difference using only the vertical elevation of the pipe segment and the friction pressure loss
based on the total pipe length.
2.-Hagedorn y Brown: La correlacion Hagedorn y Brown (1964) fue desarrollada para el flujo
vertical en pozos de petrleo. Tambin lo hemos modificado a fin de que se aplice al flujo en todas
las direcciones para el calculalo de la diferencia hidrosttica de presin usando unicamente la
elevacin vertical del segmento de la tubera y la presin de friccin que esta basada en la
longitud total de la tubera.
2.
Hagedorn and Brown: The Hagedorn and Brown Correlation (1964) was developed for vertical
flow in oil wells. We have also modified it so that it applies to flow in all directions by calculating
the hydrostatic pressure difference using only the vertical elevation of the pipe segment and the
friction pressure loss based on the total pipe length.
3.- Beggs y Brill: La Beggs y Correlacin Beggs (1973) es uno de los menos publicados
correlaciones capaces de manejar en todos los direcciones de flujo. Fue desarrollado
usando secciones de tubera que estan inclin en cualquier ngulo.
3.
Beggs and Brill: The Beggs and Brill Correlation (1973) is one of the few published correlations
capable of handling all of the flow directions. It was developed using sections of pipe that could
be inclined at any angle.
4.
5.
12
Flanigan multiphase correlation is also applied to the Panhandle and Weymouth correlations. It is
recommended that this correlation not be used beyond +/- 10 degrees from the horizontal.
6.
Weymouth (Multiphase): The Weymouth (Multiphase) is an extension of the Weymouth singlephase equation to multiphase flow. It incorporates the Flanigan correction of the Flow Efficiency
for multiphase flow and a calculation of hydrostatic pressure difference to account for uphill flow.
There is no hydrostatic pressure recovery for downhill flow. In this software, the Flanigan
correlation is also applied to the Panhandle and Modified Panhandle correlations. It is
recommended that this correlation not be used beyond +/- 10 degrees from the horizontal.
Each of these correlations was developed for its own unique set of experimental conditions, and
accordingly, results will vary between them.
Multiphase Flow
For multiphase flow in essentially vertical wells, the available correlations are Beggs and Brill, Gray, and
Hagedorn and Brown. If used for single-phase flow, these three correlations devolve to the Fanning Gas or
Fanning Liquid correlation.
When switching from multiphase flow to single-phase flow, the correlation will default to the Fanning. When
switching from single-phase flow to multiphase flow, the correlation will default to the Beggs and Brill.
Important Notes
The Flanigan, Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase) correlations can give erroneous
results if the pipe described deviates substantially (more than 10 degrees) from the horizontal.
The Gray and Hagedorn and Brown correlations were derived for vertical wells and may not apply
to horizontal pipes.
In our software, the Gray, the Hagedorn and Brown and the Beggs and Brill correlations revert to
the appropriate single-phase Fanning correlation (Fanning Liquid or Fanning Gas. The Flanigan,
Modified-Flanigan and Weymouth (Multiphase) revert to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth respectively. However, they may not be used for single-phase liquid flow.
Multiphase
Gas
Correlations
Vertical
Horizontal
Liquid
Vertical
13
Horizontal
Fanning-Gas
*
Fanning-Liquid
Panhandle
Modified Panhandle
Weymouth
*
Mechanistic Model
Mechanistic Model
14
where
and if
Stratified Flow
Exists if flow is downward or horizontal ( 0)
Calculate
15
where
and
fG from standard methods where
fL from
where
fsL from standard methods where
16
fi from
where
where
where
Geometric Variables:
17
18
and
where
and
where
19
and
(1)
from standard methods where
20
fi from
(2)
Use Lochhart-Martinelli Parameters
where
where
Geometric Variables:
21
Solve for
iteratively.
where
from
22
Bubble Flow
Bubble flow exists if
(3)
where:C1 = 0.5
= 1.3
db = 7mm
(4)
In addition, transition to bubble flow from intermittent flow occurs when
where:
Intermittent Flow
Intermittent flow exists if
23
where:
If EL > 1, EL = CL
and:
where
for fm < 1, fm = 1
where
24
if
b.
If
and
c.
If
and
6.
Froth Flow
If none of the transition criteria for intermittent flow are met, then the flow pattern is designated as Froth,
implying a transitional state between the other flow regimes.
Footnotes
,
1. where: G (lb/ft3), L (lb/ft3), VSG (ft/s), (cP), (dyn/cm)
25
2.
,
where: C (lb/ft3), VC (ft/s), DC (ft), (dyn/cm)
3.
4.
, where: L (lb/ft3),
G
(lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
5.
,
where: D (ft), L (lb/ft3), G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
6.
,
where: L (lb/ft3), G (lb/ft3), (dyn/cm)
Nomenclature
A = cross sectional area
C0 = velocity distribution coefficient
D = pipe internal diameter
E = in situ volume fraction
FE = liquid fraction entrained
g = acceleration due to gravity
hL = height of liquid (stratified flow)
L = length
P = pressure
26
Re = Reynolds number
S = contact perimeter
VSG = superficial gas velocity
VSL = superficial liquid velocity
= liquid film thickness
= pipe roughness
pressure gradient weighting factor (intermittent flow)
= Angle of inclination
= viscosity
= density
= interfacial (surface) tension
= shear stress
= dimensionless quantity
Subscripts
b = relating to the gas bubble
c = relating to the gas core
F = relating to the liquid film
db = relating to dispersed bubbles
G = relating to gas phase
i = relating to interface
L = relating to liquid phase
m = relating to mixture
SG = based on superficial gas velocity
s = relating to liquid slug
SL = based on superficial liquid velocity
wL = relating to wall-liquid interface
wG = relating to wall-gas interface
C0 = velocity distribution coefficient
27
References
Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "A Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes," J. Pet. Tech. (June 2000), 43-55.
Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "Development and Testing of a New Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes,"
ASME 1996 Fluids Engineering Division Conference (1996), FED-Vol 236, 153-159.
Gomez, L.E. et al.: "Unified Mechanistic Model for Steady-State Two-Phase Flow," Petalas, N., Aziz, K.: "A
Mechanistic Model for Multiphase Flow in Pipes," SPE Journal (September 2000), 339-350.
The flow type can then be readily determined either from a representative flow pattern map or according to
the following conditions, where
.
SEGREGATED flow
28
if
and
Or
and
INTERMITTENT flow
if
and
or
and
DISTRIBUTED flow
if
and
or
and
TRANSITION flow
if
and
INTERMITTENT
DISTRIBUTED
29
IV.TRANSITION
Where
Once the horizontal in situ liquid volume fraction is determined, the actual liquid volume fraction is obtained
by multiplying EL(0) by an inclination factor, B( ). i.e.
where
is a function of flow type, the direction of inclination of the pipe (uphill flow or downhill flow), the liquid
velocity number (Nvl), and the mixture Froude Number (Frm). Nvl is defined as:
INTERMITTENT
30
DISTRIBUTED
Note:
= 0.
Once the liquid holdup (EL( )) is calculated, it is used to calculate the mixture density ( m). The mixture
density is, in turn, used to calculate the pressure change due to the hydrostatic head of the vertical
component of the pipe or well.
otherwise,
where:
Note: Severe instabilities have been observed when these equations are used as published. Our
implementation has modified them so that the instabilities have been eliminated.
A ratio of friction factors is then defined as follows:
31
is the no-slip friction factor. We use the Fanning friction factor, calculated using the Chen equation.
The no-slip Reynolds Number is also used, and it is defined as follows:
Finally, the expression for the pressure loss due to friction is:
Nomenclature
CL = liquid input volume fraction
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)
EL(0) = horizontal liquid holdup
EL( ) = inclined liquid holdup
ftp = two phase friction factor
fNS = no-slip friction factor
Frm = Froude Mixture Number
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbm*ft)/(lbf*s2))
L = length of pipe (ft)
Nvl = liquid velocity number
Vm = mixture velocity (ft/s)
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity (ft/s)
z = elevation change (ft)
NS
32
NS
Reference
Beggs, H. D., and Brill, J.P., "A Study of Two-Phase Flow in Inclined Pipes," JPT, 607-617, May 1973.
Source: JPT.
Flanigan Correlation
The Flanigan correlation is an extension of the Panhandle single-phase correlation to multiphase flow. It
was developed to account for the additional pressure loss caused by the presence of liquids. The
correlation is empirical and is based on studies of small amounts of condensate in gas lines. To account
for liquids, Flanigan developed a relationship for the Flow Efficiency term of the Panhandle equation as a
function of liquid to gas ratio. Since the Panhandle equation applied to essentially horizontal flow, Flanigan
also developed a liquid holdup factor to account for the hydrostatic pressure difference in upward inclined
flow. For downhill, there is no hydrostatic pressure recovery.
As noted previously, the Flanigan correlation was developed for essentially horizontal flow. Consequently,
it is not applicable in vertical flow situations such as vertical wellbores. Therefore, the Flanigan correlation
is only available on the Pipe and Comparison pages. Care should be taken when applying the Flanigan
correlation to situations other than essentially horizontal flow. The effects of using the Flanigan correlation
can be investigated using the Comparison module.
In this program , the Flanigan correlation has been applied to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth correlations in the same way, by adjusting the hydrostatic pressure difference using the
Flanigan holdup factor and by using the appropriate efficiency (E) for multiphase flow.
where:
hi = the vertical "rises" of the individual sections of the pipeline (ft)
EL = Flanigan holdup factor (in-situ liquid volume fraction)
The Flanigan holdup factor is calculated using the following equation.
33
Notice that when there is mostly gas (the liquid to gas ratio is very small), the Panhandle efficiency is
around 0.85 (close to the single-phase default for gas) and as the quantity of liquids increases, the
efficiency decreases.
Modified-Flanigan Correlation
The Modified-Flanigan is equivalent to the Flanigan correlation applied to the Modified Panhandle singlephase correlation. The Flanigan correlation was developed as a method to account for the additional
pressure loss caused by the presence of liquids. The correlation is empirical and is based on studies of
small amounts of condensate in gas lines. To account for liquids, Flanigan developed a relationship for the
Flow Efficiency term of the Panhandle equation as a function of liquid to gas ratio. In addition, Flanigan
developed a liquid holdup factor to account for the hydrostatic pressure difference in upward inclined flow.
For downhill, there is no hydrostatic pressure recovery.
As noted previously, the Flanigan correlation was developed for essentially horizontal flow. Consequently,
it is not applicable in vertical flow situations such as vertical wellbores. Therefore, the Flanigan correlation,
and hence the Modified-Flanigan correlation, is only available on the Pipe and Comparison pages. Care
should be taken when applying the Modified-Flanigan correlation to situations other than essentially
horizontal flow. The effects of using the Modified-Flanigan correlation can be investigated using the
Comparison module.
In this program , the Flanigan correlation has been applied to the Panhandle, Modified Panhandle and
Weymouth correlations in the same way, by adjusting the hydrostatic pressure difference using the
Flanigan holdup factor and by using the appropriate efficiency (
34
where:
hi = the vertical "rises" of the individual sections of the pipeline (ft)
EL = Flanigan holdup factor (in-situ liquid volume fraction)
The Flanigan holdup factor is calculated using the following equation.
Nomenclature
E = Panhandle/Weymouth efficiency
EL = Flanigan holdup factor (in-situ liquid volume fraction)
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbm*ft)/(lbf*s2))
hi = the vertical "rises" of the individual sections of the pipeline (ft)
35
Reference
Flanigan, O., "Effect of Uphill Flow on Pressure Drop in Design of Two-Phase Gathering Systems", O&GJ,
Vol. 56, No. 10, p. 132, March (1958).
