Electromagnetic waves:

Maxwells equations predict the existence of electro-magnetic waves that propagate in vacuum with the
elec-tric and magnetic fields perpendicular and with ratio:
E = cB
The waves travel with velocity c where

c=

1
0 0

Energy in Electromagnetic waves:

~
The energy flow rate (power per unit area) of an elec-tromagnetic wave is given by the Poynting vector S
~ B
~
~= 1E
S
0

The magnitude of the time-averaged value of S~ is called the intensity of the wave
I=

E2
1
1 Emax Bmax
2
= max = 0 cEmax
2
0
20 c
2

Speed of light in materials

When light propagates through a material, its speed is lower than the speed in free space space by a
factor called the index of refraction
v=

c
n

Reflection and refraction

At a smooth interface, the incident, reflected, and re-fracted rays and the normal to the interface all lie in a single
plane. The angle of incidence and angle of reflec-tion (measured from the normal) are equal r = a and the angle of
refraction is given by Snells law:
na sin a = nb sin b
Polarization

A polarizing filter passes waves that are linearly po-larized along its polarizing axis. When polarized light
of intensity Imax is incident on a polarizing filter used as an analyzer, the intensity I of the light transmitted
depends on the angle between the polarization direction of the incident light and the polarizing axis of the
analyzer:
I = Imax cos2

Spherical Mirrors
Object and image distances:
1
1
1
+ 0 =
s s
f
where f = R/2.
Thin Lenses
Object and image distances:
1
1
1
+ =
s s0
f
where
1
= (n 1)
f

1
1

R1
R2

Magnification
The lateral magnification for the systems described above is

m=

s0
y0
=
y
s

Forces:
The force on a charge q moving with velocity ~v in a
~ is
magnetic field B
~
F~ = q~v B
and the force on a differential segment dl~ carrying current
I is
~
dF~ = Idl~ B
Magnetic Flux:
Magnetic flux is defined analogously to electric flux
Z
B =

~ dA
~
B

The magnetic flux through a closed surface seems to be zero

I
~ dA
~=0
B

Magnetic dipoles:
~ where
A current loop creates a magnetic dipole
~ = IA
~ is a vector normal to
I is the current in the loop and A
the plane of the loop and equal to the area of the loop.
The torque on a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field is
~
~ =
~ B

Self Inductance:
A changing current i in any circuit generates a changing magnetic field that induces an EMF in the circuit:
E = L

where L is the self inductance of the circuit

Biot-Savart Law:
~ produced at point P by a difThe magnetic field dB
~
ferential segment dl carrying current I is

L=N

where r points from the segment d~l to the point P .

L = 0

Magnetic field produced by a moving charge:

Similarly, the magnetic field produced at a point P by
a moving charge is
~ = 0 q ~v r
B
4 r2
Amp`
eres Law: (without displacement current)
I
~ d~l = 0 Iencl
B

C=

When an EMF is produced by a changing magnetic flux

~ such
there is an induced, nonconservative, electric field E
that
Z
I
~ dA
~
~ dl~ = d
B
E
dt A
Mutual Inductance:
When a changing current i1 in circuit 1 causes a changing magnetic flux in circuit 2, and vice-versa, the induced
EMF in the circuits is
and

E1 = M

Q
Vab

The energy stored in the electric field is

dB
dt

U=

di1
dt

N2
A
l

Capacitance:
A capacitor is any pair of conductors separated by an
insulating material. When the conductors have equal and
opposite charges Q and the potential difference between
the two conductors is Vab , then the definition of the capacitance of the two conductors is

Faradays Law:
The EMF produced in a closed loop depends on the
change of the magnetic flux through the loop

E2 = M

B
i

For example, for a solenoid of N turns, length l, area A,

Amp`eres law gives B = 0 (N/l)i, so the flux is B =
0 (N/l)iA, and so

~
~ = 0 I dl r
dB
4 r2

E =

di
dt

di2
dt

where M is the mutual inductance of the two loops

N1 B1
N2 B2
=
M=
i1
i1
where Ni is the number of loops in circuit i.

1
CV 2
2

If the capacitor is made from parallel plates of area A

separated by a distance d, where the size of the plates is
much greater than d, then the capacitance is given by
C = 0 A/d
Capacitors in series:
1
1
1
=
+
+ ...
Ceq
C1
C2
Capacitors in parallel:
Ceq = C1 + C2 + ...
If a dielectric material is inserted, then the capacitance
increases by a factor of K where K is the dielectric constant of the material
C = KC0

Current:
When current flows in a conductor, we define the current as the rate at which charge passes:
I=

dQ
dt

We define the current density as the current per unit area,

and can relate it to the drift velocity of charge carriers
by
J~ = nq~vd
where n is the number density of charges and q is the
charge of one charge carrier.

