Setting reaction: On mixing and spatulating the

powder and water, an alginate sol is formed. The

sodium phosphate, present in the powder, dissolves
readily in the water whilst the gypsum is
only sparingly soluble (solubility about 0.2%).
The structural formula of sodium alginate is
given in Fig. 18.5a. This may be represented by
the simplifi ed structure given in Fig. 18.5b for the
purpose of clarifying the setting reaction.
Sodium alginate readily reacts with calcium ions
derived from the dissolved gypsum to form calcium
alginate, as shown in Fig. 18.6. The replacement
of monovalent sodium with divalent calcium
results in the cross-linking of the alginate chains
and the conversion of the material from the sol to
gel form. As the setting reaction proceeds, and the
degree of cross-linking increases, the gel develops
elastic properties.
Sodium phosphate plays an important role in
controlling the setting characteristics of alginate
materials. It reacts rapidly with calcium ions
as they are formed giving insoluble calcium
phosphate:
3Ca22Na3PO4 Ca
3(PO4)2 6Na
This reaction denies the supply of calcium ions
required to complete the cross-linking of alginate
chains and thus extends the working time of the
material. When all the sodium phosphate has
reacted, calcium ions become available for reaction
with sodium alginate, the setting reaction is
initiated and the viscosity of the material increases
rapidly.
Properties: The freshly spatulated material has
low viscosity (see Table 17.3), although this can
be varied to some extent by alterations in the
amount of inert fi ller incorporated by the manufacturer.
The low viscosity, coupled with a degree
of pseudoplasticity, classifi es alginates as mucostatic
impression materials. They are able to record
soft tissues in the uncompressed state. For some
applications low viscosity may be a disadvantage,
for example, when trying to record the depth of
the lingual sulcus. A higher viscosity is required
to displace the lingual soft tissues in order that the
full depth can be recorded.
It follows from the description of the setting
reaction that these products go through an induction
period following mixing, during which the
viscosity remains almost unaltered. This is followed
by rapid setting. The setting characteristics
of these materials, therefore, approach the ideal
requirement of adequate working time followed
by rapid setting. They are almost unique from this
point of view. The setting characteristics can be
further controlled by the operator by fi xing the
temperature of the water used. The use of warm
water reduces the working time and setting time
both by accelerating the rate at which sodium
phosphate is consumed and by subsequently
increasing the rate of the cross-linking reaction.
The use of cold water, naturally, has the reverse
effect.
In contrast to the reversible hydrocolloids, alginate

material adjacent to the oral tissues sets more

rapidly, whilst that adjacent to the cooler tray
Fig. 18.5 The structural formula of
sodium alginate. (a) Actual formula.
(b) Simplified formula.

160 Chapter 18

wall sets more slowly. Hence, the operator must

ensure that the impression tray is not moved
during setting, otherwise distortions occur.
Some of the properties of dental alginate impression
materials are outlined in the requirements of
ISO 1564. These are outlined in Table 18.2 where
a comparison with the agar products can be made.
Alginate is commonly used in bulk within a stock
or an appropriately spaced special tray. Greater
levels of accuracy of occlusal and interproximal
area are achieved if the surfaces of the teeth are
dried and excess alginate is smeared onto the
tooth surfaces using a fi nger. This helps to prevent
the incorporation of air bubbles in the surface
of the impression, which would be manifest as
pimples on the surface of the models of the
teeth.
Following setting, the material is fl exible and
elastic enough to be withdrawn past undercuts,
although it should be remembered that, as for
agar, the alginate materials are viscoelastic and
due regard to this should be made when withdrawing
the impression from the patients mouth
(see Section 18.2). The degree of cross-linking
continues to increase after the material has apparently
set. Waiting a further minute or two before
removing the impression enhances the elastic
nature of the materials.
Reference to Table 18.2 indicates that typically
alginate and agar materials are equally fl exible
and the range of strain in compression values
allowed is similar for the two materials. Some
alginate products are more fl exible as indicated by
the higher maximum value of strain in compression.
Elastic recovery is similar for the two materials,
although the standards require agar materials
to have a slightly higher recovery from deformation.
Alginate gels have poor mechanical propertie s
Fig. 18.6 Schematic representation
of the cross-linking of alginate
chains by replacement of sodium
ions with calcium ions.

Elastic Impression Materials: Hydrocolloids 161

and are liable to tear when removed from deep

undercuts, particularly in interproximal and subgingival
areas. Curiously the ISO Standard for
alginate materials does not specify a requirement
for resistance to tearing but instead specifi es a
minimum compressive strength (Table 18.2). Since
these materials are more likely to fracture by
tearing in tension than through crushing in compression
it is likely that this shortcoming will be
addressed in future editions of the standard.
Permanent distortions due to viscoelastic effects
and tearing are reduced slightly by using a large
bulk of material. It is normal to have approximately
35 mm of material between the tissues
and the tray.

The model should be cast as soon as possible,

in order to prevent inaccuracies due to dimensional
changes, because alginate impressions
undergo syneresis and imbibition by the same
mechanisms described for agar (see Section 18.2).
The impressions may be stored for a short time if
covered with a damp napkin.
Alginate impression materials are widely used
for a variety of applications. In prosthodontics,
they are used for recording impressions of edentulous
and partially dentate arches. In orthodontics,
they are used for recording impressions prior
to appliance construction and they are used extensively
for recording impressions for study model
construction. They are only rarely used for crown
and bridge work because their poor tear resistance
is a serious disadvantage when considering this
application.
Decontamination: Over recent years the need for
strict cross-infection control in dentistry has taken
on a new signifi cance, as stated earlier. The need
for a simple and effective means for the decontamination
of impressions has been identifi ed.
Most such procedures involve treatment in
aqueous solutions of hypochlorite or aldehyde
(formaldehyde or glutaraldehyde). For both agar
and alginate type materials soaking in aqueous
media presents a potential problem because of the
previously mentioned process of imbition which
causes dimensional change and distortion. Evidence
is emerging that for alginates a relatively
short term treatment (approximately 10 minutes)
can be effective without causing undue dimensional
change. Alternatively, the use of rinsing
combined with short dips in glutaraldehyde solution
or the use of a hypochlorite spray has been
suggested. An alternative is to disinfect the poured
stone cast by immersing it in sodium hypochlorite,
again for 10 minutes (see Appendix 1).