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Overview
Super duplex stainless steels
J.-O. Nilsson
This paper presents an overview of duplex stainless steels (DSS) with particular emphasis on super DSS, i.e. steels containing
sufficient amounts of chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen to produce a pitting resistance equivalent greater than 40. Duplex
stainless steels have an attractive combination of mechanical and corrosion properlies and are thus suitable for many marine and
petrochemical applications, particularly where chlorides are present. The paper covers the following aspects of DSS: physical
metallurgy, mechanical properties, corrosion properties, metallurgy of welding. machinability. and applications. A large number
of references to the literature are given to aid the reader who is interested in acquiring a deeper understanding of the behaviour
of this family of steels.
MST 1685
c 1992 The Institute of Materials. Manuscript received II May 1992. The author is in the Research and Development Centre.
AB Sandvik Steel, Sandviken, Sweden.
1 ntroduction
Duplex stainless steels (DSS) may be defined as a family
of steels having a two phase ferritic austenitic micro
structure, the components of which are both stainless, i.e.
contain more than 13%Cr*. In practice, the term DSS is
reserved for alloys in which ferrite and austenite are present
in relatively large separate volumes and in approximately
equal volume fractions, as opposed to alloys in which one
constituent appears in the form of small precipitates.
The discovery of a duplex microstructure was first
described by Bain and Griffiths in 1927 but it was not
until the l930s that DSS became commercially available.
When the OSS were compared with austenitic steels several
advantages became apparent, namely, higher mechanical
strength, superior resistance to corrosion, and a lower price
because of the low nickel content. It was later realised that
advantages could be obtained from the use of OSS in
environments where, owing to stress corrosion eracking,
standard austenitic steels were inappropriate.23 The interest
in OSS in recent years derives from the high resistance of
newly developed high alloy OSS to chloride induced
corrosion, which is a problem of major concern in many
marine and petrochemical applications. Perhaps even more
important are the great improvements in weldability
achieved by reducing the carbon content and increasing
the nitrogen content.
An attractive combination of corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties in the temperature range 50 to
250 C is offered by DSS. For example, the resistance to
stress corrosion cracking and pitting corrosion is excellent
and in many cases superior to that of standard austenitic
steels of comparable cost. Owing to the fine grained
structure yield strength values typically twice those of
austenitic grades are obtained in the annealed material
state without any substantial loss in toughness. It is
important to stress, however, that OSS are less suitable
than austenitic steels above 250C and below 50 C
because of the brittle behaviour of ferrite at these temper
atures. A factor of economic importance is the low content
of expensive nickel, usually 47% compared with 10% or
more in austenitic grades, as a result of which the life cycle
cost of the OSS is the lowest in many applications.56 Over
the past decade there has been an increased use of nitrogen
as an alloying element, stabilising austenite and therefore
replacing nickel in this respect. As a result of this, austenite
reformation during welding has become more rapid and
*All compositions are in wt-%.
Structure
685
686
Tradename
Producer
Standard
Cr
Mo
Ni
SAF 2304
UR 35N
3RE60
UR 45N
SAF 2205
2205
FALC 223
AF 22
VS 22
1 ORE51
DP 3
UR 52N
Ferralium 255
UR 47N
Zeron 100
UR 52N +
SAF 2507
Sandvik, Avestr
creusot-Loire
Sandvik, Avesta
Creusot-Loire
Sandvik
Avesta
Krupp Stahi
Mannesmann
Valinox
Sandvik
Sumitomo
Creusot-Loire
Langley AIIoys
Creusot-Loire
Weir
creusot-Loire
Sandvik, Avesta
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
UNS
23
23
1 85
22
22
22
22
22
22
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
02
02
2-7
3
3
3
3
3
3
1-5
3
3
3
3
3-6
3-8
3-8
4
4
5
5-3
5-3
5-3
53
5-3
5-3
4-5
6-5
6-5
6-5
6-5
7
6
7
0-1
0-1
0-07
0-17
017
0-17
0-Il
0-17
0-17
5 32304
5 32304
S31 500
S31803
5 31803
5 31803
5 31803
5 31803
5 31803
5 32900
5 31260
5 32550
5 32550
5 32200
5 32760
5 32550
5 32750
Vol. 8
Other elements
0-16
0-18
0-18
0-18
0-25
0-26
0-27
...
