LENDI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by A.I.C.T.E & Affiliated to JNTU, Kakinada) Jonnada

(Village), Denkada (Mandal), Vizianagaram Dist 535005
Phone No. 08922-241111, 241112
E-Mail: lendi_2008@yahoo.com

Website: www.lendi.org

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL

COMMUNICATION
LABORATORY MANUAL

VISION
Producing globally competent and quality technocrats with human values for the
holistic needs of industry and society.
MISSION
Creating an outstanding infrastructure and platform for enhancement of skills,
knowledge and behavior of students towards employment and higher studies.
Providing a healthy environment for research, development and entrepreneurship, to
meet the expectations of industry and society.
Transforming the graduates to contribute to the socio-economic development and
welfare of the society through value based education.
VISION
Emerge as a Centre of Eminence in Electronics and Communication Engineering to
impart quality education towards highly skilled and competent engineers.
MISSION
Offering an inspiring and conducive learning environment to prepare skilled and
competent engineers.
Providing practical skills and project based education for meeting the growing
challenges of industry.
Arranging an unique environment towards entrepreneurship by fostering innovation,
creativity, freedom and empowerment.
Imparting professional behavior, strong ethical values, innovative research capabilities
and leadership abilities.
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)
PEO1: Graduates will have strong knowledge, skills and attitudes towards employment,
higher studies and research.
PEO2: Graduates shall comprehend latest tools and techniques to analyze, design and
develop novel systems and products to solve real life problems.
PEO2: Graduates shall have multidisciplinary approach, professional attitude, ethical values,
good communication, teamwork and engage in life-long learning to adapt the rapidly
changing technologies.
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)
PSO1: Capable of design, develop, test, verify and implement analog and digital electronics
and communication engineering systems and products.
PSO2: Qualify in national and international competitive examinations for successful higher
studies and employment.

MICROWAVE ENGINEERING LAB

Minimum Twelve Experiments to be conducted: Part A (Any 7 Experiments):

1. Reflex Klystron Characteristics.
2. Gunn Diode Characteristics.
3. Attenuation Measurement.
4. Directional Coupler Characteristics.
5. VSWR Measurement.
6. Impedance and Frequency Measurement.
7. Waveguide parameters measurement.
8. Scattering parameters of Circulator.
9. Scattering parameters of Magic Tee
Part B (Any 5 Experiments):
11. Characterization of LED.
12. Characterization of Laser Diode.
13. Intensity modulation of Laser output through an optical fiber.
14. Measurement of Data rate for Digital Optical link.
15. Measurement of NA.
16. Measurement of losses for Analog Optical link.
Equipment required for Laboratories:
1.Regulated Klystron Power Supply
2.SWR Meter 3.Micro Ammeter - 0 500 A
3

4.Multi meter
5.CRO
6.GUNN Power Supply, Pin Modulator
7.Reflex Klystron
8.Crystal Diodes
9.Micro wave components (Attenuation)
10.Frequency Meter
11.Slotted line carriage
12.Probe detector
13.wave guide shorts
14.Pyramidal Horn Antennas
15.Directional Coupler
16.E, H, Magic Tees
17.Circulators, Isolator
18.Matched Loads
19.Fiber Optic Analog Trainer based LED
20.Fiber Optic Analog Trainer based laser
21.Fiber Optic Digital Trainer
22.Fiber cables - (Plastic, Glass)

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
2. REFLEX KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS.
3. GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS.
4. ATTENUATION MEASUREMENT
5. DIRECTIONAL COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS.
6. VSWR MEASUREMENT.
7. STUDY OF MAGIC TEE.
8. STUDY OF CIRCULATOR &ISOLATOR
9. FREQUENCY & WAVELENGTH MEASUREMENT
10 MEASUREMENT OF LOSSES FOR ANALOG OPTICAL LINK.
11 MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE
12 MEASUREMENT OF DATA RATE FOR DIGITAL OPTICAL LINK.
13 CHARACTERIZATION OF LASER DIODE.
14 INTENSITY MODULATION OF LASER OUTPUT THROUGH AN OPTICAL
FIBER.

Advanced experiments
1. MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A GIVEN MATERIAL

2. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION USING FIBER OPTIC

LINKS

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE LAB:

This Lab is organized into 14 Experiments and the outline is as follows: When
microwave energy is generated by microwave generators such as klystron and Gunn
diodes, which is transmitted to the receiver through isolator, attenuator, frequency meter
and slotted section and finally collects original power into the VSWR meter. These all
are studied in Experiment 1.
To calculate waveguide parameters such as frequency, wavelength, impedance, we
use all this microwave bench setup. Here klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum
tube, which is used as an amplifier for high frequencies and another supply unit Gunn
diode, which supplies the required power to the Gunn diode in the microwave bench
based on gunn diode. These Characteristics are observed in Experiments 2, 3.
To observe the amount of attenuation, discussed in Experiment 4. To measure
isolation, coupling factor and directivity can be discussed in Experiment 5, 7, 8.
Standing wave ratios and waveguide parameters cab be calculated in experiment 6, 9.

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS LAB:

An optical fiber is a dielectric wave guide through which light can be transmitted
by total internal reflection. Usually optical fibers are flexible, thin, and cylindrical and
made of transparent materials such as glass and plastic. The most abundant and
widespread material used to make optical fiber is glass and most often this is an oxide
glass based on silica (SiO2) with some additives.
Attenuation and bending losses are observed in Experiment 1.The gathering of
light produced by optical cable can be observed in Experiment 2.Experiment 3 described
the number of bits can be transferred from transmitter to receiver in digital optical link.
Laser Characteristics and intensity modulation of Laser can be observed in

1. STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

AIM
To study the microwave components in detail.

Fig .1 Microwave bench setup

KLYSTRON POWER SUPPLY:

A klystron is a specialized linearbeam vacuum tube, invented in 1937 by

American electrical engineers Russel and
Sigurd Varian, which is used as an amplifier
for high frequencies, from UHF radio
frequencies up into the microwave range.
This is a power supply unit which supplies
the required power to the reflex klystron
tube in the microwave bench based on
klystron. It gives the accelerating voltage
and the repeller voltage to the reflex klystron. This can be operated in AM ,FM , CW
and EXT modes.
GUNN POWER SUPPLY:
This is a power supply unit which
supplies the required power to the Gunn
diode in the microwave bench based on
Gunn diode. A Gunn diode, also known as
a transferred electron device (TED), is a
form of diode, a semiconductor electronic
component.

REFLEX KYSTRON:
This is the most commonly used microwave oscillator in the microwave
laboratories. It is a low power, low efficiency oscillator. It operates in AM FM CW, and
EXT modes according to different combinations of accelerating and repeller voltages.
GUNN DIODE :
This is the most commonly used solid state microwave device to produce
microwave oscillations. It uses the Transferred electron effect to produce oscillations.
ISOLATOR:
.
An isolator is a two port non reciprocal
device which produces a minimum attenuation to
wave propagation in one direction and very high
attenuation in the opposite direction. Ferrites are
used as the main material in isolators and the
underlying principle on which the ferrite isolator
works
in
the
Faradays
rotation
FIXED ATTENUATORS:
Series 5000 fixed Attenuators are meant for
inserting a known attenuation in a wave guide
system. This consists of a lossy vane inserted in a
section of wave guide, flanged on both ends. These
are useful for isolation of wave guide circuits,
padding and extending the range of measuring
equipments. 3Fixed Attenuators are available for 3,
6 or10 dB attenuation values, but any attenuation
valve between 0 and 30dB can be provided.

VARIABLE ATTENUATOR:
Attenuators are passive devices used to
control power levels in a microwave system by
partially absorbing the transmitted signal wave. A
variable attenuator offers variable attenuation to
the incoming microwave signal.

