Unit 4

System design Protection

4.1. General
Installations are to be protected against over currents including short-circuits, and other
electrical faults. The tripping/ fault clearance times of the protective devices are to
provide complete and co-coordinated protection to ensure:
a) availability of essential and emergency services under fault conditions through
discriminative action of the protective devices; as far as practicable the
arrangements are also to secure the availability of other services;
b) elimination of the fault to reduce damage to the system and hazard of fire.
Short-circuit and overload protection are to be provided in each non-earthed line of each
system of supply and distribution, unless exempted. Short circuit protection is to be
provided for each source of power and at each point at which a distribution circuit
branches into two or more subsidiary circuits. Where protection for generator power
circuits is provided at the associated switchboard, the cabling between generator and
switchboard is to be of a type, and installed in a manner such as to minimize the risk of
short-circuit.
Protection for battery circuits is to be provided at a position external and adjacent to
the battery compartments. Protection may be omitted from the following:
a) Engine starting battery circuits.
b) Circuits for which it can be shown that the risk resulting from spurious operation
of the protective device may be greater than that resulting from a fault.
Short circuit protection may be omitted from cabling or wiring to items of equipment
internally protected against short-circuit or where it can be shown that they are unlikely
to fail to a short-circuit condition and where the cabling or wiring is installed in a manner
such as to minimize the risk of short circuit.
Overloaded protection may be omitted from the following:
a) one line of circuits of the insulated type;
b) circuits supplying equipment incapable of being overloaded, or overloading the
associated supply cable, under normal conditions, and unlikely to fail to an
overload condition.
4.2. Protection against short-circuit
Protection against short-circuit currents is to be provided by circuit-breakers or fuses.
The rated short circuit making and breaking capacity of every protective device is to be
adequate for the prospective fault level at its point of installation; the requirements for
circuit breakers and fuses are detailed below.
The prospective fault current is to be calculated for the following set of conditions:
a) all generators, motors and , where applicable, all transformers, connected as far as
permitted by any interlocking arrangements;
b) a fault of negligible impedance close up to the load side of the protective device.
In the absence of precise data, the prospective fault current may be taken to be:
a) for alternating current systems at the main switchboard: 10 x f.l.c. (rated full load
current) for each generator that may be connected, or, if the sub transient direct

axis reactance, Xd, of each generator is known, f.l.c./ Xd (p.u.) for each
generator, and 3 x f.l.c. for motors simultaneously in service;
b) battery-fed direct current systems at the battery terminals:
(i)
15 times ampere hour rating of the battery for vented lead-acid cells, or of
alkaline type intended for discharge at low rates corresponding to a battery
duration exceeding three hours, or
(ii)
30 times ampere hour rating of the battery for sealed lead-acid cells having a
capacity of 100 Ampere hours or more, or of alkaline type intended for
discharge at high rates corresponding to a battery duration not exceeding three
hours and,
(iii) 6 x f. l.c. for motors simultaneously in service (if applicable).
4.3. Protection against overload
Fuses, circuit breakers and other protective devices provided for overload protection
are to have fusing/tripping characteristics ensuring the protection of cabling and electrical
machinery against overheating resulting from mechanical or electrical overload.
Fuses for a type intended for short-circuit protection only are not to be used for
overload protection.
4.4. Circuit-breakers
Circuit-breakers for alternating current systems are to satisfy the following
conditions:
a) the r.m.s. symmetrical breaking current for which the device is rated is to be not
less than the r.m.s. value of the a.c. component of the prospective fault current, at
the instant of contact separation;
b) the peak asymmetrical making current for which the device is rated is not to be
less than the peak value of the prospective fault current at the first half cycle,
allowing for maximum asymmetry;
c) the power factor at which the device short circuit ratings are assigned is to be no
greater than that of the prospective fault current; alternatively for high voltage, the
rated percentage d.c. component of the short-circuit breaking current of the device
is to be not less than that of the prospective fault current.
Circuit-breakers for d.c. systems are to have a breaking current not less than the initial
prospective fault current. The time constant of the fault current is not to be greater
than that for which the circuit-breaker was tested.
4.5. Fuses
Fuses for a.c. systems are to have a breaking current rating not less than the initial
r.m.s. value of the a.c. component of the prospective fault current. Fuses for d.c. systems
are to have a d.c. breaking current rating not less than the initial value of the prospective
fault current.
4.6. Circuit-breakers requiring back-up by fuse or other device
The use of circuit-breaker having a shot-circuit current capacity less than the
prospective short-circuit current at the point of installations permitted, provided that it is