Gray Correlation
The Gray correlation was developed by H.E. Gray (Gray, 1978), specifically for wet gas wells. Although this
correlation was developed for vertical flow, we have implemented it in both vertical, and inclined pipe
pressure drop calculations. To correct the pressure drop for situations with a horizontal component, the
hydrostatic head has only been applied to the vertical component of the pipe while friction is applied to the
entire length of pipe.
First, the in-situ liquid volume fraction is calculated. The in-situ liquid volume fraction is then used to
calculate the mixture density, which is in turn used to calculate the hydrostatic pressure difference. The
input gas liquid mixture properties are used to calculate an "effective" roughness of the pipe. This effective
roughness is then used in conjunction with a constant Reynolds Number of
to calculate the Fanning
friction factor. The pressure difference due to friction is calculated using the Fanning friction pressure loss
equation. For a more detailed look at each step, make a selection from the following list:
where:
36
where:
Once the liquid holdup (EL) is calculated it is used to calculate the mixture density ( m). The mixture
density is, in turn, used to calculate the pressure change due to the hydrostatic head of the vertical
component of the pipe or well.
Note: For the equations found in the Gray correlation, is given in lbf/s2. We have implemented them
using with units of dynes/cm and have converted the equations by multiplying by 0.00220462.
(0.00220462dynes/cm = 1lbf/s2)
if
then
if
then
where:
37
10-5.
The relative roughness of the pipe is then calculated by dividing the effective roughness by the diameter of
the pipe. The Fanning friction factor is obtained using the Chen equation and assuming a Reynolds
Number (Re) of 107. Finally, the expression for the friction pressure loss is:
Note: The original publication contained a misprint (0.0007 instead of 0.007). Also, the surface tension (
is given in units of lbf/s2. We used a conversion factor of 0.00220462 dynes/cm = 1 lbf/s2.
Nomenclature
CL = liquid input volume fraction
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)
EL = in-situ liquid volume fraction (liquid holdup)
ftp = two-phase friction factor
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbmft)/(lbfs2))
k = absolute roughness of the pipe (in)
ke = effective roughness (in)
L = length of pipe (ft)
PHH = pressure change due to hydrostatic head (psi)
Pf = pressure change due to friction (psi)
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity (ft/s)
Vsg = superficial gas velocity (ft/s)
Vm = mixture velocity (ft/s)
z = elevation change (ft)
G
NS
38
Reference
American Petroleum Institute,API Manual 14B, "Subsurface Controlled Subsurface Safety Valve Sizing
Computer Program ", Appendix B, Second Ed., Jan. (1978)
Various combinations of these parameters are then plotted against each other to determine the liquid
holdup.
For the purposes of program ming, these curves were converted into equations. The first curve provides a
value for CNL. This CNL value is then used to calculate a dimensionless group,
39
can then be
vs.
where:
Note: In the Hagedorn and Brown correlation the mixture viscosity is given by:
where:
Modifications
We have implemented two modifications to the original Hagedorn and Brown Correlation. The first
modification is simply the replacement of the liquid holdup value with the "no-slip" (input) liquid volume
fraction if the calculated liquid holdup is less than the "no-slip" liquid volume fraction.
40
if
then
The second modification involves the use of the Griffith correlation (1961) for the bubble flow regime.
Bubble flow exists if
where:
The pressure drop due to friction is also affected by the use of the Griffith correlation because
into the calculation of the Reynolds Number via the in-situ liquid velocity. The Reynolds Number is
calculated using the following format:
enters
The single phase liquid density, in-situ liquid velocity and liquid viscosity are used to calculate the
Reynolds Number. This is unlike the majority of multiphase correlations, which usually define the Reynolds
Number in terms of mixture properties not single phase liquid properties. The Reynolds number is then
used to calculate the friction factor using the Chen equation. Finally, the friction pressure loss is calculated
as follows:
41
The liquid density and the in-situ liquid velocity are used to calculate the pressure drop due to friction.
Nomenclature
CL = input liquid volume fraction
CG = input gas volume fraction
D = inside pipe diameter (ft)
EL = in-situ liquid volume fraction (liquid holdup)
f = Fanning friction factor
g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/s2)
gc = conversion factor (32.2 (lbmft)/(lbfs2))
L = length of calculation segment (ft)
PHH = pressure change due to hydrostatic head (psi)
Pf = pressure change due to friction (psi)
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity (ft/s)
Vsg = superficial gas velocity (ft/s)
Vm = mixture velocity (ft/s)
VL = in-situ liquid velocity (ft/s)
z = elevation change (ft)
NS
42
(lb/ft3)
References
Economides, M.J. et al, Petroleum Production Systems. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1994.
Hagedorn, A.R., Brown, K.E., "Experimental Study of Pressure Gradients Occurring During Continuous
Two-Phase Flow in Small Diameter Vertical Conduits", JPT, p.475, April. (1965)
Turner Correlation
R. G. Turner, M. G. Hubbard and A. E Dukler first presented the Turner correlation at the SPE Gas
Technology Symposium held in Omaha, Nebraska, September 12 and 13, 1968. The correlation (SPE
paper 2198) calculates the minimum gas flow rate required to lift liquids out of a wellbore and is often
referred to as The Liquid Lift Equation or Critical Flow Rate Calculation for Lifting Liquids. In F.A.S.T.
Virtuwell, this correlation is used to test for stable wellbore flow.
Theoretical Background
The Turner correlation assumes free flowing liquid in the wellbore forms droplets suspended in the gas
stream. Two forces act on these droplets. The first is the force of gravity pulling the droplets down and the
second is drag force due to flowing gas pushing the droplets upward. If the velocity of the gas is sufficient,
the drops are carried to surface. If not, they fall and accumulate in the wellbore.
The correlation was developed from droplet theory. The theoretical calculations were then compared to
field data and a 20% fudge factor was built-in. The correlation is generally very accurate and was
formulated using easily obtained oilfield data. Consequently, it has been widely accepted in the petroleum
industry. The model was verified to about 130 bbl/MMscf.
The Turner correlation was formulated for free water production and free condensate production in the
wellbore. The calculation of minimum gas velocity for each follows:
From the minimum gas velocity, the minimum gas flow rate required to lift free liquids can then be
calculated using:
43
where:
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2)
G = gas gravity
k = calculation variable
P = pressure (psia)
qg = gas flow rate (MMscfd)
T = temperature (R)
vg = minimum gas velocity required to lift liquids (ft/s)
Z = compressibility factor (supercompressibility)
If both condensate and water are present, use the Turner correlation for water to judge behaviour
of a system.
It is very important to note that the Turner correlation utilizes the cross-sectional area of the flow
path when calculating liquid lift rates. For example, if the flow path is through the tubing, the
minimum gas rate to lift water and condensate will be calculated using the tubing inside diameter.
When the tubing depth is higher in the wellbore than the mid-point of perforations (MPP) in a
vertical well, the Turner correlation does not consider the rate required to lift liquids between the
MPP and the end of the tubing. Ultimately, the liquid lift rate calculations are based on the inside
diameter (ID) of the tubing or the area of the annulus and not on the casing ID unless flow is up
the "casing only".
44
where:
G = gas gravity
k = calculation variable
P = pressure (psia)
T = temperature (R)
vg = minimum gas velocity required to lift liquids (ft/s)
z = compressibility factor (supercompressibility)
This leads to an expression for the Turner calculated gas rate:
where:
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2)
qg = gas flow rate Mcfd (103m3/d)
As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to determine
the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the highest
pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. In his original work,
Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. In our research also supported by Lea Jr.
(1983), we have found that generally, if the sandface pressure is known, it and not the wellhead pressure
should be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
where:
G = gas gravity
k = calculation variable
45
P = pressure (psia)
T = temperature (R)
vg = minimum gas velocity required to lift liquids (ft/s)
z = compressibility factor (supercompressibility)
This leads to an expression for the Turner calculated gas rate:
where:
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2)
qg = gas flow rate (MMscfd)
As pressure increases, so does the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate. Therefore, to determine
the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate in a wellbore, it is recommended that the highest
pressure in the wellbore be used. This is typically the flowing sandface pressure. In his original work,
Turner (1969) recommends that the wellhead pressure be used. In our research also supported by Lea Jr.
(1983), we have found that generally, if the sandface pressure is known, it and not the wellhead pressure
should be used to calculate the minimum gas rate to lift liquids.
DEFAULT: none
References
Lea Jr., J.F.and Tighe, R.E., "Gas Well Operation With Liquid Production," SPE Paper No. 11583,
presented at the 1983 Production Operation Symposium, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, February 27 March
1, 1983.
Turner, R.G., Hubbard, M.G., and Dukler, A.E.: "Analysis and
46
Choke Sizing
Single-Phase Flow
Gas Mass Flow
The relationship which describes the mass flow of a single-phase gas through a choke can be generically
written as:
where
With the gas density at standard conditions, the gas mass flowrate is readily converted into a daily
standard volumetric flowrate.
47
where
The choke flow coefficient is a function of the Reynolds number in the choke throat and so the solution is
necessarily iterative, but convergence is quite rapid.
Rawlins-Schellhardt
Rawlins and Schellhardt give us a form of the equation for gas flow through chokes under critical flow
conditions which is dependent only on the upstream pressure. Rawlins and Schellhardt based their
equation on ideal gas at a standard pressure of 14.4 psia. Correction for non-ideality and for a standard
pressure other than 14.4 psia is included in the following equation:
where
Szilas
Szilas gives us an alternate form of the gas mass flow equation and with constants and conversion factors
for field units, as:
48
where
This equation applies both at and above the critical pressure ratio,
Multiphase Flow
Ashford-Pierce
Ashford and Pierce developed a correlation specifically describing multiphase flow through safety valves
and tested it against field data. Their correlation has the form:
with
and where
49
This relationship applies both at and above the critical pressure ratio,
, as
where
As this is implicit in
The Ashford-Pierce relationship cannot directly be applied here because oil may or may not be one of the
flowing phases. However, their relationship for the fluid velocity downstream of the choke gives rise to an
alternative approach which is amenable to solution with gas plus one or more liquid phases present:
where
50
Assuming critical flow in the choke throat, the downstream pressure and fluid velocity can be calculated,
and with the latter plus the produced fluid ratios, the mass flowrate of each phase is obtainable.
Achong
Achong updated Gilberts relationship on the basis of data from oil wells in the Lake Maracaibo field of
Venezuela. The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure are, according to
Achong, correlated by the following relationship:
where
Baxendell
Baxendells correlation linking the rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure
and fundamentally an update of the Gilbert correlation is:
where
Gilbert
51
Gilbert developed a generalized correlation based on data from flowing oil wells in the Ten Section field of
California. The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure can be correlated,
according to Gilbert, by the following relationship:
where
Omana et al.
Omana et al. carried out field experiments in the Tiger Lagoon field of Louisiana with natural gas and water
flowing through restrictions. Carrying out a dimensional analysis, Omana derived the following correlation:
with
and where
Reliable use of Omanas correlation is limited to an upstream pressure range of 400 1000 psig, 800 bbl/d
maximum liquid flowrate, and choke sizes from 4/64" to 14/64". It should be applicable for both bottomhole
and surface chokes.