...
1 -5Si
.,.
,,.
...
..
- ...
...
o-Scu, O-3W
l6cu
1 -6cu
...
0-lcu, 0-7W
1 -Scu
...
PRE
25
25
29
35
35
35
35
35
35
30
37
38
38
38
41
42
42
z
1z
ui
z
1z
w
0
w
uj
0
0~
1
x
(9
0~
1x
(9
10
15
20
25
30
WEIGHT PERCENT GR
35
40
A
20
18
16
z
1z
LU
0
w
z
1- 14
z
w
0 12
Lii
0~ 10
11
(9
fl
(9
WEIGHT PERCENTCR
15 20 25 30
WEIGHT PERCENT GR
10
z
1z
w
0
Lii
0~
1r
(3
64
-~
05
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
WEIGHT PERGENT GR
Isothermal sections of FeCrNiMoN system at 1200, b 1100, c 1000, d 900, and e 800C calculated using
Thermocalc computer program for fixed fractions of 4%Mo and 03%N: composition of super duplex stainless
steel (DSS) is indicated by filled square
Vol. 8
688
1600
1500
1400
sj
1300
Lii
D 1200
Lii
0~
1100
w 1000
1-
,t4e
900
1+c+o
800
A
2
10 15 20 25 30 35
WEIGHT PERCENTCR
40
SAF 2507 have shown that the critical cooling rate to form
1, c phase is 04 K s
when a solution temperature of
1060 C is used. The computer program developed by
Josefsson et al.3 allows such estimations to be made in
any DSS provided the time temperature transformation
(TTT) diagram has been established.
Whereas u phase is avoided by cooling from a high
solution temperature, the conditions for Cr2N precipitation
will become more favourable, a factor that complicates
heat treatment for nitrogen alloyed DSS. This will be
discussed in the following subsection.
CHROMIUM NITRIDES
With the increased use of nitrogen as an alloying element
in DSS, and in super OSS in particular, the precipitation
of Cr2N in the temperature range 700 900 C has become
more important.32 The formation of Cr2N is likely to
occur when rapid cooling takes place from a high solution
temperature because supersaturation of nitrogen in ferrite
will occur as a conseguence. In such cases elongated
Cr2N particles often precipitate intragranularly with the
crystallographic relation <0001 >Cr2N 011 >~, an example
of which is shown in Fig. 5. Isothermal heat treatment in
the range 700 900 C usually results in the precipitation
of intergranular Cr2N, which decorates either & gram
boundaries or y 6 phase boundaries. An example of Cr2N
precipitating at y 6 phase boundaries on aging at 850 C
Type of
precip tate
Ferrite (
Austenite (
5
Chromium nitride
Chromium nitride
,t
t
M,C,
M,,C5
chemical
formula
Temperature
range in
DSS, C
Space
group
lmSm
Fm3m
P4, mnm
P3Im
Fm3m
l43m
R3
P4,32
Fmn,m
Pnma
F,n3m
-.
-
Fe Cr Mo
Cr,N
CrN
Fe,5Cr,,Mo1
FeCr Mo
Fe,Mo,,N4
NO
600 1000
700 900
700
550
550
550
950
600
900
650
600
650
1050
950
ND not determined.
Vol. 8
Lattice parameter nm
8
a
a
8
a
a
8
8
a
a
a
0 2860-288
0 3580-362
0-879, c 0454
0-480, c 0-447
0-413 0-447
0-892
1090, c 1934
0-647
0405, b 0-484 c
0452, b 0-699 c
1 056 1-065
Ref
16
17
0286
1-211
18
19
20
21
22
23
12
Cf~N
Cr2N
400nm
3)
a
Cr2N
ta1?
1
v
<01 >a11 <1>Cr2N
5
400nm
3pm
fl
Vol. 8
690
Cr2N
T
U
200nm
PHASE
Although intermetallic z phase is commonly found in DSS
in the temperature range 700 900 C, it is usually present
in much smaller quantities than a phase. The nose of the
C curve usually appears at lower temperatures than for
c phase. For instance, in SAF 2507 this temperature was
850 C, which is about 75 C lower than that for u phase in
the same alloy.29 The x phase has an adverse eftect on
toughness and corrosion properties but its effect is often
difficult to separate from that of ~ phase since x phase
and if phase often coexist. Owing to the lower volume
fraction of x phase it is less important than ~ phase, but
its effect cannot always be ignored. For example, below
the C curve of if phase in SAF 2507, pitting temperatures
can be low although there is virtually no if phase.