Ohms Law and Resistance:

Ohms Law states that a current density J in a material
is proportional to the electric field E. The ratio = E/J
is called the resistivity of the material. For a conductor
with cylindrical cross section, with area A and length L,
the resistance R of the conductor is
R=

L
A

A current I flowing through the resistor R produces a

potential difference V given by
V = IR
Resistors in series:
Req = R1 + R2 + ...
Resistors in parallel:
1
1
1
=
+
+ ...
Req
R1
R2
Power:
The power transferred to a component in a circuit by
a current I is

Force on a charge:
~ exerts a force F~ on a charge q given
An electric field E
by:
~
F~ = q E
Coulombs law:
A point charge q located at the coordinate origin gives
~ given by
rise to an electric field E
~ =
E

q
r
40 r2

where r is the distance from the origin (spherical coordinate), r is the spherical unit vector, and 0 is the permittivity of free space:
0 = 8.8542 1012 C2 /(N m2 )
Superposition:
The principle of superposition of electric fields states
~ of any combination of charges
that the electric field E
is the vector sum of the fields caused by the individual
charges
X
~ =
~i
E
E
i

To calculate the electric field caused by a continuous distribution of charge, divide the distribution into small elements and integrate all these elements:
Z
Z
dq
~ = dE
~ =
r
E
2
4
0r
q
Electric flux:
Electric flux is a measure of the flow of electric field
through a surface. It is equal to the product of the
~ inarea element and the perpendicular component of E
tegrated over a surface:
Z
Z
Z
~ n
~ dA
~
E = E cos dA = E
dA = E

P =VI
where V is the potential difference across the component.
Kirchhoff s rules:
The algebraic sum of the currents into any junction
must be zero:
X
I=0
The algebraic sum of the potential differences around
any loop must be zero.
X
V =0

~ to the surwhere is the angle from the electric field E

face normal n
.
Gauss Law:
Gauss law states that the total electric flux through
any closed surface is determined by the charge enclosed
by that surface:
I
~ dA
~ = Qencl
E = E
0

Electric conductors:
The electric field inside a conductor is zero. All excess charge on a conductor resides on the surface of that
conductor.

Field from potential:

If the electric potential function is known, the vector
electric field can be derived from it:
Ex =

Electric Potential:
The electric potential is defined as the potential energy
per unit charge. If the electric potential at some point
is V then the electric potential energy at that point is
U = qV . The electric potential function V (~r) is given by
the line integral:
Z

V
x

Ey =

V
y

Ez =

V
z

or in vector form:

~ =
E

V
V
V
+
+
k
x
y
z

Beware of the minus sign.

~
r

V (~r) =

~ d~l + V (~r0 )
E

~
r0

Beware of the minus sign. This gives the potential produced by a point charge q:
q
V =
40 r
for a collection of charges qi
V =

X
i

qi
40 ri

and for a continuous distribution of charge

Z
V =
q

dq
40 r

where in each of these cases, the potential is taken to be

zero infinitely far from the charges.

Coulombs Law: The electric field intensity of a point

charge is in the outward radial direction and has a
magnitude proportional to the charge and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the charge.
Gausss Law: The net electric flux through any closed
surface is equal to 1 times the net electric charge
enclosed within that closed surface.

Electrostatics
Force on a point charge q inside a static electric field
F = qE

Electric field - scalar potential relationship

Z
E = V

P2

V 2 V1 =

or

E dl
P1

Gausss law
I
D dS = Q

D=

or

Electric potential due to a point charge

(with infinity chosen as the reference)

Electrostatic fields are conservative

V =

q
40 |R Ri |

I
E=0

E dl = 0

or

Poissons equation

2 V =

Electric field produced by a point charge q

in free space
E=

Constitutive relationship in dielectric materials

D = 0 E + P

q (R Ri )
40 |R Ri |3

Electric field produced by a volume charge

distribution
E=

1
4

0 v dV
R
R02
V0

0 s ds
R
R02
S0

0 l dl
R
R02
l0

Electrostatic energy density

1
we = E 2
2
Boundary conditions
E1t = E2t

(E1 E2 ) = 0
n

or

Electric field produced by an infinite sheet

of charge
E = z

P = 0 e E

Electric field produced by a line charge distribution

1
E=
4

where P is the polarization.