Ros
52
The rate of multiphase flow through a choke and the upstream pressure are, according to Ros on the basis
of Gilberts and other prior work, correlated by the following relationship:
where
References
Achong, I., "Revised Bean Performance Formula for Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report,
Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1961
Ashford, F.E. and Pierce, P.E., "Determining Multiphase Pressure Drops and Flow Capacities in
Down-Hole Safety Valves", SPE Paper No. 5161, J. Pet. Tech., Sep 1975, 1145
Baxendell, P.B., "Bean Performance Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co.,
Houston, TX, Oct 1967
Gilbert, W.E., "Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance", Drill. & Prod. Practice, 1954, 126
Omana, R., Houssiere, C. Jr., Brown, K.E., Brill, J.P., and Thompson, R.E., "Multiphase Flow
Through Chokes", SPE Paper No. 2682, paper presented at Annual Fall Meeting of the SPE of
AIME, Denver, CO, Sep 28 Oct 1, 1969
Ros, N.C.J., "An Analysis of Critical Simultaneous Gas-Liquid Flow Through a Restriction and Its
Glossary
Absolute Open Flow (AOF)
The Absolute Open Flow potential of a well is the rate at which the well would produce against zero
sandface backpressure. Flow into a well depends on both the reservoir characteristics and the wellbore
flowing pressure. The relationship of inflow rate to bottomhole flowing pressure is called the IPR (Inflow
Performance Relationship). For gas wells, this may also be called the AOF curve. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell
presents this relationship in the form of a pressure versus flow rate graph. From this graph, the wells flow
potential can be determined at various flowing sandface pressures. As well, the operating point (flow rate
and pressure) of a particular wellbore configuration can be determined from the intersection of the AOF
curve and the Tubing Performance Curve (TPC).
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell uses the simplified analysis approach to determine AOFs. This approach is based on
the following equation:
53
where
q = flow rate at standard conditions (MMcfd, 103m3/d)
P = shut-in pressure (in the case of a Sandface AOF, this is the static reservoir pressure (psia, kPaA)
Pf = flowing pressure (psia, kPaA)
C = a coefficient which describes the position of the stabilized deliverability line (MMcfd/(psi2)n, 103m3/d/
(kPa2)n)
N = an exponent to describe the inverse of the slope of the stabilized deliverability line (n varies between
1.0 for completely laminar flow and 0.5 for fully turbulent flow.)
This equation applies to both sandface and wellhead AOFs. If a sandface AOF is being calculated, all
components of the equation refer to the sandface and vice-versa with wellhead AOF calculations. The Gas
AOF/TPC page requires sandface AOFs for its calculations. If only a wellhead AOF is known, a sandface
AOF may be calculated using the SF/WH AOF page. Care must be taken here when dealing with multiphase flow as instabilities can occur.
Note: In order to represent a reservoir which is depleting due to pressure loss, several AOF curves may be
drawn on the Gas AOF/TPC page. Each successive AOF curve will have a consistent n and c with a
declining reservoir pressure. In order to model rate decline caused by wellbore liquid problems, the
reservoir pressure and n may be kept constant, and the AOF or C varied to account for the effects of
liquids.
For oil wells, there is no AOF, so instead a similar concept is used. AOFP (absolute open flow potential)
represents the maximum value of oil flow as the pressure approaches zero. This is analogous to AOF
(absolute open flow) with a gas well.
Angle
A calculated angle of the wellbore that is based on entered values of MD and TVD.
It describes the inverse of the slope of the stabilized deliverability line. "n" varies between 1.0 for
completely laminar flow and 0.5 for fully turbulent flow.
It is generally accepted that "n" at wellhead is less than or equal to "n" at sandface. This condition is
enforced when the SF/WH AOF module is converting an equation from sandface to wellhead or vice versa
in single phase flow. However, in multiphase flow situations, the interaction of friction and hydrostatic
pressure effects is much more complicated, and this relationship of wellhead to sandface "n" is not
enforced. However, to conform to standard practice, the limits of 1.0 and 0.5 are honoured. Thus in a
multiphase flow test, it is possible for the wellhead "n" to be larger than the sandface "n"
The procedure for calculating the wellhead AOF curve, and the wellhead AOF equation, is described below
for a multiphase situation:
1. Draw the sandface AOF curve from the given data
54
UNITS: None
DEFAULT: none
DEFAULT: none
C, Sandface Coefficient
This is the coefficient found in the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) equation.
It describes the position of the stabilized deliverability line. Wellhead and sandface C values for a given
system are usually different.
Note: Care must be taken when converting C from field to metric units or vice-versa. This is because the
units of C are dependent on n. In order to avoid these problems, both n and C should be entered
before changing units.
55
Casing
Casing ID
The Casing ID is the Inside Diameter of the wellbore casing. This value is used to calculate the area of
flow when production is through the casing or along with the Tubing OD to calculate the area of flow when
production is directed through the annulus. This value will also be required when flow is through the tubing
if the Mid-Point of Perforations(MPP) or the Datum is below the End of Tubing Depth (EOT).
For horizontal wellbores, three casing IDs, one for each of the Vertical, Deviated and Horizontal sections
of the wellbore are requested.
The casing ID is also used to represent the inside diameter of the wellbore in the event of an openhole
completion. There is no differentiation made between flow through openhole and flow through casing.
Note: In the petroleum industry the nominal casing size refers to the outside diameter of the casing. The ID
depends on the OD and the weight (linear density) of the casing.
DEFAULT: none
Casing OD
Casing OD is the outside diameter of the casing. This value is not used in any calculations but will appear
on printed reports.
56
The correlations that can be used to calculate the Oil Compressibility are:
Datum (MD)
The datum is a reference point for calculations. Calculations are either done from the sandface to the
datum or from the datum to the wellhead.
This is the user-defined Measured Depth (MD) in a well. In the wellbore, the pressure drop is calculated
from the specified Datum to the wellhead. The user may define the Datum to be located at any point in the
horizontal section that allows the flexibility to calculate the pressure drop from any desired location.
DEFAULT: none
57
Density
Density (
For multiphase flow, the calculations become even more complicated because
1 is calculated
from the in-situ mixture density, which in turn is calculated from the "liquid holdup". The liquid
holdup, or in-situ liquid volume fraction, is obtained from one of the multiphase flow correlations,
and it depends on several parameters including the gas and liquid rates, and the pipe diameter.
Note that this is in contrast to the way density is calculated for the friction pressure loss.
Density, Condensate
Condensate Density is the specific gravity in API of condensate at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60
API to 40 API. The API Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of
the condensate.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, this variable is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined
Gas Rate which are then used in single-phase pressure drop calculations.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
Stock Tank Density (kg/m3) = 1000 * (141.5 / (API + 131.5))
UNITS: API (kg/m3) DEFAULT: None
Density, Gas
The density of a gas varies with the in-situ conditions of pressure and temperature along a pipe. The gas
density is calculated from the "real gas" law :
58
where:
G = Gas Gravity
P = Pressure (psia)
Z = supercompressibility factor
T = temperature (R)
The gas density is used in calculating the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic head.
Density, Mixture
The mixture density is a measure of the in-situ density of the mixture, and is defined as follows:
= mixture density
= liquid density
= gas density
Note: The mixture density is defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL), whereas the no-slip density is
defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL).
Density, No-Slip
The "no-slip" density is the density that is calculated with the assumption that both phases are moving at
the same in-situ velocity. The no-slip density is therefore defined as follows:
= gas density
= liquid density
NS
= no-slip density
59
Note: The no-slip density is defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL), whereas the mixture density is
defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL).
Elevation
This is the elevation of the pipe over which the pressure drop is calculated. A positive elevation represents
flow uphill. A negative elevation represents downhill flow. An elevation of zero (0) represents a horizontal
pipe.
Erosional Velocity
When fluid flows through a pipe at high velocities, erosion of the pipe can occur. Erosion can occur when
the fluid velocity through a pipe is greater than the calculated erosional velocity.
60
where:
CL- input liquid volume fraction
CG - input gas volume fraction
NS
- liquid density
- gas density
where:
QL- liquid rate at prevailing pressure and temperature
QGBG- gas rate at prevailing pressure and temperature
VSL - superficial liquid velocity
VSG - superficial gas velocity
Vm - mixture velocity
Flow, %
This is the amount of the total flow that enters a particular set of perforations.
Flow Efficiency
Flow efficiency is a tuning parameter used to match calculated pressures to measured pressures. These
two often differ as most calculations involve unknowns, approximations, assumptions, or measurement
errors. When measured pressures are available for comparison with calculated values, the Flow Efficiency
can be used to obtain a match between the two.
If measured pressures are not available for comparison, then the default value (100%) should be used.
Flow Efficiency adjusts the correlation such that decreasing the flow efficiency increases the pressure loss.
Efficiencies greater than 100% are possible. Low efficiencies could be a result of roughness caused by
61
factors such as corrosion, scale, sulfur or calcium deposition and restrictions. Restrictions in a wellbore
may be caused by downhole equipment, profiles, etc. Low efficiencies could also be the result of liquid
loading. Flow efficiencies less than 50% or greater than 150% should be treated with caution.
The flow efficiency is applied to both the hydrostatic and friction components of the pressure loss equation.
Under static (no-flow) conditions the flow efficiency is not applied to the correlations. In this case, a match
between measured and calculated pressures may be obtained by adjusting the fluid gravity or
temperatures, as appropriate.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell divides the whole length of pipe into many segments (see Pressure Loss Calculation
Procedure). The flow efficiency is applied to each segment and affects the inlet/outlet pressure of that
segment, and hence the in situ fluid densities. Therefore, a simple one step application of the flow
efficiency to the pressure loss over the whole length of pipe will not produce the same results as those of
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell.
UNITS: %
DEFAULT: 100%
UNITS: Bbl/Bbl (m 3 /m 3 )
where:
= pressure loss due to friction
f = Fanning friction factor
63
= in-situ density
V2 = the square of the in-situ velocity
L = length of pipe segment
g = acceleration of gravity
D = pipe internal diameter
In the above equation, the variables f, Rho and V2 require special discussion, as follows
UNITS: Scf/Bbl (m 3 /m 3 )
DEFAULT: 0
UNITS: None
References:
Dranchuck, P.M., R. A. Purvis and D. B. Robinson (1974). Computer Calculation of Natural Gas
Compressibility Factors Using the Standing and Katz Correlations, Inst. Of Pet. Tech., IP-74-008.
Gas Rate
This is the daily gas rate. It is typically known from direct measurements. If the gas-oil ratio (GOR) is
known, it must be multiplied by the daily oil rate in order to calculate the daily gas rate. The rate must be at
standard conditions (14.65 psia, 60 F / 101.325 Pa, 15 C).
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). In a horizontal well, the flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points in
the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
Even though the gas flow rate is quoted at Standard Conditions, all calculations in F.A.S.T. VirtuWell use
the volumetric flow rate at the "in-situ" conditions of pressure and temperature at which the pipe segment
is operating. Also, when both gas and oil are flowing in a pipe or wellbore, the gas flow rate is continuously
adjusted to account for "gas coming out of solution from the oil".
DEFAULT: 0
Gas, CO2
Molar Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of CO2 must be between 0% and 80% to be
within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor, and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
64
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
DEFAULT: 0
Gas, H2S
Molar Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of H2S must be between 0% and 80% to be
within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
DEFAULT: 0
Gas, N2
Molar Concentration of Nitrogen in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of compressibility (zfactor) and viscosity. The concentration of Nitrogen must be between 0% and 15% to be within the limits of
the correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
DEFAULT: 0
65
DEFAULT: None
Gravity, Condensate
API Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of condensate at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60 API
to 40 API. The API Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of the
condensate.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, this variable is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined
Gas Rate which are then used in single-phase pressure drop calculations.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
Stock Tank Density (kg/m3) = 1000 * (141.5 / (API + 131.5))
UNITS: API (kg/m3) DEFAULT: None
Gravity, Gas
Gas Gravity is the molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the molar mass of air
(28.94).