FREQUENCY METER:
It is a meter which is used to measure the
frequency of the microwave signal .Absorption type
wave meter is used in laboratory for frequency
measurement. Many are instruments of the deflection
type, ordinarily used for measuring low frequencies
but capable of being used for frequencies as high as
900 Hz. These operate by balancing two opposing
forces. Changes in the frequency to be measured
cause a change in this balance that can be measured
by the deflection of a pointer on a scale. Deflectiontype meters are of two types, electrically resonant circuits and ratio meters.
SLOTTED SECTION:
Slotted lines are used for microwave
measurements and consist of a movable probe
inserted into a slot in a transmission line. They are
used in conjunction with a microwave power source
and usually, in keeping with their low-cost
application, a low cost Schottky diode detector
and VSWR meter rather than an expensive
microwave power meter. Slotted lines can measure
standing waves, wavelength, and, with some
calculation or plotting on Smith charts, a number of
other parameters including reflection coefficient and
electrical impedance.

TUNABLE PROBE:
These are meant for exploring the
energy of the EF in a suitably fabricated section
of wave guide. The depth of penetration into a
wave guide - section is adjustable by the knob
of the probe. The tip pick up the RF power from
the line and this power is rectified by crystal
detector, which is then fed to the VSWR meter
or indicating instrument.

VSWR METER:
Any mismatch in load leads to reflected
waves resulting in standing waves along the
length of the line. The ratio of maximum to
minimum voltage gives the VSWR .To calculate
the VSWR of the microwave signal VSWR
meter is used.
MOVABLE SHORT:
This is a termination which will offer
variable impedances to the incoming microwave
signal. Movable short is used to obtain a phase
reference in the calibration of various
experimental set-ups & are also used to vary the
effective plane of reflection and therefore the
phase of reflected wave. These are also useful for
impedance measurement.
MATCHED TERMINATION:
This is a termination that has the
impedance value of the characteristic impedance.
This will absorb the total microwave signal and
does not allow any reflections.
DETECTOR MOUNT:
The low frequency modulated microwave
signal is detected using detector mount which uses
a tunable stub to match the transmission system.
DIRECTIONAL COUPLER:
A directional coupler is a device which
it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consists of two
transmission lines. The main arm and the
auxiliary arm, electromagnetically coupled to
each other.

10

MAGIC TEE:
E - H Tee consists of a section of wave
guide in both series and shunt wave guide arms,
mounted at the exact midpoint of main arm. Both
ends of the section of waveguide and both arms
are flanged on their ends. These Tees are
employed in balanced mixers, AFC circuits and
impedance measurement circuits etc. This
becomes a four terminal device where one
terminal is isolated from the input terminal.
SS TUNER
Slide screw tuners are used
for
matching purposes by changing the penetration
and position of a screw in the slot provided in
the centre of the waveguide. These consist of a
section of waveguide flanged on both ends and
a thin slot is provided in the broad wall of the
Waveguide. A carriage carrying the screw is
provided over the slot. A VSWR up to 20 can
be tuned to a value less than 1.02 at certain
frequency.
GUNN OSCILLATORS
Gunn Oscillators are solid state
microwave energy generators. These
consist of waveguide cavity flanged on one
end and micrometer driven plunger fitted
on the other end. A Gunn-diode is mounted
inside the Wave guide with BNC (F)
connector for DC bias. Each Gunn
oscillator is supplied with calibration
certificate giving frequency vs micrometer
reading.
PIN MODULATOR
Pin modulators are designed to modulate the cw
output of Gunn Oscillators. It is operated by the square
pulses derived from the UHF (F) connector of the Gunn
power supply. These consists of a pin diode mounted
inside a section of Wave guide flanged on its both
end.A fixed attenuation vane is mounted inside at the
input to protect the oscillator.
11

PYRAMIDAL WAVEGUIDE HORN ANTENNA

Pyramidal Wave guide Horn antenna
consists of waveguide joined to pyramidal
section fabricated from brass sheet. The
pyramidal section shapes the energy to
concentrate in a specified beam. Wave guide
horns are used as feed horns as radiators for
reflectors and lenses and as a pickup antenna
for receiving microwave power.
E PLANE TEE
E - Plane tee are series type T - junction
and consists of three section of wave guide
joined together in order to divide or compare
power levels. The signal entering the first port of
this T - junction will be equally dividing at
second and third ports of the same magnitude
but in opp. Phase.
H - PLANE TEE
H - Plane Tee are shunt type T - junction
for use in conjunction with VSWR meters,
frequency meters and other detector devices.
Like in E-plane tee, the signal fed through first
port of H - plane Tee will be equally divided in
magnitude at second and third ports but in same
phase.

RESULT
Thus all the microwave components were studied in detail.

12

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is microwave?
2. Mention the frequency band for a millimeter wave.
3. List some of IEEE microwave frequency bands.
4. List some of characteristic feature of microwave.
5. List some of the application of microwave technology.
6. Draw a simple microwave system.
7. What are waveguide `Tees?
8. List the basic type of waveguide tees.
9. What is an isolator?
10. What is a circulator?
11. What is a directional coupler?
12. What is velocity modulation?
13. Mention the Principle used in Klystron?
14. When the o/p power of reflex klystron maximum?
15. What is meant by attenuator?

2. KLYSTRON CHARACTERISTICS
Objective:
To study the characteristics of the Reflex Klystron Tube and to determine its
Electronic tuning range.
Apparatus Required:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Klystron power supply

Klystron tube with Klystron mounts
Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Detector mount, Wave guide stand
SWR meter and oscilloscope
BNC cable

Theo
ry:
The Reflex Klystron makes the use of velocity modulation
to transform a continuous electron beam into microwave power.
Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated & passed
through the positive resonator towards negative reflector, which
retards and finally, reflects the electrons and the electrons turn
back through the resonator. Suppose an RF-field exists between
the resonators the electrons traveling forward will be accelerated
or retarded, as the voltage at the resonator changes in amplitude.

Fig. 2.1 Schematics Diagram of

Klystron 2K25
The accelerated electrons leave the resonator at an
increased velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced
velocity. The electrons leaving the resonator will need different
time to return, due to change in velocities. As a result, returning

electrons group together in bunches, as the electron bunches pass

through resonator, they interact with voltage at resonator grids. If
the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the electrons are
slowed down by the voltage then energy will be delivered to the
resonator;

and Klystron will oscillate. Fig.2.1 shows the relationship between output power,
frequency and reflector voltages.

Fig. 2.2 Square Wave modulation of the Klystron

The frequency is primarily determined by the dimensions of resonant cavity.
Hence, by changing the volume of resonator, mechanical tuning of klystron is possible.
Also, a small frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This
is called Electronic Tuning. The same result can be obtained, if the modulation voltage is
applied on the reflector voltage as shown in the fig.
KLYSTRON
POWER SUPPLY
SKS-610

KLYSTRON TUBE
2K-25 WITH
KLYSTRON MOUNT
XM-251

VSWR
METER
SW-215

ISOLATO
R XI-621

FREQUENCY
METER
XF-710

VARIABLE
ATTENUATO
R XA-520

SLOTTED
LINE
XS-651

DETECTOR
MOUNT
XD-451

MULTI
METER /CRO

Fig. 2.3 Set up to study characteristics of klystron tube

Procedure:
Square Wave Operation:
1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in the fig2. 3.
2. Set Micrometer of variable attenuator for no attenuation position.
3. Set the range switch of SWR meter at appropriate position, crystal selector
switch to crystal impedance position, mode select switch to normal position.
4. Now in K.P.S set Mod-selector switch to AM- MOD position. Beam voltage
control knob to fully anticlockwise position. Reflector voltage control knob to
the maximum clockwise position and meter switch to beam position.
5. Switch "ON" the Klystron Power Supply, SWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Change the beam voltage knob clockwise up to 250V.