Precipitation of x phase is in part responsible for this,
because it consumes chromium and molybdenum and the
simultaneously formed secondary austenite becomes poor
in these elements.29
The x phase can of course be identified using electron
diffraction in the analytical transmission electron micro
scope (TEM). However, a much more useful survey of the
distribution of x phase is obtained when a plane specimen
is imaged in the scanning electron microscope (SEM) using
backscattered electrons. Owing to the higher content of
molybdenum, often about 20% (Ref. 35), in combination
with the large atomic scattering factor of molybdenum,
x phase appears in brighter contrast than ~ phase. This is
distinctly demonstrated in Fig. 8.
R PHASE
Since the observation of R phase was reported by
Hochmann et al.,36 R phase has been found to precipitate
in DSS in the range 550 700 C. The R phase is a
molybdenum rich intermetallic compound having a
trigonal crystal structure. In a recent investigation of
22Cr 8Ni 3Mo weld metal the R phase was found to
have an approximate composition of 30%Fe, 25%Cr,
6%Ni, 35oMo, and 4%Si.35 An uneven contrast is often
shown by R phase in the TEM, an example of which is
shown in Fig. 9, although this criterion alone is not
sufficient for identification but must be complemented with
electron diffraction analysis (see Fig. 9 inset). It was also
found in this investigation35 that toughness and critical
pitting temperature were reduced by the formation of
R phase. Both intergranular and intragranular precipitates
have been observed. The intergranular precipitates are
perhaps even more deleterious as regards pitting corrosion
Materials Science and Technology August 1992 Vol. 8
CARBIDES
In relatively carbon rich DSS, carbides of the typc M7C3
precipitate in the range 950 1050 C, whereas M23C6
carbides precipitate below 950 C. Both types of carbide
are observed predominantly at phase boundaries,3 but
precipitation at and y y boundaries has also been
observed.38 Carbides play a less important role in super
DSS than in traditional DSS because of the low carbon
content, which is often in the range 0010 &020%. Indeed,
<Oi2>~//<OO1>~
q
SQOnm
e1~
4)
800
700
6o0~
E
5o~
400
300
O.1[tm
11
.01
.1
lO
100
Time (h)
12 Temperaturetimeprecipitation curves for various
precipitates observed in SAF 2507
Mechanical properties
TENSILE STRENGTH
The strength in the quench annealed condition of the most
common types of OSS is compared with that of fully
austenitic and ferritic alloys in Table 3. It can be seen that
the yield strength of OSS is between two and three times
that of the austenitic grade AlSI 304.
Materials Science and Technology
August 1992
Vol. 8
692
1200
273
1000
0
0
w
800
5
14?
0.
600
E1)
400
200
.01
.1
10
100
1000
10000
Table 3 Typical values of mechanical properties of austenitic and ferritic stainless steels and solution annealed
DSS: values given should be used for comparison only
02%
Alloy
Standard
AISI 304
A1S1430
23Cr4Ni (SAF 2304)
22cr5Ni3Mo (SAF 2205)
2scr7Ni4Mo (SAF 2507)
UNS 5 30400
UN5543000
UNS 5 32304
UNS 5 31803
UNS 5 32750
proof stress
(min.),
MN m 2
210
205
400
450
550
nr room temperature.
Materials Science and Technology August 1992
Vol. 8
Ultimate
tensile
strength,
MN m2
Elongation
(min.) A5, %
515690
450
600820
680880
800 1000
45
20
25
25
25
Impact
toughness
at RT, J
Fluctuating
tension
fatigue
strength,
MN m 2
>300
120120
300
250
230
245 245
285 285
300 300
600
0
0
AFLA
500
1,
1.
Average Fatigue
UmitinAir
/D4
1)
E0
~400
Q.
~.