Gas Gravity = (Molar Mass of Gas) / (Molar Mass of Air)
It ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas (mostly methane) to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas (includes
CO2 and H2S concentration). The Gas Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory gas analysis.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, Gas Gravity affects three variables namely compressibility (z-factor), Gas viscosity
and gas density.
The effects on supercompressibility and viscosity are not very significant. However, the effect on density is
significant in two ways. It affects the friction pressure drop to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic
pressure drop directly i.e. doubling the Gas Gravity doubles the density and therefore doubles the
hydrostatic pressure drop.
66
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
The following table shows some gas gravities of some common gasses.
Molar Mass
Gas type
(g/mol)
Gas Gravity of
Pure Gas
Air
28.97
1.00
Methane
16.04
0.55
Nitrogen (N2)
28.01
0.97
44.01
1.52
34.08
1.18
UNITS: None
DEFAULT: none
Gravity, Water
Specific Gravity is defined as the density of the liquid divided by the density of water at standard conditions
(62.3 lb/ft3, 1000 kg/m3). The gravity of pure water is therefore 1.0. Often oilfield waters are saline and
have a specific gravity slightly greater than 1.0.
The primary effect of water gravity is on the density of water, which in turn affects the hydrostatic pressure
difference.
UNITS: None
DEFAULT: None
DEFAULT: 0
67
reference point (inlet higher vertically than outlet, or outlet higher than inlet). UNDER ALL
CIRCUMSTANCES, irrespective of what sign convention is used, the contribution of the hydrostatic
pressure calculation must be such that it will tend to make the pressure at the vertically-lower end higher
than that at the upper end.
The hydrostatic pressure difference is calculated as follows:
where:
68
q = flow rate
Pe = Reservoir pressure at external boundary
Pwf = flowing bottomhole pressure
This relationship was developed from Darcys law for the steady state radial flow of a single,
incompressible liquid.
Vogel IPR
Vogel showed that as depletion proceeds in a solution-gas drive reservoir the productivity of a typical well
decreases, primarily because the reservoir pressure is reduced and because the increasing gas saturation
causes greater resistance to oil flow.
The IPR for water is a straight line, whose slope is the inverse of the Productivity Index. The IPR for oil is a
straight line above the Bubble Point Pressure, and a curve below that. The curve is generated using
Vogels (1968) equation. Vogels IPR equation can be written as follows:
Reservoir Pressure Below the Bubble Point Pressure
69
70
The input volume fractions, CL and CG, are known quantities, and are often used as correlating variables in
empirical multiphase correlations.
where:
AL = cross-sectional area occupied by the liquid phase
A = total cross-sectional area of the pipe
where
where:
= pressure (psia)
The interfacial tension becomes zero at miscibility pressure, and for most systems this will be at any
pressure greater than about 5000 psia. Once the correction factor becomes zero (at about 3977 psia), 1
dyne/cm is used for calculations.
71
where
DEFAULT: 0
72
DEFAULT: none
Pipe
ID
Pipe ID is the Inside Diameter of the pipe. This value is used to calculate the area of flow through the pipe.
In the petroleum industry the nominal pipe size refers to the average diameter of the pipe. The inside
diameter (ID) and the outside diameter (OD) depend on the weight (linear density) of the pipe.
Length
This is the length of the pipe over which the pressure drop is calculated. A length equal to the elevation
represents a vertical pipe.
DEFAULT: none
Perforations, Bottom
This is the bottom of a perforated zone. This is measured from the wellhead to the perforation by
measured depth.
73
DEFAULT: none
Perforations, Top
Top - This is the top of a perforated zone. This is measured from the wellhead to the perforation by
measured depth.
Pressure, Inlet
This is the pressure at the inlet to the pipe. It can be measured directly and used to calculate an outlet
pressure, or it can be calculated from a known outlet pressure. All pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
Note: If all necessary information has been entered and no inlet pressure has been calculated, parts of the
information may be invalid. For example, the outlet pressure may be too low to compensate for the
pressure drop in the pipe and may cause the inlet pressure to be less than 0 which is physically
impossible. For such a situation the inlet pressure will be left blank.
Pressure, Outlet
This is the pressure at the outlet of the pipe. It can be measured directly and used to calculate the
pressure at the inlet to the pipe, or it can be calculated from a known inlet pressure. All pressures are in
absolute (not gauge).
Note: If all necessary information has been entered and no outlet pressure has been calculated, parts of
the information may be invalid. For example, the inlet pressure may be too low to support the pressure
drop in the pipe and may cause the outlet pressure to be less than 0 which is physically impossible. For
such a situation the outlet pressure will be left blank.
Pressure, Reservoir
The stabilized shut-in pressure in the reservoir. This pressure is used to construct the Inflow Performance
Relationship (IPR) in the case of an oil well and the Absolute Open Flow (AOF) in the case of a gas well.
On both curves, the reservoir pressure corresponds to a flow rate of zero. For a well that is recently on
production, the current reservoir pressure may be taken to equal the initial pressure of the reservoir. For a
well that has been on production for a long time, the current reservoir pressure is less than the initial
reservoir pressure. It may be determined from a buildup test by extrapolating the shut-in pressures and
taking into account the reservoir shape.
DEFAULT: 0
Pressure, Sandface
This is the pressure at the sandface (MPP) for a vertical well or at the Datum for a horizontal well. It is a
flowing pressure if the well is flowing and a shut-in pressure if the well is not flowing. It can be measured
directly and used to calculate a wellhead pressure, or it can be calculated from a known wellhead
pressure. All pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
74
DEFAULT: 0
Pressure, Separator
The separator pressure is the pressure in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the recombination
calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate and the
recombined gas gravity.
UNITS: psia (kPaA) DEFAULT: 100 psia
Pressure, Shut In
This is the shut-in pressure at the wellhead or the sandface. This corresponds to the pressure when there
is no flow through the wellhead.
Pressure, Test
Often, an AOF is not available for a well. However, test flow rates and the corresponding flowing pressures
are easily obtainable. The SF/WH AOF page in F.A.S.T. Virtuwell will calculate an AOF given a test rate
and pressure (either at sandface or at the wellhead). Also necessary is the shut-in pressure of the well
(from a Static Gradient) and a value for n. The flowing test pressure must be in absolute (not gauge).
Pressure, Wellhead
This is the pressure at the wellhead. It is flowing pressure if the well is flowing and a shut-in pressure if the
well is not flowing. It is typically known from direct measurements or can be calculated from sandface. If
known, it is used to calculate the sandface pressure as well as to construct tubing performance curves. All
pressures are in absolute (not gauge).
Note: If all necessary information has been entered and no wellhead pressure has been calculated, parts
of the information may be invalid. For example, the sandface pressure may be too low to support the
pressure drop in the well and may cause the wellhead pressure to be less than 0 which is physically
impossible. For such a situation the wellhead pressure will be left blank.
DEFAULT: 0
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Rate, Oil
This is the daily oil or condensate rate. It is typically known from direct measurements. If the Gas-Oil Ratio
or condensate-gas ratio is available, it must be multiplied by the known daily gas rate to calculate the daily
oil or condensate rate. The oil rate is at stock tank conditions.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). In a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points
in the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
DEFAULT: 0
Rate, Test
Often, an AOF is not available for a well. However, test flow rates and the corresponding flowing pressures
are easily obtainable. The SF/WH AOF page in F.A.S.T. Virtuwell will calculate an AOF given a test rate
and pressure (either at sandface or at the wellhead). Also necessary is the shut-in pressure of the well
(from a Static Gradient) and a value for n. The gas rate must be at standard conditions (14.65 psia, 60 F /
101.325 Pa, 15 C).
In order to enter a test rate and pressure on the SF/WH AOF page, the Test Rate/Pressure radio button
must be selected.
Recombination
Most gas-condensate wells are in reality single-phase in the reservoir and in the majority of the wellbore.
The condensation of condensate from the gas takes place either at the separator or very near the
wellhead. The recombination is a calculation procedure which takes the volume of condensate, vapourizes
it, adds it to the gas volume to obtain the raw gas as it existed in the reservoir and the wellbore. For
calculation purposes, this program treats the wellbore calculations as single-phase calculations using the
recombined gas gravity and the recombined gas rate.
where
GRec = specific gravity of reservoir gas (recombined gas gravity)
G = specific gravity of separator gas (measured)
CGR = stock-tank-condensate/separator gas ratio, STB/MMscf
= oil specific gravity (not API gravity)
Qpa = additional gas production (vapour evolved at stock tank), scf/STB
76
where
p = separator pressure (wellhead pressure), psia
T = separator temperature (wellhead temperature), F
= oil API gravity, API
The total wellstream gas flow rate, representing all gas and liquid produced at the surface can be
calculated as follows:
where:
qRec = total wellstream gas flow rate (recombined gas rate), MMscfd
qMeas = measured gas flow rate from separator, MMscfd
Reference:
Lee, John and Wattenbarger, Robert A.: Gas Reservoir Engineering, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.,
Richardson, TX, 1996, 11-15.
Roughness
This is defined as the distance from the peaks to the valleys in pipe wall irregularities. Roughness is used
in the calculation of pressure drop due to friction. For clean, new pipe the roughness is determined by the
method of manufacture and is usually between 0.00055 to 0.0019 inches (0.01397mm to 0.04826mm)
(Cullender and Binckley, 1950, Smith et al. 1954, Smith et al. 1956). For new pipe or tubing used in gas
wells the roughness has been found to be in the order of 0.00060 or 0.00065 inches (0.01524 mm to
0.01651 mm).
Roughness must be between 0 and 0.01 inches (0.254 mm).
Roughness can be used to tune the correlations to measured conditions in a similar way to the Flow
Efficiency. Changes in roughness only affect the friction component of the calculations while the Flow
Efficiency is applied to the friction and hydrostatic components of pressure loss. Roughness does not
affect the calculations for static conditions. In this case, a match between measured and calculated
pressures may be obtained by adjusting the fluid gravity or temperatures, as appropriate.
UNITS: Inches (mm)
77
Static Conditions
Under single-phase conditions, pressures calculated for static (no flow) cases will be dependent only on
the fluids gravity and temperature. Multi-phase systems at static conditions make the assumption that only
one fluid is present. If the system contains gas, at static conditions it is assumed that the only fluid present
is gas. Thus a multi-phase static system containing gas will give the same results as a single-phase gas
system. In an oil/water system at static conditions (zero flow rates), the program will not calculate a
pressure drop. In order to simulate static conditions in this case, one fluid must be chosen preferentially
over the other and modeled in a single-phase system.
The Flow Efficiency and Roughness are not applied to static conditions. In this case, a match between
measured and calculated pressures may be obtained by adjusting the dominant fluid gravity or
temperatures for the case being considered.
Surface Tension
The surface tension (interfacial tension) between the gas and liquid phases has very little effect on twophase pressure drop calculations. However a value is required for use in calculating certain dimensionless
numbers used in some of the pressure drop correlations. Empirical relationships for estimating the gas/oil
interfacial tension and the gas/water interfacial tension were presented by Baker and Swerdloff1, Hough2
and by Beggs3.
Temperature Gradient
A straight line temperature gradient is assumed for all calculations. This is considered to be a very
reasonable assumption in most circumstances.