7. Keep the AM-MOD amplitude knob and AM-FREQ knob at the mid-position.
8. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get reading in SWR meter.
9. Rotate the AM-MOD amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR
meter.
10. Maximize the reading by adjusting the frequency control knob of AM-MOD.
11. If necessary, change the reading in SWR meter is greater than 0.0 dB or less than
-10dB in the normal mode respectively. Further the output can be also reduced
by Variable attenuator for any particular position.
12. Find the oscillation by frequency by Frequency Meter as described in the earlier
setup.
Mode Study on Oscilloscope:
1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in the fig 2.3.
2. Set Mode selector switch to FM-MOD position with FM amplitude and FM
Frequency knob at mid position. Keep beam voltage control knob fully
anticlockwise and reflector voltage knob to fully clockwise.
3. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100 Hz frequencies
measurement and volt/ div to lower scale.
4. Switch On the klystron power supply and oscilloscope.
5. Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to maximum position and rotate the
reflector voltage anti clock wise to get modes as shown on the oscilloscope. The
horizontal axis represents reflector voltage axis, and vertical axis represents
output power.
6. Keep the meter switch of klystron power supply to beam voltage position & set
Beam voltage to 250 V by beam voltage control knob.
Current(mA)

-80

-160

-200

-260 Repeller Voltage(V)

Frequency(GHz)

Repeller Voltage(V)

Fig.1.4 Modes of 2k25

Observation Table:
Beam voltage=250 V,
Beam current=17 mA
Repeller Voltage= -280 V, Frequency=

AM Mode:
S.No

Repeller Voltage(V)

DIP Frequency(GHz)

O/P Current(mA)

Repeller Voltage(V)

DIP Frequency(GHz)

O/P Current(mA)

FM Mode:
S.No

Result: The mode characteristics of klystron tube are observed.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List two basic configurations of Klystron tubes.
2. What is velocity modulation?
3. List down the characteristic of two cavity klystron amplifier.
4. Write a note on mode of oscillations.
5. Draw the reflex klystron modes.
6. Higher order mode occur at

repeller voltage.

7. When the o/p power of reflex klystron maximum?

8. List the application of reflex klystron.
9. What is transit time?

3. GUNN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Objective:
To study V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode.
Apparatus Required:
Gunn oscillator
Gun power supply
PIN modulator
Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Detector mount
Wave guide stands
SWR Meter

Cables and accessories.

Theory:
The Gunn Oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in bulk
semiconductors, which has two conduction bands minima separated by an energy gap
(greater than thermal agitation energies). A disturbance at the cathode gives rise to high field
region, which travels towards the anode. When this high field domain reaches the anode, it
disappears and another domain is formed at the cathode and starts moving towards anode and
so on. The time required for domain to travel from cathode to anode (transit time) gives
oscillation frequency.
In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity. In this case the
Oscillation frequency is determined by cavity dimension than by diode itself. Although Gunn
oscillator can be amplitude modulated with the bias voltage. We have used separate PIN
modulator through PIN diode for square wave modulation. A measure of the square wave
modulation capability is the modulation depth i.e. the output ratio between, 'ON and 'OFF
state.

GUNN
POWER
SUPPLY
GPS-610

GUNN
OSCILLATOR
XG-11

PIN
MODULATOR

ISOLATOR
XI-621

FREQUENCY
METER
XF-710

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR
XA-520

Fig.3.1 Setup for Study of V-I characteristics of Gunn Diode

Procedure:
1. Set the components and equipment as shown in the fig.3.1
2. Initially set the variable attenuator for no attenuation.
3. Keep the control knob of Gunn Power Supply as shown:
Gunn bias knob
: fully anti- clockwise
PIN bias knob
: fully anti- clockwise

MATCHED
TERMINATION
XL-400

 PIN Mod frequency : mid position

Mode switch
: CW Mode
4. Keep the control knob of SWR meter as shown:
Range
: 50dB position
Crystal
: 200ohm
Mode switch
: Normal position
Gain (coarse & fine) : mid position
SWR/dB switch
: dB position
5. Set the micrometer of Gunn Oscillator at 10 mm position.
6. Switch ON the Gunn power supply SWR Meter and cooling fan
7. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various voltage controlled by Gunn
bias knob through the panel do not exceed the bias voltage above 10.5 volts.
Result and Analysis:
8. Plot the voltage and current reading on the graph as shown in fig.3.2
9. Measure the threshold voltage which, corresponds to maximum current.
I(mA)
Threshold Voltage

Peak current

Valley current

Peak voltage

valley voltage

Voltage (v)

Fig.3.2 I-V Characteristics of GUNN Oscillator

Note: Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15
seconds. Reading should be obtained as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating,
Gunn Diode may burn.
Tabular Form:
Sl.No

V(v)

I(mA)

Result:
V-I characteristics of Gunn diode are observed.
Threshold voltage=
Threshold current=
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the principle involved in Gunn diode?
2. Define negative resistance phenomenon?
3. How many junctions are there for Gunn diode?

4. ATTENUATION MEASURMENT
Objective:
To find attenuation of a fixed and variable attenuator
Apparatus:
Klystron power supply
Klystron tube with Klystron mounts

Isolator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Detector mount, Wave guide stand
SWR meter and oscilloscope
BNC cable
Test attenuator
i) Fixed
ii) Variable
Cooling fan
Theory:
Attenuator is a two port bidirectional device which attenuates some power when
inserted into the transmission line.
Attenuation A (dB)
Where P1=Power detected by the detector mount without the attenuator in the line
P2=Power detected by the detector mount with the attenuator in the line.
The attenuators consist of a resistive vane inside the waveguide to absorb microwave
power according to its position with respect to side wall of the waveguide. As electric field is
maximum at center in TE10 mode, the attenuation will be maximum, if the vane is placed at
centre of the waveguide. Moving from centre towards the side wall, attenuation will decrease.
In the fixed attenuator the vane position s fixed where as in variable attenuator, its position
can be changed by the help of micrometer of by other methods.
KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

SLOTTED
LINE

DETECTOR
MOUNT

CRO/SWR
METER

Fig.4.1 Microwave bench set up to calculate original power

KLYSTRON
POWER SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

FIXED/VARIABL
E ATTENUATOR

DETECTOR
MOUNT

SWR
METER

Fig .4.2 Microwave bench Set up to measure attenuation

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipments as shown in the fig.3.1
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency operation as described
operation of Klystron and Gunn Oscillator.
3. Remove the Variable attenuator and connect the detector mount to the slotted line.
4. Set any reference level of power on SWR meter with the help of variable attenuator,
gain control knob of SWR meter, and note down the reading. (Reference level let it be
P1.
5. Insert the 3dB/6dB fixed attenuator as shown in fig.3.2 with detector to another port
without changing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob of SWR
meter.
6. Note down the reading on SWR meter on the scale with the help of ranged switch if
required. (Let it be P2, P3).
7. Insert the variable attenuator as shown in fig.3.2 with detector to another port without
changing the position of variable attenuator after the isolator and gain control knob of
SWR meter.
8. Vary the micrometer reading of variable attenuator note down the reading on SWR
meter on the scale with the help of ranged switch if required. (Let it beP4).
9. Calculate Attenuation for fixed and variable attenuator as P1-P2,P1-P3 and P1-P4
Observations:
Beam voltage=250 V, Beam current=17 mA
Repeller Voltage=-280 V, Dip Frequency=
Original power (with out attenuator) P1 (dB) =
For 3dB fixed attenuator, power P2 (dB) =
For 6dB fixed attenuator, power P3 (dB) =
Attenuation (dB) =P1-P2
Attenuation (dB) =P1-P3

Tabular form for Variable attenuator:

Sl.No

Micrometer Reading

Output power(P4)

Attenuation(dB)=P1-P4

Model Graph:
Attenuation (dB)

Micrometer Reading (mm)

Result:
Attenuation measurements for fixed and variable attenuator type are observed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain types of attenuators?
2. What is the function of resistive cord?

5.DIRECTIONAL COUPLER CHARACTERISTICS

Objective:
Study the function of multi-hole directional coupler by measuring the following parameters:

To Measure the coupling factor ,directivity, isolation and Insertion loss

Equipment Required:
Microwave source (Klystron or Gunn Diode type)
Isolator
PIN modulator
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Slotted line
Tunable Probe
Detector mount
Matched Terminator
MHD coupler
Wave guide stand
Cables & accessories
VSWR meter
Theory:
A directional coupler is a device with it is possible to measure the incident and
reflected wave separately. It consists of two transmission line, the main arm and auxiliary
arm, electromagnetically coupled to each other. Refer to the fig. The power entering port 1
the main arm gets divided between port 2 and 3 and almost no power comes out in port 4.
Power entering port 2 is divided between port 1 and port 4.