Electric field produced by a surface charge

distribution
1
E=
4

s
2

Electric field produced by an infinite line of

charge
D
Dr
l
E=
= r
= r


2r

D1n D2n = s

or

(D1 D2 ) = s
n

Ohms law
J = E
Conductivity
= v
where stands for charge mobility.
Joules law
Z
P =

E J dv

Electrostatics
F12 =

E=

Q1Q2
Q
a R12 , F =
2
4 0
4 0 R

k =1

Qk (r rk )
r rk

dS
dv
L dl
F
aR , E = S 2 aR , E = v 2 aR
, E=
2
Q
4 0 R
4 0 R
4 0 R

E=

S
L
an , E =
a
2 0
2 0

Q = D dS =v v dv , D = , W = Q E dl ,
B

W = Q E dl , VAB =
A

WE =

B
W
Q
= E dl , V =
A
4 0 r
Q

E dl = 0 , E = 0 , E = V

1 n
Qk Vk , WE = 1 D Edv = 1 0 E 2 dv

2 k =1
2
2

J = v u , I = J dS , J = E ,
S

R=

V
E dI
=
I E dS

D = E, J =
2V =

v
tan 1 r1
, E1t = E 2t , D1n D2 n = S , D1n = D2n ,
=
t
tan 2 r 2

2
, V = 0,

Q E dS
1
1
Q 2L

Q2
Q
4
2
, W E = CV = QV =
,C =
=
,C =
, RC =
=
C= =
b
V
2
2
2C

V
V 1 1
E dI
ln

a
a b

Magnetostatics:
Force on a moving charge q inside a magnetic
field
F = qu B
Force on an infinitesimally small current element Idl inside a magnetic field
dFm = Idl B

Magnetic field intensity produced by an infinitesimally small current element (BiotSavart law)
dH =

Magnetic field produced by an infinitely long

wire of current in the z-direction

Torque on a N -turn loop carrying current I

inside a uniform magnetic field

I
H=
2r

T=mB

Magnetic field produced by a circular loop

of current in the -direction

N IA.
where m = n
Gausss law for magnetism
I
B = 0 or
B dS = 0
Amperes law
I
H dl = I

or

H = z

Ia2
2(a2 + z 2 )3/2

Constitutive relationship in magnetic materials

H=J

I dl R
4 R2

B = 0 H + 0 M

Magnetization
Magnetic flux density magnetic vector
potential relationship
B=A
Magnetic potential produced by a current
distribution
A=

Z
V0

M = m H
Boundary conditions

B1n = B2n

or

(B1 B2 ) = 0
n

J
dV 0
R0

Vector Poissons Equation

2 A = J

H1t H2t = Js

or

(H1 H2 ) = Js
n

Magnetostatic energy density

1
wm = H 2
2

Magnetostatics:
IdI a R
Jdv a R
KdS a R
, H=
, H=
2
2
L 4R
S
v 4R 2
4R

H=

H=

I
4

(cos 2 cos 1 )a , H =

H dI = I

enc

, H = J,

H=

I
2

I
2

a , a = a l a ,

a , H =

1
K an
2

B = H , = B dS , B dS = 0 , B = 0 , H = Vm ,
S

0 IdI
KdS
Jdv
, A= 0
, A= 0
, = A dI
L 4R
S
v 4R
L
4R

B = A, A =

F = Q(E + u B), dF = IdI B ,

(H 1 H 2 ) a n12
L=

= K , H 1t = H 2t ,

N
N
, M 12 = 12 = 1 12
I
I2
I2

B1n = B 2 n ,
tan 1 1
=
tan 2 2
,

Wm =

1
1
B Hdv = H 2 dv

2
2

Constants

Differential operations:
Gradient of a scalar field: The vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of a scalar as the gradient of that scalar.
Measures the rate and direction of change in a scalar field. Maps scalar fields to vector fields.
Divergence of the vector field: the divergence of a vector field A at a point, abbreviated div A, as
the net outward flux of A per unit volume as the volume about the point tends to zero:
Measures the scalar of a source or sink at a given point in a vector field. Maps vector fields to
scalar fields.
Curl of a vector field: The curl of u vector field A, denoted by Curl A , is a vector whose
magnitude is the maximum net circulation of A per unit urea as the area tends to zero and whose
direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is oriented to make the net circulation
maximum.
Measures the tendency to rotate about a point in a vector field. Maps vector fields to
(pseudo)vector fields.
Divergence theorem: The volume integral of divergence of a vector field equals the total outward
flux of the vector through the surface that bounds the volume.
Stoke theorem: The surface integral of the curl of vector field over an open surface is equal to the
closed line integral of the vector along the contour bounding the surface.

Gradient, Divergence, Curl and Laplacian Operators