Temperature, Inlet
This is the temperature at the inlet to the pipe. It is used in conjunction with the outlet temperature to
calculate the average temperature within the pipe. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity,
however the calculated pressure drops are not very sensitive to small changes of this parameter. No
distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
78
This is the fluid temperature used when the minimum gas rate to lift water or condensate is being
calculated.
UNITS: F ( C)
DEFAULT: none
Temperature, Outlet
This is the temperature at the outlet of the pipe. It is used in conjunction with the Inlet Temperature to
calculate the average temperature within the pipe. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity,
however the calculated pressure drops are not very sensitive to small changes of this parameter. No
distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
Temperature, Reservoir
The reservoir temperature (sometimes referred to as the formation temperature) increases with reservoir
depth. Locations around the world have different geothermal gradients.
Along with oil gravity, the reservoir temperature is probably the most significant variable in characterizing
the PVT and fluid properties of oil (surprisingly, the Hanafy et al correlation is independent of reservoir
temperature).
UNITS: deg F or deg C
DEFAULT: None
Temperature, Sandface
This is the temperature at the sandface, and is used to calculate the temperature gradient within the
wellbore. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity, however the calculated pressure drops are not
very sensitive to small changes in temperature. A reasonable estimate of reservoir temperature is sufficient
in most cases. No distinction is made between flowing and shut in temperatures.
UNITS: F ( C)
DEFAULT: none
Temperature, Separator
The separator temperature is the temperature in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the
recombination calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate
and the recombined gas gravity.
UNITS: F (C) DEFAULT: 100 F
Temperature, Wellhead
This is the temperature at the wellhead, and is used to calculate the temperature gradient within the
wellbore. This has an effect on fluid density and viscosity, however the calculated pressure drops are not
very sensitive to small changes of this parameter.
Note: The wellhead temperature can be very different during flow or shut in. Usually the wellhead
temperature will be higher during flow than during shut in, due to the flow of warmer fluids from the
reservoir. A reasonable estimate of flowing wellhead temperature is sufficient in most cases, however care
must be taken when specifying the wellhead temperature during shut in. Measured wellhead temperatures
can vary significantly depending on the time of day (or night) or time of year (summer or winter). These
potentially large swings in temperature (150F is not unusual) only affect the wellhead and approximately
10 feet (3 m) into the ground. Below this depth, the ground and wellbore fluids are virtually unaffected.
Rather than using a wellhead temperature, it is better to use the mean ground temperature for static
calculations.
79
UNITS: F ( C)
DEFAULT: none
Toe (MD)
This is the measured depth from the wellhead to the toe (end) of the horizontal well. The length of the
horizontal portion of the wellbore is the difference between the measured depth of the toe and the
measured depth of the heel.
DEFAULT: 0
Tubing ID
This is the inside diameter of the tubing used in the wellbore. This value is used to calculate the area of
flow when production is directed through the tubing. Complex tubing can be entered in the common
wellbore problem tab.
Note: In the petroleum industry the nominal tubing size refers to the outside diameter NOT the inside
diameter. The ID depends on the Tubing OD (outside diameter) and the weight (linear density) of the
tubing.
For Example,
2-3/8" tubing, (grade J-55, weight 4.70 lb/ft) has 1.995" ID and 2.375" OD.
2-7/8" tubing, (grade J-55, weight 6.40 lb/ft) has 2.441" ID and 2.875" OD.
3-1/2" tubing, (grade J-55, weight 9.30 lb/ft) has 2.992" ID and 3.500" OD.
DEFAULT: none
Tubing Length
Length of individual pieces of tubing in the wellbore.
Tubing OD
The Tubing OD is the Outer Diameter of the tubing used in the wellbore. This value is used along with the
Casing ID to calculate the area of flow when production is directed through the annulus. Complex tubing
can be entered in the common wellbore problem tab.
80
Note: In the petroleum industry the nominal tubing size refers to the outside diameter of the tubing.
The Tubing ID (inside diameter) depends on the OD and the weight (linear density) of the tubing.
DEFAULT: none
V2
This is the square of the velocity (V). The velocity is obtained by dividing the volumetric flow rate by the
pipe cross-sectional area. In multi-phase flow this is termed the "superficial velocity".
For a single phase liquid, V equals the liquid velocity.
For a single phase gas, V varies with pressure, and the calculation must be done sequentially in small
steps to allow the velocity to vary with pressure.
For multi-phase flow, V is the superficial mixture velocity, which is calculated by prorating the superficial
velocity of each individual phase in the ratio of the "input" volume fraction and NOT of the "in-situ" volume
fraction.
Velocity, Mixture
Mixture Velocity is another parameter often used in multiphase flow correlations. The mixture velocity is
given by:
where:
Vm = mixture velocity
Vsl = superficial liquid velocity
Vsg = superficial gas velocity
81
Velocity, Superficial
The superficial velocity of each phase is defined as the volumetric flow rate of the phase divided by the
cross-sectional area of the pipe (as though that phase alone was flowing through the pipe). Therefore:
and
where:
Bg = gas formation volume factor
D = inside diameter of pipe
QG = measured gas flow rate (at standard conditions)
QL = liquid flow rate (at prevailing pressure and temperature)
Vsg = superficial gas velocity
VSL = superficial liquid velocity
Since the liquid phase accounts for both oil and water:
and the gas phase accounts for the solution gas going in and out of the oil as a function of pressure:
82
The oil, water and gas formation volume factors (Bo, Bw and Bg) are used to convert the flow rates from
standard (or stock tank) conditions to the prevailing pressure and temperature conditions in the pipe.
Since the actual cross-sectional area occupied by each phase is less than the cross-sectional area of the
entire pipe the superficial velocity is always less than the true in-situ velocity of each phase.
Viscosity, Gas
The viscosity of a fluid refers to the resistance to flow. It causes the pressure to drop in the direction of
flow. It is used in the calculation of the "friction pressure drop". For gas, the viscosity varies with gas
gravity, temperature and pressure. Usually it is not measured, but is obtained from the Carr, Kobayashi
and Burrows correlations, which include corrections for H2S, CO2 and N2. For sour gases, this correlation is
preferred to the Lee, Gonzalez and Eakin formulation (which does NOT account for H2S, CO2 and N2).
Viscosity enters into the definition of Reynolds Number, which is used to obtain the friction factor from the
Fanning friction factor charts.
Typically, gas viscosity is in the range of 0.015 to 0.03 centipoise (cp).
UNITS: cp (mPa.s)
Viscosity, Mixture
The mixture viscosity is a measure of the in-situ viscosity of the mixture and can be defined in several
different ways. In general, unless otherwise specified,
is defined as follows.
where:
EL = in-situ liquid volume fraction (liquid holdup)
EG = in-situ gas volume fraction
m
= mixture viscosity
= liquid viscosity
= gas viscosity
Note: The mixture viscosity is defined in terms of in-situ volume fractions (EL), whereas the no-slip viscosity
is defined in terms of input volume fractions (CL).
Viscosity, No-Slip
The "no-slip" viscosity is the viscosity that is calculated with the assumption that both phases are moving
at the same in-situ velocity. There are several definitions of "no-slip" viscosity. In general, unless otherwise
specified,
NS
is defined as follows.
where:
83
=no-slip viscosity
= liquid viscosity
= gas viscosity
Viscosity, Oil
This is the value of the oil viscosity at in-situ conditions. It is a very strong function of temperature, API
Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and Solution Gas-Oil Ratio.
Below the bubble point pressure, the amount of gas dissolved in the oil increases as the pressure is
increased. This causes the in-situ oil viscosity to decrease significantly. Above the bubble point pressure,
oil viscosity increases minimally with increasing pressure.
The oil viscosity can be measured as a function of pressure in most PVT laboratory measurements. In the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program it is calculated from the correlation of "Beggs and Robinson" at the
appropriate pressure and temperature. These correlations are very sensitive to solution gas-oil ratio and to
oil gravity. The oil viscosity can vary from 10 000 cp for a heavy oil to less than 1 cp for a light oil.
The oil viscosity has a very strong effect on the friction pressure loss, but no effect on the hydrostatic
pressure loss.
UNITS: cp (mPa.s)
Water Cut
This is the water produced at surface as a percentage of the total liquids produced at surface. It is typically
known from direct measurements. If the daily water rate is known, it must be divided by the daily total
liquid rate (oil + water) to obtain the water cut.
If IPR information has been given, the water cut is calculated from the instantaneous (and varying)
oil/water rates obtained from their respective IPRs to construct the Tubing Performance Curves.
UNITS: %
DEFAULT: 0
Water Rate
This is the daily water rate. It is typically known from direct measurements. If the water cut or Water-gas
ratio is known, it must be multiplied with the daily total liquid or gas rate to calculate the daily water rate.
The water rate is at stock tank conditions.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWelltm treats all flow within the vertical wellbore as originating from the MPP (Mid Point
Perforations). In a horizontal well, the total flow is divided so that it enters at ten (10) equally spaced points
in the horizontal portion of the wellbore.
DEFAULT: 0
References:
Carr, N. L., R. Kobayashi and D. B. Burrows (1954). Viscosity of Hydrocarbon Gases under
Fluid Properties
84
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell is designed to calculate multiphase flow effects, and thus allows the user to input the
relevant fluid properties of Gas, Oil (Condensate) and Water.
Gas
The Gas Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include gas gravity, mol% N2, mol% CO2
and mol% H2S. The use of correct gas properties is most important in single phase gas wells and
Gas/Liquid systems with high Gas to Liquid Ratios. These gas properties are used in calculating the gas
density, the compressibility factor (Z) and the gas viscosity at various pressures and temperatures.
Oil
The Oil Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the API Gravity and, in certain
instances, the flowing Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR). The API Gravity is used to determine the Oil Density, the
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, the Oil Viscosity and the Formation Volume Factor at various pressures and
temperatures. The oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or obtained from several published
correlations. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell has a choice of oil properties to choose from. The flowing Gas-Oil Ratio
affects the pressure drop calculations in multiphase flow.
Condensate
The Condensate Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the condensate density,
separator pressure and separator temperature.
Water
The Water Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the Water Gravity and, in
certain instances, the flowing Water-Gas Ratio (WGR). The Water Gravity is used to determine the density
and the viscosity of water at various pressures and temperatures from published correlations. The flowing
water-gas ratio affects the pressure drop calculations in multiphase flow.
The gas, oil and water properties have a significant effect on both the hydrostatic and the friction pressure
losses.
Gas Properties
The Gas Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include:
gas gravity
mol% N2
mol% CO2
mol% H2S
The use of correct gas properties is most important in single phase gas wells and Gas/Liquid systems with
high Gas to Liquid Ratios. These gas properties are used in calculating:
gas density
compressibility factor (Z)
gas viscosity
These, in turn, affect DIRECTLY the calculation of the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic
head.
The Pressure-Volume-Temperature relationship of natural gases is covered in most standard texts. A
convenient reference is the ERCB manual :
Gas Well Testing, Theory and Practice. Fourth Edition, 1979 (Metric), 1975 (Field). Energy Resources
Conservation Board, Alberta, Canada.
85
Gas Gravity
Gas Gravity is the molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the molar mass of air
(28.94). It ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas (mostly methane) to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas
(includes CO2 and H2S concentration). The Gas Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory gas
analysis.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, Gas Gravity affects three variables namely compressibility factor (Z-factor), gas
viscosity, and gas density.