Fig .5.1 Directional Coupler

With built-in termination and power is entering at port 1. The directivity of the
coupler is a measure of separation between incident and the reflected wave. It is measured as
the ratio of two power outputs from the auxiliary line when a given amount of power is
successively applied to each terminal of the main lines with the port terminated by material
loads.
Hence the Directivity D(dB) = Isolation - Coupling =
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in transmission line by insertion of
coupler. It is defined as insertion:

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipments as shown in the fig.5.2
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency operation as described
operation of Klystron and Gunn Oscillator.
3. Remove the multi-hole directional coupler and connect the detector mount to the
slotted line.
4. Set any reference level of power on SWR meter with the help of variable
attenuator, gain control knob of SWR meter, and note down the reading.
(Reference level let it be X)
5. Insert the directional coupler as shown in fig.4.2 with detector to the auxiliary port
3 and matched termination to port 2, without changing the position of variable
attenuator and gain control knob of SWR meter.
6. Note down the reading on SWR meter on the scale with the help of ranged switch
if required. (Let it be Y)
7. Calculate coupling factor, which will be X-Y in dB.
8. Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 3 and match
termination from port 2 without disturbing the set-up.
9. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to port 2 and
measure the reading on SWR meter. Suppose it is Z.
MW SOURCE

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

ISOLATOR

DETECTOR
MOUNT

V.S.W.R.METER

FREQUENCY
METER

MATCHED
TERMINATION

3
1

M.H.D. COUPLER

DETECTOR
MOUNT

M.H.D. COUPLER

DETECTOR
MOUNT

2
MATCHED
TERMINATION

Fig.5.2 Setup of MHD Coupler

Observations:
Beam voltage=250 V, Beam current=17 mA
Repeller Voltage= -280 V, Dip Frequency=
Original power (with out Directional coupler) X(dB)=
With Directional coupler:
Port 2 to matched termination, port 3 to detector mount, output power Y (dB) =
Port 2 to detector mount, port 3 to matched termination, output power Z (dB) =
Result and Analysis:
Calculate the coupling factor, which will be X-Y in db
Compute insertion loss X-Z db
Compute the isolation Z-Y.
Now Directivity = Isolation Coupling
Result:
The Parameters of MHD Coupler are observed.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is a directional coupler?
2. List the types of directional coupler.
3. Draw a basic directional coupler?
4. List the performance of a directional coupler.
5. Define the directivity `D of a directional coupler.
6. Define coupled factor C.
7. What is multihole directional coupler?

6. VSWR MEASUREMENT
Objective:
To determine the Standing Wave-Ratio and Reflection Coefficient
Apparatus Required:
Gunn power supply
Gunn oscillator
SWR meter
Isolator
PIN modulator
Frequency meter
Slotted line
Tunable probe
S-S tuner
Matched termination
Theory:
It is a ratio of maximum voltage to minimum voltage along a transmission line is
called VSWR, as ratio of maximum to minimum current. SWR is measure of mismatch
between load and line.
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line may be considered as the
sum of two traveling waves: the 'Incident Wave' propagates from generator and the reflected
wave propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by reflection of incident
wave from a discontinuity on the line or from the load impedance. The magnitude and phase
of reflected wave depends upon amplitude and phase of .the reflecting impedance. The
superposition of two traveling waves, gives rise to standing wave along with the line.
The maximum field strength is found where two waves are in phase and minimum
where the line adds in opposite phase. The distance between two successive minimum (or
maximum) is half the guide wavelength on the line. The ratio of electrical field strength of
reflected and incident wave is called reflection between maximum and minimum field
strength along the line.
KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

TUNABLE
PROBE

VSWR
Meter

SLOTTED
LINE

SS TUNER

MATCHED
TERMINATION

Fig. 6.1 Setup for low VSWR (<10) measurement

KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

TUNABLE
PROBE

VSWR
Meter

SLOTTED
LINE

SS TUNER

MOVABLE
SHORT/MATCHED
LOAD

Fig. 6.2 Setup for high VSWR (>10) measurement

Fig.6.3 standing wave

Fig.6.4 Double Minima Method

Hence VSWR denoted by S is

Where
EI = Incident Voltage, Er = Reflected Voltage
Reflection Coefficient, is

Where Z is the impedance at a point on line, Zo is

characteristic Impedance.
The above equation gives following equation

Procedure:
1. Set up the equipment as shown in the fig.6.1
2. Keep variable attenuator at no attenuation position.
3. Connect the S.S tuner & matched termination after slotted line.
4. Keep the control knobs of Klystron power supply as shown:
Beam voltage
: fully anti- clockwise
Repeller voltage
: fully anti- clockwise
Beam current
: < 25 mA
Mode switch
: AM mode position
5. Keep the control knob of SWR as shown:
Range
: 40dB/50dBposition
Crystal
: 200 ohm
Mode switch
: Normal
Gain (coarse & fine) : mid position
SWR/dB switch
: dB position
6. Switch ON the Klystron power supply, SWR meter and cooling fan.
8. Observe the Maximum power corresponding to the Beam voltage and Repeller voltage.
9. If necessary change the range db-switch, variable attenuator position and gain control knob
to get deflection in the scale of SWR meter.
10. Move the probe along with slotted line, the reading will change.
11. For low SWR set the S.S tuner probe for no penetration position.
a. Measurement of low and medium VSWR
1. Move the probe along with slotted line to maximum deflection in SWR meter in dB.
2. Adjust the SWR Meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter
indicates 0.0 dB on normal mode SWR for 0.0 dB is 1.0 by keeping switches at SWR
we can read it directly.
3. Keep all the Control knobs as it is, move the probe to next minimum position. Keep
SWR /dB switches at SWR position.
4. Repeat the above step for change of S.S. Tuner probe path & record the corresponding
SWR. Read SWR from display & record it.
5. If the SWR is greater than 10, follow the instructions that follow.
b. Measurement of High SWR (Double Minimum Method)
1. Set the depth of S.S tuner slightly more for maximum SWR.
2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the SWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain a reading of
3 dB (or any other reference).at SWR meter.
4. Move the probe to the left on slotted line until maximum reading is obtained i.e. 0 db
on scale. Note and record the probe position on slotted line. Let it be d1. (Or power
should be increased by 3 db).
5. Move the probe right along with slotted line until maximum reading is obtained on 0
db scale. Let it be d2.
6. Replace the S.S tuner and terminator by movable short.

Observations:
Beam voltage=250V,
Beam current=
,
d1= , d2=
g = 2(d1-d2)
Using SS tuner d1= ,

Repeller Voltage=-280V
Frequency=
d2=

Result and analysis:

1. Measure the distance between two successive minima position or probe.
twice this distance is waveguide length.
g = 2(d1-d2)
[Since d1 & d2 (Min or Max) with Movable Short]
2. Now calculate SWR using following equation
[Since d1 & d2 (Min or Max) with Matched Termination]
3. For different SWR, calculate the refection coefficient.

Result:
Low, medium and high VSWR can be calculated

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is the range of VSWR?
2. Relation between VSWR and reflection coefficient?
3. Which method is used for high VSWR?

7. MAGIC TEE
Objective:
Study of Magic Tee.
Equipment Required:
Microwave source
Isolator
Variable attenuator
PIN modulator
Frequency meter
Slotted line
Tunable probe
Magic Tee
Matched termination
Wave guide stand
Detector mount
VSWR meter and accessories.
Theory:
The device magic Tee is a-combination of the E and H plane Tee. Arm 3, the H-arm
forms an H plane Tee and arm 4, the E-arm forms an E plane Tee in combination with arm 1
and 2 a side or collinear arms. If power is fed into arm 3 (H-arm) the electric field divides
equally between arm 1 and 2 in the same phase, and no electrical field exists in arm 4.
Reciprocity demands no coupling in port 3 (H-arm). If power is fed in arm 4 (E-arm), it
divides equally into arm 1 and 2 but out of phase with no power to arm 3. Further, if the
power is fed from arm 1 and 2, it is added in arm 3 (H-arm), and it is subtracted in E-arm, i.e.
arm 4.