PS
4UT5
p5,$J2~
/vPlO2.rvP4 c,6V
-.
e~J
kIgO
~tv
--~!g&PNlI
~
,MS_J M5
.~
. -
OSult
01,13
01,11
63 300
2
PI V
Cooling time to
RI (s)
~ .
j200
FATIGUE STRENGTH
Owing to the higher strength of DSS compared with
austenitic steels the former are more resistant to fatigue.
Furthermore, provided corrosion mechanisms can be
ignored, they show a rather weIl defined fatigue limit when
Q4~
0_II_STS
02flhJ
100
Dags
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
CORROSION FATIGUE
Under corrosive conditions the fatigue strength is reduced
and a true fatigue limit is no longer observed.6 62 The
interaction between fatigue and corrosion is very complex
but there seems to be a strong correlation between pitting
resistance and corrosion fatigue resistance, presumably
because corrosion pits provide initiation sites for fatigue
cracks.6 When comparing fatigue data for different types
of DSS Charles8 found that alloys having higher PRE
values were more resistant to corrosion fatigue. Under
conditions where no pitting was expected the fatigue
strength in seawater environments was found to be
comparable to the fatigue behaviour in air. Some caution
must be used when interpreting such data, however, since
the corrosion fatigue behaviour depends strongly on the
Materials Science and Technology August 1992 Vol. 8
694
Corrosion
Although DSS have attractive mechanical properties, it is
largely because of their corrosion properties, e.g. pitting
corrosion, stress corrosion, and intergranular corrosion,
that they have received so much attention. The behaviour
of DSS is in many corrosive environments comparable or
superior to that of austenitic steels containing comparable
additions of chromium and molybdenum. The emphasis in
this section will be placed mainly on the major types of
corrosion, namely, localised (pitting) corrosion and stress
corrosion cracking, whereas intergranular corrosion, which
is a minor problem in DSS, will be discussed only briefly.
Pitting corrosion is perhaps the most harmful of these
since corrosion pits often provide initiation sites for fatigue
cracks and stress corrosion cracks.
The subject of corrosion is enormous and very complex
and therefore virtually impossible to cover in a general
overview of this nature. For example, the relative positions
of alloys in corrosion tests are found to be strongly
dependent on the environment. The reader who is interested
in gaining a deeper understanding of this subject is directed
to the review articles on corrosion in DSS that are
available477 and to the reference lists presented in these.
LOCALISED CORROSION
The resistance to localised corrosion in steels is strongly
dependent on the chemical composition. Generally, DSS
are at least as resistant as austenitic steels of the same
chromium and molybdenum content. ln practice, partly
because of the alloying additions of nitrogen in many
modern DSS, the resistance is often much higher, particu
larly in chloride containing environments. It is weil known
that chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen improve the
resistance to pitting corrosion in Fe Ni Cr alloys. The
effect of these eiements can be quantified by an empirical
parameter termed pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) which
is defined generally as follows91
PRE
%Cr +
3-3r
Mo) + kr0N)
90
80
70
1-
i60
3
050
c
tse
10
20
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
PRE=Cr+3.3Mo+16N
16
695
Temperalure. G (9
STRESS CORROSION
AIIoys that are subjected to the simultaneous action of
corrosion and mechanical stress may fail by stress corrosion
cracking.2 The usual mode of cracking in OSS is trans
granular but in sensitised steels, particularly austenitic
steels, intergranular cracking can be observed.85 Like
pitting resistance, resistance to stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) is dependent on a combination of the overall
chemical composition and microstructure, although it
seems that SCC is more sensitive to microstructure. All
the evidence obtained to date shows that austenitic steels
having moderate nickel contents are inherently more
sensitive to SCC than are OSS. Figure 17 shows the SCC
resistance for a selection of austenitic and duplex alloys
obtained in oxygen bearing (about 00008%) neutral
chloride solutions using a testing time of 1000 h at a stress
equal to the yield stress at the testing temperature.4 It is
apparent in Fig. 17 that the low alloyed type 23Cr 4Ni
OSS is superior to AISI 316 and AISI 304 austenitic steels.
It can also be concluded from this diagram that the
resistance to SCC in the OSS increases with additions of
chromium and molybdenum. The super OSS is even
superior to the highly alloyed Sanicro 28, which is a
27Cr 3INi 3Mo austenitic alloy.