The effects on compressibility (Z) and viscosity are not very significant. However, the effect on density is
significant in two ways. It affects the friction pressure drop to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic
pressure drop directly i.e. doubling the Gas Gravity doubles the density and therefore doubles the
hydrostatic pressure drop.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNITS: None
LIMITS: 0.5 < G < 1.5
N2
Molar Concentration of Nitrogen in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of compressibility
factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of Nitrogen must be between 0% and 15% to be within
the limits of the correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the
calculations, however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNITS: Percent (%)
DEFAULT: 0
CO2
Molar Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of CO2 must be between 0% and 80% to
be within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor, and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNITS: Percent (%)
DEFAULT: 0
H2S
Molar Concentration of Hydrogen Sulfide in the gas stream. It has an effect on the calculation of
compressibility factor (z-factor) and viscosity. The concentration of H2S must be between 0% and 80% to
be within the limits of the correlations for the z-factor and between the limits of 0 and 15% for the viscosity
correlations. For values outside of this range F.A.S.T. VirtuWell will still complete the calculations,
however results should be used with caution.
When the parameter name is displayed in yellow this a warning that the entered value is outside the range.
UNITS: Percent (%)
86
DEFAULT: 0
Gas Density
The density of a gas varies with the in-situ conditions of pressure and temperature along a pipe. The gas
density is calculated from the "real gas" law :
where:
G = Gas Gravity
P = Pressure (psia)
z = compressibility factor
T = temperature (R)
The gas density is used in calculating the pressure drops caused by friction and by hydrostatic head.
UNITS: lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
Oil Properties
In this document, the word "oil" is used interchangeably with the word "condensate".
The Oil (Condensate) Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include the API Gravity (Oil
Density) and, in certain instances, the flowing Gas-Oil Ratio (GOR).
Although every oil has its unique PVT and flowing characteristics, the properties that affect the pressure
loss in pipe flow can usually be characterized by the single variable, API Gravity. It can be correlated to the
Oil Density, the Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, the Oil Viscosity and the Oil Formation Volume Factor at various
pressures and temperatures.
87
These oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or can be obtained from several published
correlations. F.A.S.T. VirtuWell uses the "Beggs and Robinson" (1975) correlation for viscosity, and the
"Vasquez and Beggs" (1980) correlation for the other oil properties.
The oil properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include:
API Gravity
The API Gravity is used to determine the following at various temperatures and pressures:
Oil Density
Solution Gas-Oil Ratio
Oil Viscosity
Oil Formation Volume Factor
The oil properties can be measured in the laboratory or obtained from several published correlations.
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell uses the "Beggs and Robinson" correlation for viscosity, and the "Vasquez and Beggs"
correlation for the other oil properties. The flowing Gas-Oil Ratio affects the pressure drop calculations in
multiphase flow.
At pressures below the bubble point, the oil viscosity decreases with
increasing pressure where as above the bubble point the viscosity
increases.
Thesolution gas-oil ratio increases with increasing pressure up to the
bubble point and is constant thereafter.
Theoil formation volume factor increases with increasing pressure and
decreases slightly thereafter.
API Gravity
API Gravity is the specific gravity (density) of oil at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60 API
(condensate) to 45 API (light oil) to 20 API (medium density) to 10 API (heavy oil). The API Gravity is
readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of the oil, and is independent of the
operating pressure or temperature, unlike the in-situ oil density that is very dependent on operating
pressure and temperature conditions.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, this variable is the primary variable used for calculating the oil properties at the
required pressures and temperatures. API Gravity affects four variables namely:
88
Oil viscosity
Solution gas-oil ratio
Oil formation volume factor
Oil density (in situ)
The primary effect of API Gravity is on the in-situ oil density. The density affects the friction pressure drop
to some extent, but it affects the hydrostatic pressure drop DIRECTLY.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
89
Oil Viscosity
This is the value of the oil viscosity at in-situ conditions. It is a very strong function of temperature, API
Gravity (Stock Tank Oil Density) and Solution Gas-Oil Ratio.
Below the bubble point pressure, the amount of gas dissolved in the oil increases as the pressure is
increased. This causes the in-situ oil viscosity to decrease significantly. Above the bubble point pressure,
oil viscosity increases minimally with increasing pressure.
The oil viscosity can be measured as a function of pressure in most PVT laboratory measurements. In the
F.A.S.T. VirtuWell program it is calculated from the correlation of "Beggs and Robinson" at the
appropriate pressure and temperature. These correlations are very sensitive to solution gas-oil ratio and to
oil gravity. The oil viscosity can vary from 10 000 cp for a heavy oil to less than 1 cp for a light oil.
The oil viscosity has a very strong effect on the friction pressure loss, but no effect on the hydrostatic
pressure difference.
UNITS: cp (mPa.s)
DEFAULT: Beggs and Robinson correlation
Condensate Properties
90
The Condensate Properties that can be entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell include:
Condensate Density
Separator Pressure
Separator Temperature
Condensate-Gas Ratio (CGR)
The Condensate Properties that are entered into F.A.S.T. VirtuWell are used to calculate a Recombined
Gas Gravity and a Recombined Gas Rate. These are then used in single-phase pressure drop
calculations. A gas-condensate system is treated as a single-phase system with a recombined gas gravity
and a recombined gas rate.
See Also: Recombination
Condensate Density
Condensate Density is the specific gravity in API of condensate at stock tank conditions. It ranges from 60
API to 40 API. The API Gravity is readily obtained from any laboratory oil analysis. It is a fixed property of
the condensate.
In F.A.S.T. VirtuWell, this variable is used to calculate the Recombined Gas Gravity and the Recombined
Gas Rate which are then used in single-phase pressure drop calculations.
The conversion from API Gravity (field units) to Stock Tank Oil Density (metric units) is:
Stock Tank Density (kg/m3) = 1000 * (141.5 / (API + 131.5))
UNITS: API (kg/m3)
DEFAULT: None
Separator Pressure
The separator pressure is the pressure in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the recombination
calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate and the
recombined gas gravity.
UNITS: psia (kPaA)
DEFAULT: 100 psia
Separator Temperature
The separator temperature is the temperature in the separator or at wellhead. It is used in the
recombination calculations to calculate the vapour equivalent of the condensate, the recombined gas rate
and the recombined gas gravity.
UNITS: F (C)
DEFAULT: 100 F
91
DEFAULT: 0
Water Properties
Currently, water gravity is the only property that can be entered, but water can potentially have a large
effect on a system.
Water Gravity
Specific Gravity is defined as the density of the liquid divided by the density of water at standard conditions
(62.3 lb/ft3, 1000 kg/m3). The gravity of pure water is therefore 1.0. Often oilfield waters are saline and
have a specific gravity slightly greater than 1.0.
The primary effect of water gravity is on the density of water, which in turn affects the hydrostatic pressure
difference.
UNITS: None
DEFAULT: 1
92
In the case where there is no user selected value, the Rs value will be calculated using the correlation
selected for Bo and Rs in the fluid properties tab.
In the correlation for oil viscosity at the bubble point, the oil specific gravity must be less than one in order
to prevent division by zero in the equation. In order to handle this, we have added a limit that the oil
gravity, in
, must be greater than 10 (specific gravity would then equal 1).
93
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
P = reservoir pressure, psia (14.7 5015)
Pbbubble point pressure, psia (107 4315)
Rssolution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (24 1901)
T = reservoir temperature, F (75 240)
= gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.752 1.367)
= oil specific gravity (14.3 44.6 degrees API)
= relative temperature, (T+ 459.67)/459.67). (T is in F)
= oil viscosity above the bubble point, cp (0.13 71.0)
= oil viscosity below the bubble point, cp (0.13 77.4)
= bubble point oil viscosity, cp (0.13 17.9)
Reference
S.A. Khan, M.A. Al-Marhoun, S.O. Duffuaa, and S.A. Abu-Khamsin. "Viscosity Correlations for Saudi
Arabian Crude Oils," SPE Paper No. 15720, 1987.
94
Where
Extra-Heavy oils: Modified Standings solution gas-oil ratio correlation, reversed to solve for the bubble
point pressure.
95
Solution Gas-Oil-Ratio
Heavy oils: Modified Vasquez-Begg's correlation
Where
Undersaturated:
Oil Compressibility
Undersaturated:
Heavy oils: Modified Vasquez-Begg's correlation
96
Gas saturated:
The derivatives dBo/dRs and dRs/dP where taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Oil Viscosity
Dead Oil:
Heavy-oils: Modified Egbogah-Jacks correlation
Gas saturated:
Heavy Oils: Modified Kartoatmodjos Correlation
Where
Where
97
Nomenclature
If available, the limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
API = oil gravity,
(6 22.3)
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB (1.057 1.362)
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
Co = oil compressibility,
(3.02 x 10-5 4.29 x 10-5)
P = reservoir pressure, psia (1038.49 7411.54)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia (208.86 4021.96)
Psp = separator pressure, psia (14.5 752.2)
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (17.21 640.25)
T = reservoir temperature,
(131.4 250.7)
Tsp = separator pressure, psia (59 177.8)
X = intermediate variable
Y = intermediate variable
= gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.623 1.517)
= gas specific gravity at separator pressure of 114.7 psia
= undersaturated oil viscosity, cp (2.4 354.6)
= dead-oil or gas-free oil viscosity, cp (7.7 1386.9)
= gas-saturated oil viscosity, cp (2.1 295.9)
Reference
Giambattista De Ghetto, Francesco Paone and Marco Villa. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations
for Heavy and Extra Heavy Oils," SPE 30316, 1995.
98
Note that the reservoir pressure and the bubble point pressure used in the reduced pressure equation are
in units of psig.
Where
. If the value of
99
Where
oR
Where
po
is calculated through iteration using the following equations. The calculations are done ten times. The
values from the ninth and tenth calculations are averaged to give you a final value for
Undersaturated:
100
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are in two tables after the list of symbols. One set of
limits was used to develop the solution gas-oil ratio correlation, the other used to develop the bubble point
pressure correlation.
API = oil gravity, degrees API
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
P = reservoir pressure, psia
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia
Pr = reduced pressure, psig/psig
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
Rsb = solution gas-oil ratio at the bubble point, scf/STB
Rsr = reduced solution gas-oil ratio,
T = reservoir temperature, degrees F
X = intermediate variable
= gas specific gravity (air = 1))
= pseudo liquid density at reservoir pressure and standard temperature, 60 degrees F, lbm/cu ft
po = pseudo liquid density at standard conditions, lbm/cu ft
STO = stock tank oil density, lbm/cu ft
bs
Reference
J. Velarde, T.A. Blasingame and W.D. McCain, Jr. "Correlation of Black Oil Properties at Pressures Below
Bubble Point Pressure A New Approach," The Petroleum Society 97-93, 1997.
101
Where
Where
Where
C1 = 2.6
C2= 1.187
C3 = -11.513
C4 = -8.98x10-5
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
A = intermediate variable
API = oil gravity, degrees API (16 58)
102
B = intermediate variable
P = reservoir pressure, psia (0 5250)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (20 2070)
T = reservoir temperature, F (70 295)
X = intermediate variable
Y = intermediate variable
Z = intermediate variable
= oil viscosity, cp
ob = oil viscosity at the bubble point, cp
oD = dead oil viscosity, cp
Reference
H.D. Beggs and J.R. Robinson. "Estimating the Viscosity of Crude Oil Systems," JPT 1140-41, September
1975.
Where
The coefficients C1, C2 and C3 are the same as for the bubble point pressure equation.