Fig.7.1 Magic Tee

The basic parameters to be measured for magic Tee are defined below.
1. Input VSWR
Value of SWR corresponding to each port, as a load to the line while other ports are
terminated in matched load
2. Isolation
The isolation between E and H arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by
the generator connected to the E-arm (port 4) to the power detected at H -arm (port 3)
when side arms I and 2 are terminated in matched load.
Hence,

Similarly, isolation between other parts may also be defined

3. Coupling coefficient.
It is defined as
Cij = 10 / 20
Where
= attenuation / isolation in dB, 'i is input arm, j is output arm. Thus

Where Pi is the power delivered to arm i, Pj is power detected at j arm.

KLYSTRON
POWER SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

SLOTTED
LINE

DETECTOR
MOUNT

CRO/ SWR
METER

Fig.7.2 Measurement of power without Magic Tee

KLYSTRON
POWER SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
MOUNT

MATCHED
TERMINATIO
N

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

DETECTOR
MOUNT

4 MAGIC TEE 3
2

SWR
METER

Fig.7.3 Setup for the study of Magic Tee

MATCHED
TERMINATION

Procedure:
VSWR Measurement of the Ports:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in fig. 6.2 keeping E arm towards
slotted line and matched termination to other ports.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the
detector mount for maximum output.

3. Measure the SWR of E-arm as described in measurement of SWR for low and
medium value.
4. Connect another arm to slotted line and terminate the other port with matched
termination. Measure the SWR as above. Similarly, SWR of any port can be
measured.

Measurement of Isolation and Coupling Coefficient:

1. Remove the tunable probe and Magic Tee from the slotted line and connect the
detector mount to slotted line.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the
detector mount for maximum output.
3. With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of SWR meter, set any
power level in the SWR meter and note down. Let it be P1.
4. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob, carefully
place the Magic Tee after slotted line keeping H-arm connected to slotted line,
detector to E arm and matched termination to arm 1 and 2. Note down the reading of
SWR meter. Let it be P3.
5. In the same way measure P1 & P2 by connecting detector on these ports one by one.
6. Determine the isolation between port 3 and 4 as =P1-P3 in dB.
7. Determine the coupling coefficient by Cij = 10 / 20 .
8. Similarly for port 4 is connected to slotted section and port 3 is connected to detector
mount, to calculate isolation and coupling efficiency.
9. Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies.
Observations:
Beam voltage=250 V, Beam current=17 mA
Repeller Voltage=-280 V, Dip Frequency=
Original power (with out Magic Tee) P1 (dB) =
With Magic Tee:
Port 3 to slotted section, port 1,port 2 to matched termination,
Port 4 to detector mount, output power P3 (dB) =
Port 4 to slotted section, port 1,port 2 to matched termination,
Port 3 to detector mount, output power P4 (dB) =
when H-arm is input
Isolation =P1-P3
Couplilng Coefficient Cij = 10 / 20
when E-arm is input
Isolation =P1-P4
Couplilng Coefficient Cij = 10 / 20
Result:
The coupling coefficient and Isolation loss of Magic Tee are determined.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What are the several types of tees used in microwave communication?
2. What is the S-Matrix of H-plane Tee function?
3. What is a hybrid `T or magic `T?
4. Application of magic Tee.
5. List some of the basic magic Tee parameters.

8. ISOLATOR/CIRCULATOR
Objective:
To Study the Isolator and Circulators.
Equipment Required:
Microwave source
Isolators
Circulators
Frequency meter
Variable attenuator
Slotted line
Tunable probe
Detector mount
VSWR meter
Theory:
Isolator:
An isolator is a two-port device that transfers energy from input to output with little
attenuation and from output to input with very high attenuation.

Fig.8.1 Isolator
Circulator:
The circulator is defined as a device with ports arranged such that energy entering a
port is coupled to an adjacent port but not coupled to other ports. Refer to the fig. A wave
incident on port 1 is coupled to port 2 only, a wave incident at port 2 is coupled to port 3 only
and so on.

Fig. 8.2 Circulator

Following are the basic parameters of isolator and circulator for study.
1. Insertion loss
The ratio of power supplied by a source to the input port to the power detected by
a detector in the coupling arm, i.e. output arm with other port terminated in the
matched load, is defined as insertion loss or forward loss.

2. Isolation
It is the ratio of power fed to input arm to the power detected at not coupled port with
other port terminated in the matched load
3. Input VSWR
The input VSWR of an isolator or circulator is the ratio of voltage maximum to
voltage minimum of the standing wave existing on the line when one port of it
terminates the line and other have matched termination.
Note: When port which is not coupled to input port is terminated by matched termination it
marks as Isolator. (Two port device).

KLYSTRON
POWER
SUPPLY

KLYSTRON
MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

SLOTTED
LINE

DETECTO
R MOUNT

CRO/ SWR
METER

Fig.8.3 Setup for Measurement of original power

KLYSTRON
POWER SUPPLY

KLYSTRON

c.MOUNT

ISOLATOR

VARIABLE
ATTENUATOR

FREQUENCY
METER

1 CIRCULATOR/
ISOLATOR 2

DETECTOR
MOUNT

SWR
METER

2 CIRCULATOR/
ISOLATOR 1

DETECTOR
MOUNT

Fig.8.4 Setup for Measurement Loss & Isolation of Isolator & Circulator

Procedure:
1. Input VSWR Measurement
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in the fig 7.1with input port of
isolator or circulator towards slotted line and matched load on other ports of it.
2. Energize the microwave .source for particular operation of frequency.
3. With the help of slotted line, probe and SWR meter. Find SWR, of the isolator or
circulator as described for low and medium SWR measurements.
4. The above procedure can be repeated for other ports or for other frequencies.
2. Measurement of Insertion Loss and Isolation
1. Remove the probe and isolator or circulator from slotted line and connect the detector
mount to the slotted section. The output of the detector mount should be connected
SWR meter.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output particular frequency of
operation. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the SWR Meter.
3. Set any reference level of power in SWR meter with the help of variable attenuator
and gain control knob of SWR meter. Let it be P1.
4. Carefully remove the detector mount from slotted line without disturbing the position
of set up. Insert the isolator/circulator between slotted line and detector mount.
Keeping input port to slotted line and detector at its output port. A matched
termination should be placed a third port in case of circulator.
5. Record the reading in the SWR meter. If necessary change range dB switch to high
or lower position. Let it be P2.
6. For measurement of isolation, the isolator or circulator has to be connected in reverse
i.e. output port to slotted line and detector to input port with another port terminated
by matched termination (in case circulator) after setting a reference level without
isolator or circulator in the set up as described in insertion loss measurement. Let it be
P3.
Observations:
Beam voltage=250 V
Beam current=17 mA
Repeller Voltage=-280 V, Dip Frequency=
Original power (with out Circulator) P1 (dB)=
With Circulator:
Port 1 to slotted section, port 3to matched termination,
Port 2 to detector mount, output power P2 (dB) =
Port 2 to slotted section, port 3 to matched termination,
Port 1 to detector mount, output power P3 (dB) =

Result and Analysis:

Compute insertion loss on P1 P2 in dB.

Compute isolation as P1 - P3 in dB.

The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.

Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies if required.

Result:
The Isolation and Insertion loss of Circulator/Isolator were observed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is Faraday rotation?
2. How the circulator acts as an isolator?

OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS

INTRODUCTION:
An optical fiber is a dielectric wave guide through which light can be transmitted by
total internal reflection. Usually optical fibers are flexible, thin, and cylindrical and made of
transparent materials such as glass and plastic. The most abundant and widespread material
used to make optical fiber is glass and most often this is an oxide glass based on silica
(SiO2) with some additives.
There are three types of fiber optic cables: single mode, multimode and plastic optical
fiber (POF).

Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10
microns. (One micron is 1/250th the width of a human hair.)
Multimode cable is made of multiple strands of glass fibers, with a combined
diameter in the 50-to-100 micron range. Each fiber in a multimode cable is
capable of carrying a different signal independent from those on the other
fibers in the cable bundle.
POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises performance similar to
single mode cable, but at a lower cost.