It has been shown that the resistance to SCC can be
improved by increasing the volume fraction of ferrite in a
055.86 This is intimately related to the fact that the yield
strength of the ferritic component often exceeds that of
austenite, which is often reflected as a blocking of
transgranular cracks at ferrite grains.8 At low stress levels,
Hochmann et 01.88 conciuded that deformation is confined
to the austenite and the ferrite is left virtually undeformed.
They considered crack propagation under stress corrosion
to be plastic deformation followed by slip dissolution.
Clarke and Gordon85 investigated DSS at higher stresses
in high purity water at 288 C and found the OSS to be
superior to the austenitic steels of type 304 also under
these more severe conditions. In fact, the OSS 3RE60 did
not even fail at stresses as high as twice the yield stress.
At high stresses and in very aggressive chloride ion
containing media, the OSS do exhibit SCC failures. This
was observed in an investigation of duplex AISI 329 in
OIM NaCI at 300 C under constant loading89 and in low
stram rate tests at room temperature (RT) in IM HCI of
AlSI 304 weld metal containing varying amounts of
ferrite.9 Particularly severe conditions have been found
in chloride containing media in which either the pH value
is low or H2S is added. However, OSS having a
molybdenum content of about 3% and above show
satisfactory behaviour in hydrogen sulphide chloride
environments.91 This has been confirmed by labora
tory tests combined with successful long term service
performance in sour environments containing 2~
On a general note it is worth pointing out that laboratory
data must be interpreted with some caution since they are
often obtained from accelerated tests and it is therefore
not always known to what extent they simulate practical
service conditions. Furthermore, the relative ranking of
alloys is very sensitive to the type of environment employed.
This was elucidated by Jargelius et al.92 in a recent
investigation on a series of OSS ranging from 23Cr4Ni
to 25Cr 7Ni 4Mo. However, as demonstrated in the
investigations quoted above and also reflected in Fig. Il,
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
OSS.
Welding
Use is made of OSS weld metal in joining OSS and
producing corrosion resistant overlays on low alloy steels.
Because duplex filler metals are usually richer in alloying
elements than the corresponding parent metal they tolerate
substantial dilutions and still maintain a ferritic solidifi
cation mode. They are therefore suitable as filler metals in
dissimilar joints between OSS and low alloy steels.
However, the most common situation is the joining of two
duplex components and the following discussion will be
confined to this subject.
Materials Science and Technology August 1992
Vol. 8
5O~sm
18
1O~.tm
19
Vol. 8
5 ism
20
lissi:
240 ..CNMGI2O4I2OM
CNMGI2O4I2QF
Tool 4ie: 4 ni
240
~____~Li~2~
~E
220
200
-00215
leo
In
1111.00:
145
/
,
l~jEhfr_
~% v
w 71,2
xy
ONMG 12041: OM
002Y
lee
140
~ ~
Innent
00 NMG 12041 2Cr
002 S
w
LT~ TooIIIe4ns.
40
4e
I~TooIIte lOmin
20]
2(~
(b)
o______
0
21
0.1
0.2
Inneot
CNMG 120412QM
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Oliplonning
Foed. imnvrev.
Pd,I,inering
Fdncr~g
Pd
0.
0,2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Ohiplornring
Feed. mnvrev.
Pd,hiOedr.g
Fr110oring
Pd
(c)
0
0.
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Food. mnofrev.
Chip lorrnlng
Friliering
Pd,lsillering
Machinability diagrams for a SAF 2304, b SAF 2205, and c SAF 2507. with recommended cutting insert
indicated: key gives limiting mechanisms Pd denotes plastic deformatien (From Ref. 109)
Machinability
Good machinability is essential to the manufacturer of
steel products because of its implications for productivity.
The term machinabitity is very broad, involving various
operations such as turning, drilling, cutting, and threading.
tt is widely known that DSS are more difficult to machine
than standard austenitic steels. This is in part retated to
the higher strength of the DSS but other factors such as
the low votume fraction of non-metatlic inclusions and the
tow carbon content in modern DSS atso contribute.
The machinability of steets can be improved and
controtted by the introduction of non-metatlic inclusions.