Where
103
Undersaturated:
Oil Compressibility
Undersaturated:
Where
A1 = -1433.0
A2 = 5.0
A3 = 17.2
A4 = -1180.0
A5 = 12.61
A6 = 105
Gas saturated:
The derivatives dBo / dRs and dRs/dP where taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
API = oil gravity, degrees API (15.3 59.5)
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
P = reservoir pressure, psia (140.7 9514.7)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
104
Reference
M.E. Vazquez and H.D. Beggs. "Correlations for Fluid Physical Property Prediction," JPT 968-70, June
1980.
Where
Where
Undersaturated:
105
Oil Compressibility
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
The derivatives dBo/dRs and dRs/dP were taken from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
API = oil gravity, degrees API (16.3 45.0)
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/scf
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB (1.1178 1.6229)
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
co = oil compressibility, psia-1 (3.507 x 10-5 2.464 x 10-5)
P = reservoir pressure, psia (1700 10692)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia (1574 6523)
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (217 1406)
T = reservoir temperature, F (114 288)
X = intermediate variable
g = gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.5781 0.8519)
o = oil specific gravity (water = 1)
Reference
G.E. Petrosky Jr. and F.F. Farshad. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations for Gulf of Mexico Crude
Oils," SPE 26644, 1993.
Ng and Egbogah
The Ng and Egbogah correlation contains two methods for calculating dead oil viscosity, a modified Beggs
and Robinson correlation and a correlation that uses the pour point temperature. When the Ng and
Egbogah correlation has been selected or is being displayed on the comparison page, an input cell for the
pour point temperature will appear on the left side of the screen. If a pour point temperature is input, the
program uses the pour point correlation to calculate the viscosity of dead oil.
Pour point temperature is the lowest temperature at which the oil is observed to flow when cooled and
examined under conditions prescribed in ASTM D97. The purpose of introducing the pour point
temperature into the correlation is to reflect the chemical composition of crude oil into the viscosity
correlation.
106
The pour point temperature parameter entry is located in the options menu under pressure loss correlation
parameters.
If a pour point temperature is not entered, the program uses the modified Beggs and Robinson correlation
to calculate the viscosity of dead oil. To obtain the viscosity for live oil, the dead oil correlations are used
with the Beggs and Robinson viscosity correlation. The data used to derive the correlations was taken
from the Reservoir Fluids Analysis Laboratory of AGAT Engineering Ltd., using a total of 394 oil systems.
In order to calculate the viscosity, the Ng and Egbogah correlation requires a solution gas-oil ratio (Rs).
107
Gas-Saturated Viscosity
Where
Undersaturated Viscosity
Where:
C1 = 2.6
C2 = 1.187
C3 = -11.513
C4 = -8.9810-5
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
API = oil gravity,
(5 - 58)
P = reservoir pressure, psia
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB
T = reservoir temperature,
(15 80)
TF = reservoir temperature,
(70 295)
, (-50 15)
References
Achong, I., "Revised Bean Performance Formula for Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1961
Ashford, F.E. and Pierce, P.E., "Determining Multiphase Pressure Drops and Flow Capacities in Down-Hole Safety Valves", SPE Paper No. 5161,
J. Pet. Tech., Sep 1975, 1145
Baxendell, P.B., "Bean Performance Lake Maracaibo Wells", internal co. report, Shell Oil Co., Houston, TX, Oct 1967
Gilbert, W.E., "Flowing and Gas-Lift Well Performance", Drill. & Prod. Practice, 1954, 126
108
Omana, R., Houssiere, C. Jr., Brown, K.E., Brill, J.P., and Thompson, R.E., "Multiphase Flow Through Chokes", SPE Paper No. 2682, paper
presented at Annual Fall Meeting of the SPE of AIME, Denver, CO, Sep 28 Oct 1, 1969
Ros, N.C.J., "An Analysis of Critical Simultaneous Gas-Liquid Flow Through a Restriction and Its Application to Flowmetering", Appl. Sci. Res. (9),
1960, 374
Undersaturated:
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
API = oil gravity,
(16.5 63.8)
109
Reference
M.B. Standing. "A Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlation for Mixtures of California Oil and Gases,"
Drill. & Prod. Prac., API, 1947.
Where
110
Where
Where
Undersaturated:
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB (1.02 2.42)
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
P = reservoir pressure, psia
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia (107 4315)
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (24 1901)
T = reservoir temperature,
(534.668 699.668)
X = intermediate variable
Y = intermediate variable
g = gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.752 1.367)
o = oil specific gravity (water = 1) (14.3 44.6 degrees API)
Reference
M.A. AL-Marhoun. "Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations for Saudi Crude Oils," SPE 13718, 1985
111
The Glaso correlation contains equations for estimating bubble point pressure, solution gas-oil ratio and oil
formation volume factor for North Sea oils. The author claims that the correlation should be valid for all
types of oil and gas mixtures after correcting for non-hydrocarbons in the surface gases and the
paraffinicity of the oil. According to the author, the correlation more accurately predicts the oil properties of
North Sea oils than the Standing correlation.
Where
Where
Where
112
Undersaturated:
The oil compressibility used in this equation is obtained from the Vazquez and Beggs correlation.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
API = oil gravity, degrees API (22.3 48.1)
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB (1.087 2.588)
Bob = oil formation volume factor at the bubble point, bbl/STB
P = reservoir pressure, psia (400 4000)
Pb = bubble point pressure, psia (150 7127)
Rs = solution gas-oil ratio, scf/STB (90 2637)
T = reservoir temperature,
(80 280)
X = intermediate variable
Y = intermediate variable
g = gas specific gravity (air = 1) (0.650 1.276)
o = oil specific gravity (water = 1) (0.788 0.920)
Reference
Oistein Glaso. "Generalized Pressure-Volume-Temperature Correlations," Journal of Petroleum
Technology, 1980.
113
Undersaturated:
Oil Density
NOTE: the density is calculated in metric units, gm/cc.
Gas saturated:
Undersaturated:
Oil Compressibility
Undersaturated:
This correlation uses only the oil density at the bubble point. Therefore the oil compressibility is constant
for pressures greater than the bubble point.
Gas saturated:
The derivatives
and
Oil Viscosity
This correlation calculates the oil viscosity at any pressure using the corresponding oil density.
Nomenclature
The limits used in the development of the correlation are listed after the symbol.
114
Reference
H.H. Hanafy, S.M. Macary, Y.M. ElNady, A.A. Bayomi and M.H. El Batanony. "A New Approach for
Predicting
Gas Meters
The meters available in the software are:
Gas Properties
Orifice Meter
Critical Flow Prover
Pitot Tube
Bean Choke
Adjustable Choke
Measured Rate
" Integral Orifice
Vcone
Vortex
115
116
The Frac process can be added to any gas meter, augmenting the meters gas properties calculation
engine. Meter gas properties are set to the reservoir gas composition. The meter is positioned to measure
the produced gas from the well (reservoir + Frac. Gas). A real-time gas analysis determines the percent of
Co2 and N2 in the produced gas. The first stage of the Frac. Process calculates the produced gas
properties based on the reservoir gas properties and the percent N2 and Co2 input from the gas analysis.
The produced gas properties are used by the gas meter to calculate the produced gas rate.
The second stage of the Frac Process splits the produced gas rate into the recovered Frac gasses and
reservoir gas. It does this on a volumetric basis utilizing the reservoir gas properties and the results of the
gas analysis.
117
The most common method of measuring gas is through an orifice meter. Gas flows through a piece of
straight pipe with an orifice plate inserted in the middle.
The orifice plate is a steel circular plate with a hole in the middle; the hole is smaller than the internal
diameter of the pipe. The plate is placed perpendicular to the gas flow, and is sealed so that all the gas
flows through the hole. The hole is "tapered", meaning that the edge of the orifice hole is sharp. The plate
must be inserted in such a way as to have the direction of flow of gas from the smaller to larger diameter,
i.e. if the gas is flowing from left to right, the sharp edge of the orifice (the smaller diameter) must be at the
left. Reversing the orifice plate will give an incorrect measurement.
The orifice plate is actually a highly machined component. Its dimensions must adhere to certain
specifications. If the plate is damaged in any way in or around the "hole", it can no longer measure gas
rates with any accuracy, and it must be replaced.
118
The plates come in different sizes for measuring different rates. Each time an orifice plate is changed, the
size of the new plate must be recorded because the orifice size is needed for calculating flow rates.
In addition to knowing the size of the orifice plate, there are other parameters, which also must be known
and reported. The relationship for calculating flow rate, using an orifice meter, is described by the orifice
equation.
Where:
Reference
Orifice Metering of Natural Gas, Gas Measurement Committee Report #3, Page 19, American Gas
Association, 1969.
Orifice Coefficient, C
The orifice coefficient, C, is a variable that accounts for many parameters that are associated with an
orifice meter. As you can see in the equation below, it depends on several factors, ranging from Fb to
Ftf. These factors account for the various meter set-ups, as follows:
the internal diameter of the meter itself - Meter Run Size - (Factor Fb)
the size of the orifice plate - Orifice Diameter -(Factor Fb)
where the pressure is being measured - Location of Pressure Taps - (Factor Fb)
the gas gravity and its composition (Factors Fg and Fpv)
the gas flowing temperature - (Factor Ftf)
the magnitude of the pressure (Factors Fr , Y , Fpv)
the Standard Conditions (base) of Pressure and Temperature (Factors Fpb and
Ftb)
"C" Factor
Name
Contributing Parameters
Fb
Fr
Expansion Factor
Fpb
119
Ftb
Fg
Gas Gravity.
Fpv
Supercompressibility Factor
Ftf
From this equation, "C" appears to be a very complex number. Even though the same orifice may be used
for measuring different streams of gas, the coefficient of that orifice will change to reflect the different
flowing conditions of the different systems.
Before the days of computers, engineers and operators used a complex system of tables to create an
orifice coefficient for each size of orifice and various flowing conditions. FieldNotes does these
calculations automatically, and the correct value of C is always applied to current calculation of gas flow
rates. Some field operators use a "Sony Circular Slide Rule" to calculate gas flow rates. The answers
obtained from this device are only approximate, and may differ from those calculated in the FieldNotes
program.
Gas Vcone
A V-Cone is a type of differential pressure flow meter that uses the same idea as a orifice meter. The main
difference is that instead of a hole in the center of the orifice plate, which the gas flows through, the VCone occupies the center of the pipe forcing gas to flow around it.
120
NOTE: It is very important with a Vcone to have accurate numbers for pipe ID because calculations are
based on the space between the V-Cone and the inside of the pipe.
The Vcone measures the pressures upstream and downstream. Since velocity and pressure are related
(pressure is proportional to velocity squared), the velocity can be calculated from the difference upstream
(P1) and downstream (P2) pressures. As the pressure difference increases so does the velocity (the
velocity will increase much faster). Different size V-Cones will show a different pressure velocity
relationship.
Vcone Shape
The Vcone is shaped, as it is to get a more accurate velocity measurement by measuring the maximum
velocity in the pipe. In a pipe where the flow has not been obstructed or disturbed, the flow will become
"well-developed". During well-developed flow, the velocity at each point will be different. The velocity would
be zero at the wall of the pipe, maximum at the center of the pipe and zero at the wall again. The following
image is a velocity profile for gas flowing in a pipe:
121
This is due to friction at the pipe wall that slows down the fluid as it passes. Since the cone is suspended
in the center of the pipe, it interacts directly with the high velocity region in two ways:
Most piping changes (pumps, tees, elbows, etc) can disturb well-developed flow.
A V-cone overcomes this by reshaping the velocity profile upstream of the cone
by using its contoured shape. As the flow approaches the cone, the flow profile
changes to become a well-developed profile.