PRINCIPLES OF FIBER OPTICS:

Total internal reflection (TIR) is the most important phenomenon for the guiding of
light in optical fibers. Under the condition of total internal reflection, light can be
completely reflected at a dielectric interface without any reflective coating. It is required for
TIR that the ray of light be incidental on a dielectric interface from the high refractive index
side to the low refractive index side.
Fig.1 shows that TIR occurs over a certain range of incidence angles. If a ray of light
propagates at a certain angle, 1(1<c) where c is the critical angle from a high refractive
index medium (n1) to a low refractive medium (n2), a portion of light will be reflected back
to Medium 1 and another part of light will be refracted into Medium 2 as shown in
Fig.1.This behavior of light can be expressed by Snell's law:

If angle 1 is increased to c, 2 reaches 90. The critical angle, c, is defined as:

Fig.1: Refraction and reflection at the interface between two media with
different indices of refraction (n1>n2).
(a) Incident angle 1< c; (b) incident angle = c (critical angle);
(c) Incident angle = 3>c (total internal reflection).
At the critical angle c, the refracted ray will travel along the boundary surface. If the
angle of incidence is increased further to 3(3>c) at the boundary surface, the ray is totally
reflected back into the higher refractive index Medium 1. This phenomenon is called total
internal reflection.
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS:

Less attenuation
Enormous Bandwidth
Small in size and weight
Security
Flexibility
Electromagnetic immunity
Electrical isolation

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL COMMUNICATIONS:

Military
Sensors
Networking
Communications

1. MEASUREMENT OF LOSSES OF ANALOG OPTICAL LINK

Objective:
Measurement of losses for analog optical link
Part A: Study of Propagation Loss in Optical Fiber
To measure propagation or attenuation loss in optical fiber
Part B: Study of Bending Loss
Equipments Required:
1. ST2502 trainer with power supply cord
2. Optical Fibre cable
3. Cathode ray oscilloscope with necessary connecting probe
4. Mandrel
Theory:
The attenuation of an optical fiber measures the amount of light lost between input
and output. Total attenuation is the sum of all losses. Optical losses of a fiber are usually
expressed in decibels per kilometer (dB/km).
The expression is called the fibers attenuation coefficient and the expression is

Where P(z) is the optical power at a position z from the origin, P(0) is the power at
the origin.
Loss characteristics of Optical fiber is
1) Attenuation
2) Bending loss
1) Attenuation:

Attenuation is the loss of optical energy as it travels through the fiber; this loss is
measured in dB/km.
Attenuation is a transmission loss that can be measured as a difference between the
output signal power and the input signal power. It can be expressed in dB as
Attenuation loss
The attenuation loss of fiber in dB/km is then expressed as
DB/km

Attenuation is a measure of the loss of signal strength or light power that occurs as
light pulses propagate through a run of multimode or single-mode fiber.

Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in

intensity of the light beam (or signal) with respect to distance traveled through a transmission
medium.
Significance of measuring attenuation:
1. Attenuation is an important consideration in the design of optical
transmission links since it determines the maximum repeater less transmission distance
between Tx and Rx.
Attenuation depends on
a) Attenuation depends on wavelength used (i.e. frequency used). The most
common peak wavelengths are 780 nm, 850 nm, 1310 nm, 1550 nm, and 1625 nm.
b) Attenuation depends on light intensity i.e input light power.
c) Attenuation depends on diameter of optical fiber (diameter of core mainly).
for single/mono mode attenuation is minimum since lesser the traversed distance
lesser the power loss.
d) Attenuation definitely depends on distance. Distance between optical source and
repeater/detector.
2. Glass fiber (which has a low attenuation) is used for long-distance fiber optic
cables; plastic fiber has a higher attenuation and hence shorter range
2) Bending Loss :

Bend loss occurs at fiber cable bends that are tighter than the cable's minimum bend
radius.
Bending loss can also occur on a smaller scale from such factors as:
Sharp curves of the fiber core
Displacements of a few millimeters or less, caused by buffer or jacket
imperfections
Poor installation practice
Bend losses are a frequently encountered problem in fiber optics: optical fibers exhibit
additional propagation losses when they are bent. Typically, these losses rise very quickly
once a certain critical bend radius is reached. This critical radius can be very small (a few
millimeters) for fibers with robust guiding characteristics (high numerical aperture), whereas
it is much larger (often tens of centimeters) for single-mode fibers with large mode areas.

(Part A)
ANALOG LOSS MEASUREMENT:
Connection Diagram:

Fig.1.1 Connection Diagram for analog loss for an optical link

Block diagram:
Optical cable
Function
Generator

Emitter
Circuit

Detector
Circuit

Amplifier
Circuit

Fig.1.2 Measurement set up for analog loss for an optical link

Procedure:
1. Connect power supply cord to the main power plug & to trainer ST2502.
2. Make the following connections as shown in figure 1.

CRO

a. Function generators 1 KHz sine wave output to Input 1 socket of emitter 1 circuit
via 4 mm lead.
b. Connect 0.5 m optic fiber between emitter 1 output and detector l's input.
c. Connect detector 1 output to amplifier 1 input socket via 4mm lead.
3. Switch ON the Power Supply of the trainer and oscilloscope.
4. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V / Div and adjust 4 - 6 div amplitude by
using X 1 probe with the help of variable pot in function generator block at input 1 of
Emitter 1.
5. Observe the output signal from detector TP10 on CRO.
6. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal same as that of transmitted one with the
help of gain adjust potentiometer in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitude and
name it V1.
7. Now replace the previous FG cable with 1 m cable without disturbing any previous
setting.
8. Measure the amplitude at the receiver side again at output of amplifier 1 socket TP
28. Note this value end name it V2.
Calculate the propagation (attenuation) loss with the help of following formula.

Where is loss in nepers / meter

1 neper = 8. 686 dB
L 1 = length of shorter cable (0.5 m)
L 2 = Length of longer cable (1 m)
(Part B)
BENDING LOSS MEASUREMENT:

Fig.1.3

Mandrel

Connection Diagram:

Fig.1.4 Connection Diagram for bending loss for an optical link

Block diagram:

Function
Generator

Emitter
Circuit

mandrel
Detector
Circuit

Amplifier
Circuit

CRO

Optical cable

Fig.1.5 Measurement set up for analog loss for an optical link

Procedure:
1. Connect power supply cord to the main power plug & to trainer ST2502.
2. Make the connections as shown in figure 4.2.
a. Function Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to input socket of emitter
Circuit via 4 mm lead.
b. Connect 0.5 m optic fiber between emitter output and detectors input.
c. Connect Detector output to amplifier input socket via 4mm lead.
3. Switch On the power supply of the trainer and oscilloscope.
4. Set the Oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.5 V/ Div and adjust 4-6 div amplitude by using
X 1 probe with the help of variable pot in function generator Block at input of
Emitter.
5. Observe the output signal from detector (TP8) on CRO.

6. Adjust the amplitude of the received signal as that of transmitted one with the help
of gain adjusts potentiometer in AC amplifier block. Note this amplitude and name it
V1 .
7. Wind the fiber optic cable on the mandrel and observe the corresponding AC
amplifier
output on CRO, it will be gradually reducing, showing loss due to bends.
Tabular form:

Sl.No

Length
of cable

Voltage
(V)

Input
output
Frequency Voltage Frequency
(Hz)
(V)
(Hz)

Loss(dB)
Attenuation loss

L1=0.5m

Vin=

V1=

L2=1m

Resul
t:

0.5 m

V2=

2 bends
Vout= 3
bends
Vout=

Vin=

The attenuation and Bending Loss of an optical cable

are observed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.what is attenuation?
2.what are the properties of
optical cable? 3.what are
different types of bending
losses?