preceded by a device having at least the necessary short-circuit capacity. The generator
circuit breakers are not to be used for this purpose.
The same device may back-up more than one circuit-breaker provided that no
essential or emergency service is supplied from there, or that any such service is
duplicated by arrangements unaffected by tripping of the device.
The combination of back-up device and circuit-breaker is to have a shot circuit
performance at least equal to that of a single circuit-breaker satisfying the requirements
of circuit breakers.
Evidence of testing of the combination is to be submitted for consideration;
alternatively, consideration may be given to arrangements where it can be shown that:
a) the takeover current, above which the back-up device would clear a fault, is not
greater than the rated short-circuit breaking capacity of the circuit-breaker and;
b) the characteristics of the back-up device, and the prospective fault level, are such
that the peak fault current rating of the circuit-breaker cannot be exceeded and;
c) the Joule integral of the let-through current of the back-up device does not exceed
that corresponding to the rated breaking current and opening time of the circuitbreaker.
4.7. Protection of generators
The protective gear is to be provided as a minimum. Generators not arranged to run in
parallel are to be provided with a circuit-breaker arranged to open simultaneously, in the
event of short-circuit, overload or under-voltage, all insulated poles. In the case of
generators rated at less than 50 kW, a multipole linked switch with a fuse will be
acceptable.
Generators arranged to operate in parallel are to be provided with a circuit-breaker
arrangement to open simultaneously, in the event of short-circuit, overload or undervoltage, all insulated poles. This circuit-breaker is to be provided reverse power
protection with time delay, selected or set within the limits of 2 percent to 15 per cent of
full load to a value fixed in accordance with the characteristics of the prime mover; a fall
of 50 per cent in the applied voltage is not to render the reverse power mechanism
inoperative, although it may alter the amount of reverse power required to open the
breakers.
The generator circuit-breaker short circuit and overload tripping arrangements, or
fuse characteristics, are to be such that the machines thermal withstand capability is not
exceeded.
4.8. Load management
Arrangements are to be made to disconnect automatically, after an appropriate time
delay, circuits of the categories noted below, when the generator(s) is/are overloaded;
sufficient to ensure the connected generating set(s) is/are not overloaded:
a) non-essential circuits;
b) circuits feeding services for habitability
c) in cargo ships, circuits for cargo refrigeration.
If required, this load switching may be carried out in one or more stages, in which case
the non-essential circuits are to be included in the first group to be disconnected.
Consideration is to be given to providing means to inhibit automatically the starting of

large motors, or the connection of other large loads, until sufficient generating capacity is
available to supply them.
4.9. Feeder circuits
Isolation and protection of each feeder circuit is to be ensured by a multipole circuitbreaker or linked switch with a fuse in each insulated conductor. The protective devices
are to allow excess current to pass during the normal accelerating period of motors.
4.10. Motor circuits
Motors of rating exceeding 0.5 kW and all motors for essential services are to be
protected individually against overload and short circuit. For motors which for essential
services are duplicated, the overload protection may be replaced by an overload alarm.
Protection for both the motor and its supply cable may be provided by the same device,
provided that due account is taken of any differences between ratings of cable and motor.
Where operation of an item of equipment is dependent upon a number of motors,
consideration may be given to the provision of a common means of short circuit
protection. For motors for intermittent service, the characteristics of the arrangements for
overload protection are to be chosen in relation to the load factor(s) of the motor(s).
Where fuses are used to protect polyphase motor circuits, means are to be provided to
protect the motor from unacceptable overcurrent in the case of single phasing.
TASK 1. Match the protection with the parts protected:
A

B.

C.

Protection type
a) Engine starting battery circuits.
b) Circuits for which it can be shown that
the risk resulting from spurious operation
of the protective device may be greater
than that resulting from a fault.
a) one line of circuits of the insulated
type;
b) circuits supplying equipment incapable
of being overloaded, or overloading the
associated supply cable, under normal
conditions, and unlikely to fail to an
overload condition.
a) availability of essential and emergency
services under fault conditions through
discriminative action of the protective
devices; as far as practicable the
arrangements are also to secure the
availability of other services;
b) elimination of the fault to reduce
damage to the system and hazard of
fire.