The pressure sensor is located in the center of the pipe to provide the highest
velocity measurement.
Equations
The equations used in a Vcone follow the same principle as an orifice meter. The biggest difference is that
an accurate measure of internal diameter is very important. Small errors in the internal diameter are raised
to the second power and so can make a large impact.
And:
Where:
Qa = Actual Volumetric flow rate (see changing actual rates to standard rates)
Cf = flow coefficient of the meter (usually provided by manufacturer)
C = meter constant
D = Pipe internal diameter
d = flow meter diameter
n = a unit conversion constant. 6.3002 for field units. 1.1107 for metric units.
p = density of fluid
122
Gas Properties
The gas property calculations used in Fieldnotes are dependant on user inputs that are used in
correlations. There are several general correlations used in the program.
The different correlations result in Equation of State calculations that differ depending on the inputed
values.
Gas Gravity
The most important gas property that affects the flow rate calculation is the Gas Gravity, G. The calculated
flow rate is inversely proportional to the square root of the gas gravity.
Many equations and hand calculations assume G = 0.6 . FieldNotes does not assume that, and
accounts for the correct gas gravity. Sometimes, during a test, the gas gravity is not known because the
laboratory gas analysis is not available. In such cases it is common practice to assume an approximate
gravity, calculate an approximate flow rate, re-input the corrected gas gravity when it becomes available,
and then re-calculate the correct flow rate.
Gas gravity is the Molar mass (molecular weight) of the natural gas divided by the Molar mass of air
(28.94). It ranges from 0.55 for dry sweet gas to approximately 1.5 for wet, sour gas.
123
UNITS: None
DEFAULT: 0.65
Critical Temperature
The PVT properties of natural gases (viscosity, compressibility, z-factor) are usually obtained from
correlations. These are usually formulated in terms of the reduced variables "reduced temperature" and
"reduced pressure". These reduced variables are defined as:
Reduced Temperature = Temperature / Critical Temperature (Tc)
The critical temperature can be specified, if it is known from the gas analysis, or it can be calculated from
Standings correlation. This correlation requires a knowledge of the gas gravity, and the H2S, CO2 and N2
content. There are two slightly different correlations, one for dry gas and one for condensate gas. The
most commonly used one is for condensate gas, but the differences between these two correlations are
small.
UNITS: R or (K)
Critical Pressure
The PVT properties of natural gases (viscosity, compressibility, z-factor) are usually obtained from
correlations. These are usually formulated in terms of the reduced variables "reduced pressure" and
"reduced temperature". These reduced variables are defined as:
Reduced Pressure = Pressure / Critical Pressure (Pc)
The critical pressure can be specified, if it is known from the gas analysis, or it can be calculated from
Standings correlation. This correlation requires knowledge of the gas gravity, and the H2S, Co2 and N2
content. There are two slightly different correlations, one for dry gas and one for condensate gas. The
most commonly used one is for condensate gas, but the differences between these two correlations are
small.
124
125
Like the orifice meter, the flow prover plates, pressure taps, and piping for the critical flow prover must
meet certain specifications.
Critical flow provers come in two sizes: two-inch and four-inch. The size corresponds to the internal
diameter of the prover. Each flow prover size has a set of orifice plates, each of which has its own
coefficient.
The critical flow prover plate is actually a highly machined component, and its dimensions must adhere to
certain specifications. If the plates orifice is damaged in any way, it can no longer measure gas rates with
any accuracy, and it must be replaced.
where:
Coefficients for the two-inch Prover Coefficients for the four-inch Prover
1/8
6.30
25.86
24.92
3/8
56.68
56.01
101.8
156.1
5/8
154.0
223.7
224.9
304.2
7/8
309.3
396.3
406.7
499.2
1 1/8
520.8
616.4
126
1 1/4
657.5
742.1
1 3/8
807.8
884.3
1 1/2
1002.0
1208.0
1 3/4
1596.0
2566.0
2 1/2
3904.0
Pitot Tubes convert the dynamic flowing pressure of the gas into a gas
flow rate.
The Pitot tube actually measures two pressures. To do this, two concentric tubes are inserted into a flowing
gas line. The inside tube has its end open and points directly upstream. It is in direct contact with the flow
and measures the impact pressure of the gas. Ensure that the Pitot tube is exactly in the center of the pipe
where dynamic pressure is the strongest. The Pitot tube correlations require this position.
The outside concentric tube has its end sealed. Instead it has perforations on the side, and thus, is not be
in direct contact with the force of the flow. It is measuring only the static pressure.
127
The difference between the impact and static pressures is the dynamic pressure. FieldNotes calls it the
"Differential Pressure ". This is similar to the idea behind a manometer.
Pitot tubes are not used that much in todays petroleum industry. However a variation of the pitot tube,
called the "Annubar" is used by a few well testing companies to measure gas rat
The bean choke is used for measurements when conditions require more robust equipment. For example,
if sand is being produced, orifice plates will be eroded very quickly and a bean choke, which is much more
robust, is preferable.
128
where
0.0625
0.88
0.09375
2.74
0.125
6.25
0.188
14.44
0.250
26.51
0.313
43.64
0.375
61.21
0.438
85.13
0.500
112.72
129
0.625
179.74
0.750
260.99
468.99
1.25
737.86
1.5
1067.39
1.75
1457.56
1908.38
2.25
2419.85
2.5
2991.98
2.75
3624.75
4318.17
Source: Diehl, John C., Natural-Gas Handbook: Metric Metal Works, Erie, Pa., 1927. p. 94
130
The adjustable choke is an adjustable valve which is calibrated (in 1/64 of an inch) to show the size of the
valve opening. Simply turning the valve handle can increase the opening from 0 (shut-in) to the maximum.
The calculation of flow rates from the choke settings is approximate and can be obtained from the
following equations and coefficients.
131
1/8
0.1250
0.347
9/64
0.1406
0.444
5/32
0.1563
0.553
11/64
0.1719
0.674
3/16
0.1875
0.802
13/64
0.2031
0.956
7/32
0.2188
1.116
15/64
0.2344
1.288
0.250
1.470
17/64
0.2656
1.667
9/32
0.2813
1.885
19/64
0.2969
2.110
5/16
0.3125
2.340
21/64
0.3281
2.601
11/32
0.3438
2.866
23/64
0.3594
3.144
3/8
0.3750
3.400
25/64
0.3906
3.740
13/32
0.4063
4.063
27/64
0.4219
4.394
7/16
0.4375
4.730
29/64
0.4531
5.101
15/32
0.4688
5.474
31/64
0.4844
5.862
132
0.5000
6.260
9/16
0.5525
8.010
5/8
0.6250
9.980
11/16
0.6875
12.176
0.7500
14.49
64/64
1.0000
25.76
72/64
1.125
32.6025
5/4
1.250
40.459
11/8
1.375
49.048
3/2
1.500
58.463
7/4
1.750
79.770
128/64
2.000
104.382
9/4
2.250
132.298
5/2
2.500
163.518
11/4
2.750
198.042
192.64
3.000
235.869
This table comes from a commonly used adjustable choke meter. The coefficients are essentially
equivalent to those of the bean choke. Because the machining standards may be different among the
manufacturers, users should consult the manufacturer for the exact coefficient of their adjustable choke.
133
Note: The Measured Rate has been modified in FieldNotes Version 3 from FIeldNotes V2.XX. See this link
for more detail: Version 3 changes.
P is pressure
V is volume
T is temperature
1 is the condition of the system at state 1
2 is the condition of the system at state 2
To see how these equations work, take this example: assume a cylinder has a volume of 100 cm3 and a
pressure of 200 kPa. If a piston is pushed into the cylinder so that the volume for gas has decreased to 50
cm3, what would be the new pressure?
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You could devise an experiment to find out the actual answer or you could use the equation. In either case,
the answer would be 400 kPa (P2 = P1 V1 / V2 = 200 100 / 50). However, the equation was much
easier to use than setting up the experiment. In essence, we can actually predict the result of the
experiment without doing the experiment.
The level of thermodynamics used in measuring gas rates is at a much higher level than high school
chemistryand much beyond the scope of the FieldNotes manual. However the scientists and
engineers have developed some fairly straightforward equations to calculate flow rates.
But like the P1V1 = P2V2 equation, the user of this equation must know the values of all the variables
except one in any gas rate equation. This last variable is the flow rate, which is calculated by inserting all
the known values into the equation and working out the math.
In most gas flow rate equations, you must know the value of these parameters to obtain a gas flow rate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
If you are missing any one of these variables, you can not calculate a proper flowrate. As well, the gas
must not have any liquids.
In theory, any piping system can measure gas rates if enough mathematics and experimentation is
applied. This could have meant that every engineer and scientist could develop their own set of
thermodynamic equations for measuring gas rates. Instead of having many different systems, the
American Petroleum Institute, Texas Railroad Commission, and other associations started developing
standard conditions and standard equations for measuring gas in the 1920s. The oil industry around the
world has adopted these standards.
This standardization has produced equations for:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
orifice meters
critical flow provers
bean chokes
adjustable chokes
pitot tubes
In addition, FieldNotes has features for a specialized meter called the 1/2" integral orifice meter.
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For some applications, which require accurate measurements of small flow rates, the standard orifice
meter sizes are not small enough. A special meter called the 1/2" Integral Orifice Meter is available for use
in these cases. Its equation is as follows:
Where:
qg = MMscf/day
P = upstream pressure (psia)
h = differential pressure (inches of water)
C = orifice coefficient
T = temperature (R)
G = gas gravity
Fz = Compressibility adjustment factor = (1/z)^0.5
Ftb = Temperature base adjustment factor = (519.67/Tb)^0.5
Fpb = Pressure base adjustment factor = ( Pb/14.64)
Gas Vortex
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Note: The Measured Rate has been modified in FieldNotes Version 3 from FIeldNotes V2.XX. See this link
for more detail: Version 3 changes.
A Vortex flow meter is based on the principle of vortex shedding. Vortex-shedding meters are excellent
devices for flows that do not contain abrasives or large diameter particulate or long, stringy substances.
Vortex meters can be used on liquids and gases, including steam.
When the fluid arrives at the flow meter it passes by a bar known as the bluff body or shedding bar. This
bar causes the fluid to swirl around it, causing eddies (also known as shedding vortices) to form. This
effect is similar to what makes the ripples in a waving flag.
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The eddies cause fluctuations in pressure that are fairly regular and directly proportional to the fluid
velocity. This leads to a fairly accurate calculation of the velocity using the relation:
Condensate Meters
Condensate Meter Block Diagram
Measured Level
Produced Volume
Turbine
Measured Rate
138
Condensate Turbine
139
140
141
V = Volume
A = Area
h = height
V = change in volume
h = change in height
A = area of the tank, which does not change.
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The area of the tank can be used to create the tank level conversion factor. To see how this is done, click
on either the metric example or the field units example.
Water Meters
Water Meter Block Diagram
Measured Level
Produced Volume
Turbine
Measured Rate
143
Water Turbine
144
145
V = Volume
A = Area
h = height
V = change in volume
h = change in height
A = area of the tank, which does not change.
The area of the tank can be used to create the tank level conversion factor. To see how this is done, click
on either the metric example or the field units example.
Oil Meters
The meters available in the software are:
Measured Level
Produced Volume
Turbine
Measured Rate
146
Oil Turbine
147
148
V = Volume
A = Area
h = height
V = change in volume
h = change in height
A = area of the tank, which does not change.
The area of the tank can be used to create the tank level conversion factor. To see how this is done, click
on either the metric example or the field units example.
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