Bending loss

2. MEASUREMENT OF DATA RATE FOR DIGITAL OPTICAL LINK

Objective:
Measurement of Data rate or Bit Rate for Digital Optical Link
Equipments Required:

ST2502 trainer with power supply cord

Optical Fiber cable
Oscilloscope with power supply cord

Theory:
Bit rate, as the name implies, describes the rate at which bits are transferred from one
location to another. In other words, it measures how much data is transmitted in a given
amount of time. Bit rate is commonly measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second
(Kbps), or megabits per second (Mbps). Fiber optic digital link was used to transmit and
receive the data from one place another place. The bit rate is quantified using the bits per
second (bit/s or bps) unit.
Connection Diagram:

Fig.2.1 Connection diagram for measurement of Data Rate

Function
Generator

Emitter
Optical cable
Circuit

Detector
Circuit

Comparator
Circuit

Amplifier
Circuit

Fig.2.2 Block diagram for measurement of Data Rate

CRO

Procedure:
1. Set up the fiber optic digital link as explained earlier, and ensure that the link is
working satisfactorily.
2. Remove the on board TTL output from the emitter input and connect the TTL
output of square wave generator to emitter input.
3. Keep the frequency at 10 KHz.
4. Observe the received output on the oscilloscope.
5. Vary the frequency of the TTL input observing the output each time (You can
adjust the comparator's bias preset).
6. Note the frequency at which the output is distorted or reduces to zero. The bit rate
supported by the link is twice the frequency reading corresponding to zero/distorted
output in bits per second.
Tabular form:
Input

Output

Sl.No
Amplitude
(V)

Frequency
(Hz)

Bit Rate
(bits/sec)

Amplitude
(V)

Result:
The Data Rate for digital optical link was observed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is data rate?
2. Differences between bit rate and baud rate?

Frequency
(Hz)

Bit Rate
(bits/sec)

3. MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE

Objective:
Measurement of the Numerical Aperture (NA) of the fiber
Equipments Required:

ST2502 trainer with power supply cord

Optical Fibre cable

Numerical Aperture measurement Jig

Connection Diagram:

Fig. 3.1 Connection diagram for measurement of Numerical Aperture

Emitter
Circuit

Function
Generator

Fig. 3.2 Block diagram for measurement of Numerical Aperture

Procedure:
1. Connect the Power supply cord to mains supply and to the trainer ST2502.
2. Connect the frequency generator's 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter 1
circuit. Adjust its amplitude at 5Vpp.
3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter 1 circuit and the other
end to the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen facing the fiber
such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.
4. Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25mm diameter)
vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with 10
mm circle.
5. Record the distance of screen from the fiber end L and note the
diameter W of the

spo
t.

6. Compute the numerical aperture from the formula given below

7. Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make
it coincide with one of the concentric circles. Note its distance.
8.Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on

an
d

the white screen Computes the numerical aperture from the formula
given above.

Inferences: The N.A. recorded in the manufacturer's data sheet is 0.5. The
variation in the observation is due to fiber being used. The Acceptance
Angle is given by 2sinmax. The deviation from the data sheet is again due
to fiber being used.
Tabular Form:
S.NO

Diameter(W)mm

1
2

10
15

Length(L)mm

Numerical
Aperture

Acceptance
angle

3
4

20
25

Result:
The Numerical Aperture of optical cable was observed.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define Numerical Aperture?
2.What is acceptance angle?

4. CHARACTERIZATION OF LASER DIODE

Objective:
Study of Characteristics of LASER Diodes
(i) Optical Power (Po) of LASER Diode vs. LASER Diode Forward Current (IF)
(ii) Monitor photodiode current (IM) vs. LASER Optical Power Output (Po)
Equipments Needed:
1. Digital Multi-meters
2. LASER Transmitter & Receiver kits
Theory:
LEDs and LASER Diodes are the commonly used sources in optical communication
systems, whether the system transmits digital or analogue signals. In the case of analogue
transmission, direct intensity modulation of the optical sources is possible provided the
optical output from the source can be varied linearly as a function of the modulating electrical
signal amplitude. LEDs have a linear optical output with relation to the forward current over
a certain region of operation. It may be mentioned that in many low-cost, short-haul and
small bandwidth applications. LEDs at 660nm, 850nm, and 1300nm are popular. While direct
intensity modulation is simple to realize, higher performance is achieved by fm modulating
the base-band signal prior to intensity modulation.
LASER Diodes are used in telecom, data com and video communication applications
involving high speeds and long hauls. All single mode optical fiber communication systems
use LASERs in the 1300nm and 1550 nm windows. LASERs with very small line widths also
facilitate realization of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) for high density
communication over a single fiber. The inherent properties of LASER diodes that make them
suitable for such applications are high coupled optical power into the fiber (Typically greater
than 1 mW), high stability of optical intensity, small line-widths (less than 0.05 nm in special
devices), high speed (several GHz) and high linearity (over a specified region suitable for
analogue transmission). Special LASERs also provide for generation/ amplification of,
optical signals within an optical fiber. These fibers are known as erbium doped fiber
amplifiers; LASER diodes for communication applications are available in the wavelength
regions 650nm, 780nm, 850nm, 980nm, 1300nm and 1550nm.
Even though a variety of LASER diode constructions are available there are a number
of common features in all of them. We have selected a very simple device (650nm/2.5 mw) to
demonstrate the functioning of a LASER diode. Specifications of typical LASER diode at
650 nm are summarized below.

Specifications for LASER Diodes

Fig .4.1 Monitor Photo Detector (MPD) Automatic Power Control and Automatic
Current Control
Modes of Operation
A LASER diode has a built in photo detector, which one can employ to monitor the
optical intensity of the LASER at a specified forward current. This device is also effectively
utilized in designing an optical negative feedback control loop, to stabilize the optical power
of a LASER in the steep lasing region. The electronic circuit scheme that employs the
monitor photodiode to provide a negative feedback for stabilization of optical power is
known as the Automatic Power Control Mode (APC). If a closed loop employs current
control alone to set optical power then this mode is called the Automatic Current Control
Mode (ACC).

Fig 4.2. Schematic of a LASER diode Operation (ACC Mode)

The disadvantage of ACC scheme is that the optical power output may not stable at a
given current due to the fact that small shifts in the lasing characteristics occur with

temperature changes and ageing. The disadvantage of the APC is that the optical feedback
loop may cause oscillations, if not designed properly.
Procedure with Block Schematic for Po vs. IF Experiments:
The schematic diagram for study of the LASER DIODE Po as a function of LASER
DIODE forward current IF is shown below and is self explanatory.

Figure 4.3Block Diagram Representation of PO &IF Characteristics

1. Connect the 2 meter PMMA FO cable (cable 1) to TX Unit and couple the
LASER light to the power meter FO PIN on the RX Unit as shown. Select ACC
mode of operation.
2. Set DMM 1 to the 2000 mV range. On the RX side connect the wires marked Po
to it. Turn it on. The power meter is now ready for use. Po = (reading)/10 dBm. It
required change the DMM range to 200mV.
3. Set DMM2 to the 200.0 mV range and connect it between the wire VL and ground
on the TX unit. IF = VL
4. Adjust the SET IF on the TX knob to the extreme anticlockwise position to reduce
IF to zero. The power meter reading will normally be below -40dBm or out of
range.
5. Slowly turn the SET IF knob clockwise to increase IF and Po, Note IF and Po
readings. Take closer reading prior to and above the LASER threshold of LASER
Diode.
6. Plot the graph Po vs IF on a semi log graph sheet. Determine the slopes prior to
lasing and after
lasing. Record
the LASER
threshold
LASER Diode
current. It
should look like
as shown below

Fig. 4.4 PO VS.IF characteristics

Table of Readings: (ACC Mode/PMMA Cable):

Sl.No

VL(mV)

IF=VL/100mA

P0(dBm)

Inferences: From the above Table it is seen that the LASER optical output does not increase
appreciably for IF below the threshold LASER Diode current Ith. Above Ith, Po increases
steeply Po is very steep. The LASER threshold LASER Diode may be determined from the
graph or by recording closer readings.
Procedure with Block Schematic for IM vs Po Experiment:
The schematic diagram for study of the monitor photodiode current as a function of
LASER DIODE optical output Po is shown in figure 6 and is self explanatory.

Fig.4.5 Block Diagram Representation of PO &IM Characteristics

1. Connect the 2-meter PMMA FO cable to Po port of and couple the LASER light to
FO PIN the power meter as shown.
2. Set DMM 1 to the 2000 mV range. On the RX Unit, connect the Wires marked Po
to it. Turn it on. The power meter is now ready for use. Po = (Reading)/10 dBm
3. Set DMM2 to the 200.0mV range and connect it between the VM and ground on the
TX Unit.