Advantage has been taken of this efiect in DSS of the
type 22Cr 5Ni 3Mo by increasing the sulphur content.09
However, an inevitable consequence of this is that corrosion
resistance and toughness are reduced. In other words, a
steel which is optimised for machining operations is usuatty
not optimised with respect to corrosion properties and
vice versa. Therefore, good corrosion resistance in DSS
requires a compromise as regards machinability.
Extensive work has been performed to characterise
the conditions necessary for good machinability in
the standardised DSS SAF 2304, SAF 2205, and
SAF 2507.109110 The results are often presented in diagrams
where the abscissa represents feed and the ordinate
represents cutting speed, and a shaded area disptays the
fietd of good machinability. Typicat diagrams for these
DSS are shown in Fig. 2t, in which information concerning
the recommended type of cemented carbide cutting insert
is also given together with toot life recorded during the
tests. A general conclusion to be drawn from these
investigations is that the field of good machinability is
reduced for increasing amounts of attoying etements.
Experience has shown that molybdenum has a particularly
Materials Science and Technology
August 1992
Vol. 8
698
Applications
Before OSS were introduced onto the market, the only
alternatives to AlS! 304 and 316 austenitic steels in
aggressive environments were the expensive nickel rich
austenitic steels. Experience from the past two decades has
shown that the OSS provide alternatives that are not only
more corrosion resistant than the austenitic grades but
also low in expensive nickei. As a result of this, in
combination with mechanical strength, toughness, and
good weldability, they are suitable for many applications,
particularly in chloride containing media. it is of course
possible to find other types of steel that are superior to
the OSS in one single respect, but the combination of the
above mentioned properties shown by OSS is often
outstanding.
The DSS have earned a place in the chemical, petro
chemical, pulp and paper, power, and oil and gas industries.
The biocompatibility of OSS having high PRE values
has also been demonstrated and they are now used as
implantation material in the human body.tm It is not
appropriate in a review of this nature to include a full
description of the large number of varied applications in
these areas. The reader who is interested in detailed
information concerning applications and service experience
is directed to the literature2 120 and to the data sheets
provided by the producers. However, the survey of difterent
applications given in Table 4, which is by no means
Conciuding remarks
Experience has shown that there is always a certain
incubation period from the time of market introduction
of a new alloy to the general acceptance among end users.
For OSS this is in part explained by the initial difficulties
in welding the carbon rich OSS that were first introduced.
However, the welding problem in modern OSS has now
been overcome to the extent that welds can be produced
that have corrosion and mechanical properties that are
almost as good as those of the base material. This has
been achieved by a combination of alloy design and
development of welding procedures.
When appropriately treated, the OSS are unrivalled in
a large number of applications in the temperature range
50 to 250 C where a combination of corrosion resistance
and mechanical strength is required. However, the duplex
microstructure, which is the key to the unique properties,
also renders them inherently sensitive to phase transform
ations that may lead to red uced toughness and or corrosion
properties. Correct heat treatment and welding requires a
thorough knowledge of the relationship between micro
structural phenomena and properties. It is therefore
essentiai for steel producers to convey this knowledge to
manufacturers and users. In this paper much attention
has been paid to deleterious phenomena such as the
precipitation of undesirable phases of various types. In
conjunetion with this, the conditions for avoiding these
phase transformations are defined and it is therefore hoped
that this review article provides a basis for the successful
use of DSS.
Acknowlodgments
This paper is published with the permission of AB Sandvik
Steel. The comments on the manuscript by the authors
colleagues at Sandvik Steel Research and Development have
been of invaluable help. ln particular, the encouragement of
Dr H. Widmark, and the assistance of Mr A. Wilson in
calculating the phase diagrams are gratefully acknowiedged.
23Cr4Ni--Ol Mo,
PRE = 25
22Cr5Ni3Mo,
PRE=3036
25cr DSS
PRE 32 40
Chemical
Piping, instrumentation
tubing
Petrochemical
Digester preheater,
evaporators
Feed water heaters,
reheaters
Digesters. digester
preheaters
Bleaching equipment
sec tor
Power generation
(nuctear and fossil)
Oil and gas
Vol. 8
Pump casings,
desulphurisation equipment
Nilsson
Referonces
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699
August 1992
Vol. 8
700
Nilsson
August 1992
Vol. 8