4. Adjust the SET If knob to the extreme anticlockwise position to reduce IM to the
minimum value. There will be a negligible offset voltage.
5. Change Po in suitable Steps and note the VM readings. Record up to the extreme
clockwise position.
6. Plot the graph IM vs Po on a semi-log graph sheet IM = (VM)/ (100K).
Table of Readings, ACC/PMMA Cable:
Sl.No

P0(dBm)

VM(mV)

IM()=VM/100k

Inferences:
From the above Table it is seen that the MPD photo current sharply increases, above
the threshold LASER Diode Po, following the pattern of the first part of experiment. The
threshold LASER Diode Po and IF (threshold LASER Diode) may be computed from the plot
Precautions to be observed while handling LASER Diodes:
LASERs are highly ESD sensitive, use proper ESD protected facility
No LASER beam should LASER diode be viewed directly of from a highly
reflecting surface
LASERs are highly sensitive to transients.
Result:
The Characteristics of LASER diode are observed.

5. INTENSITY MODULATION OF LASER OUTPUT THROUGH AN OPTICAL FIBER

Objective:
To study of the AC characteristics of an intensity modulation laser and fiber optical systems
i) Vin (AC) VS out (AC) for fixed carrier Po and signal frequency fo .
ii) Vin (max) Vs Po for known distortion free out at fixed Fo.
Equipment required:
1 Laser diode design module ST 2506 Tx unit and Rx unit
2 Two meter PMMA fiber patches chord cable.
Theory:
The intensity modulation system is realized using the PHY-159Tx module and PHY-158
Rx unit linked through an optical fiber. We use the 2-meter PMMA fiber cable.
The laser carrier power, Po is set by adjusting the SET If knob in the middle laser.
Selection of optimum carrier power is essential to minimize distortion free transmission
.Limiting depth of the modulation also ensures distortion free transmission. The bandwidth of
the system in the present case is limited by photo detector.

Fig 5.1.Block diagram representation of intensity modulation through laser

Procedure:
1. Connect one end of the PMMA Fo cable to the laser port on the Tx unit. The other
end if first connected Fo pin to set the carrier power level of laser, then it is removed
and given to Fo. To study response of the 1m system.
2. Set DMM 1 to the 200mv range. Connect the wires marked P o to it. The power meter
is now ready for use, Po=reading/10db.
3. The Tx unit, connect Vn to a function generator (10Hz to 500KHz) sine wave output
10mv to 200mv (Vpp out o/p). Give the function generated o/p to ch1 as show it.
4. The Rx unit, connect Vout to Ch2 of the dual trace oscilloscope.
5.Plug the Ac mains for both systems.
6.With the PMMA Fo cable connected to the power meter adjust the set IF knob, to set
the optical carrier power Po to a suitable level, say -15 dm. Next disconnect the cable
from the power meter and connect to Fopt.
7.A set the signal frequency and amplitude to 2 KHz and 100mv respectively, observe
the transmitted and received signal on the oscilloscope. Set Rin suitably to get Vout =
Vin (or) a known the signal gain is now set, next vary Vin suitable values from 10mv

to 100mv. Vpp and the value of out is to be noted tabulated and plot a graph Vout Vs
Vin.
8.Set signal frequency to 2 KHz and Po to -25dbm disconnect Vin before Po
measurement. Set Vin to its maximum value for distortion free out. Note the values of
Vin and Vout. Repeat for other values of Po and record, change in gain if any. You may
additionally observe the wave form in the oscilloscope dc coupled position too.
Observations:
For same input power with different input levels:
SNO

Input Power

Vin(mV)

Vout(mV)

Gain

Vout(mV)

Gain

For same input levels with different input power levels:

SNO

Input Power

Vin(mV)

Result:
The Ac characteristics of an intensity modulation laser and fiber optical systems are
studied.

SDSD

Advanced experiments

SDSD

MEASUREMENT OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A GIVEN

MATERIAL
AIM: To measure the dielectric constant of given solid material
APPARATUS:
1. Klystron tube with mount
2. Isolator
3. Variable Attenuator
4. Frequency Meter
5. Slotted section
6. Detector Mount (DM)
7. CRO & CRO probes
8. Cooling Fan
9. Dielectric material
10. Short.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Set the various components and instruments as per the block diagram.
Switch on the Klystron Power Supply Unit (PSU) and CRO
Set the beam voltage to 300Vand repeller voltage for maximum output.
Now disconnect the DM and connect a short in place of .Now adjust the slotted
section for next minimum. The distance gives the value of
5. Place a cell in short and find the minimum position. It is the value of
6. Find out the distance between two successive minimums. It gives the D r.Value
of g by the formula g=2(d2-d1).
7. Now calculate the dielectic constant by the formula
2
2
2
r= ((a/) ( l / l) / ((2a/ g) +1) Where
a=length of the wave guide.
=2/ g
l =length of the cell.

SDSD

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Beam voltage should be minimum and repeller voltage should be normal
before switch ON/OFF the Klystron PSU.
RESULT:
The dielectric constant of given solid material is measured.

SDSD

STUDY OF PULSE WIDTH MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Objective: To study Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation over Fiber Optic
Digital Link.

Equipment Required:
1. Link - A Fiber Optic trainer kit.
2. 20 MHz Dual Trace Oscilloscope.
3. 1 Meter Fiber cables.
4. Power supply.

Theory:
The PWM is also known as pulse duration modulation. It modulates the time
parameter of the pulses. The width of PWM pulses varies. The amplitude is
constant; width of the pulse is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal. Bandwidth on transmission channel depends on rise time of the pulse. The
demodulation circuit used is a simple filter circuit that demodulator the PWM signal
and gives the original message input.

Experimental set up:

SDSD

Fig 3.1 Experimental setup for Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation Using fiber
Optic Link

Model Graphs:

Input Signal 1 KHz, 2Vpp

Pulse Width Modulated Signal Output

Buffer Output

SDSD

Detected Signal Output

Filter Output
Fig 3.2 Expected Waveforms

Procedure:1. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this,
ensure that the power supply is OFF. Now switch on the power supply.
2. Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.
3. Keep Jumpers JP2 & JP4 towards +5V position, JP3 towards pulse position, JP5 &
JP6 towardsTX1 position.
4. Keep Switch SW1 at 100 Hz - 1 kHz.
5. Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to PWM IN post of PWM/
PPM Modulator Section.
6. Keep sine frequency at 1 KHz & amplitude of 2Vp-p.
7. Keep Jumpers JP1 at 32 KHz position.
8. Observe PWM signal at PWM OUT Post.
9. Connect PWM OUT post of PWM/PPM Modulator Section to IN post of Digital
Buffer Section.
10. Connect OUT post of the Digital Buffer Section to TX IN post of TRANSMITTER.
11. Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V (660 nm). Do not remove the cap from the
connector.
12. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap. Now tight the cap by screwing
it back.
13. Keep Switch S3 in TXIN position.
14. Connect the other end of fiber to detector SFH551V (Digital Detector) very carefully.

SDSD

15. Observe the received signal over fiber at TTL OUT post. It should be exactly
similar to the signal available at PWM OUT post.
16. Slide the switch SW 2 to PWM position.
17. Connect this TTL OUT post to PWM DEMOD IN Post in PWM / PPM
Demodulator Section.
18. Vary input freq. POT P2 and observe demodulated signal at DEMOD OUT post.
19. Connect PWM / PPM DEMOD OUT post to IN post of Filter Section and observe
output at its OUT post which is same as Input signal.
20. For Different Sampling frequencies change the jumper cap of JP1 from 32 KHz to
the desired value of frequency. You can observe the PWM output clearly at lower
sampling frequency, demodulated PWM OUT is more distorted at lower sampling
frequency.

Precautions:
1. Should not deform the optical fiber.
2. Do not apply more pressure while connecting fiber cable to TX and
RX.
3. Connect the power supply connector carefully.
4. Connect the jumpers more carefully.

Result:

SDSD

Model Viva Questions:

1. What is Pulse Width Modulation?
2. What are the other names for PWM?
3. Why is PWM used rarely in any sort of communication or
broadcasting?
Where does PWM technology find its applicability

SDSD

SDSD