Protected parts
1. The tripping/ fault clearance times of
the protective devices are to provide
complete and co-coordinated protection
to ensure:
2. Protection for battery circuits is to be
provided at a position external and
adjacent to the battery compartments.
Protection may be omitted from the
following:
3. Overloaded protection may be
omitted from the following:

4.11. Vocabulary
associated switchboard ~ tablou anex
back-up device ~ instrument/ mechanism de rezerv
battery-fed ~ alimentat la baterie
branche ~ a se ramifica
breaking current rating ~ capacitatea curentului de rupere
cargo refrigeration ~ refrigerarea mrfii
electrical fault ~ scurtcircuit
exempted ~ exceptat
f.l.c. = rated full load current ~ curent de plin sarcin
fuse ~ siguran fuzibil
fusing/tripping characteristics ~ caracteristici de declanare
lead-acid cell ~ baterie pe baz de plumb
let-through current ~ current de trecere
making and breaking capacity ~ capacitate de ntrerupere
multipole circuit-breaker ~ ruptor multipolar
multipole linked switch ~ ntreruptor multipolar cuplat
non-essential circuit ~ circuit neesenial
overcurrent ~ supracurent
overloaded protection ~ protecie de suprancrcare
peak asymmetrical making current ~ maximum asimetric al currentului de nchidere
power factor ~ factor de putere
r.m.s = root mean square ~ valoare efectiv
rated full load current ~ curent la capacitate maxim
reactance ~ reactan
secure ~ a asigura
spurious operation ~ funcionare accidental/ perturbatoare
subsidiary circuits ~ circuite auxiliare/ secundare
symmetrical breaking current ~ curent simetric de rupere
takeover current ~ curent de conectare
thermal withstand capability ~ capacitate de susinere termic
time delay ~ ntrziere
tripping/ fault clearance times ~ perioad de reglare a declanrii
under-voltage ~ sub tensiune
4.12. Compound nouns
A compound noun is formed from two nouns, or an adjective and a noun. It is a fixed
expression that functions as a noun. They can be found in every day conversation or
different texts, so many of them are well known. Anyway, the spelling should be checked
because they can be written in one word, two words or with a hyphen: earring, parking
meter, T-shirt. Compound nouns can be countable, uncountable or used either in the
singular or in the plural. If both words are understood, the meaning will usually be clear.
Some common countable nouns are: heart attack, assembly line, windscreen wiper,
handcuffs, etc.

Uncountable nouns cannot be used with a/an article, and some examples are: airtraffic control, data-processing, income tax, junk food, blood pressure, food
poisoning, mail order, hay fever, etc.
Some compound nouns can be used only in the singular: generation gap, mother
tongue, greenhouse effect, brain drain, death penalty, labour force, sound barrier,
etc.
Other compound nouns are used only in the plural, and some of the most common are:
luxury goods, road works, human rights, traffic lights, etc.
A large number of compound nouns are based on phrasal verbs, so they are more
difficult to be understood, although they are used more often:
walk-out ~ strike,
break-out ~ escape,
shake-up ~ change,
break-up ~ collapse,
takeover ~ purchase by another company,
cutbacks ~ reductions,
input ~ information that is put in,
output ~ production
turnover ~ change
breakthrough ~ important discovery
Compound nouns are very frequent in technical texts and sometimes the meaning of
the technical compounds is different from the general one:
over currents
switchboard
short-circuits
electrical faults
emergency services
subsidiary circuits

battery-fed
lead-acid
electrical machinery
circuit-breaker
prime mover
cargo ships

TASK 2 Exercises with compounds.

Exercise 1. Try to translate the compound terms from the table above.
Exercise 2. Complete these definitions with the correct compound noun.
1. Your first language is also called your mother
2. Stories about the future are called science ..
3. The place where you buy tickets for the theatre or cinema is the box.
4. Someone who looks after children when the parents are out is a baby-..
5. A long line of cars moving slowly is a traffic .
6. The room where you eat meals is the . room.
7. Tax you pay on your salary is called ..tax.

8. Your sisters husband or your husbands brother is your .-in-.

Exercise 3 Add two more words in each group to form a compound noun.
1. traffic lights
traffic.
traffic.
2. box office
. office
office
3. bedroom
.room
.room
4. brother-in-law
-in-law
-in-law
Exercise 4. Match a word from the left with a word from the right to form six compound
nouns.
1. first
a. meter
..
2. cheque
b. machine
.
3. film
c. book
..
4. washing
d. paper

5. parking
e. aid
.
6. writing
f. star

Exercise 5 Complete the compound adjectives in these dialogues

1. A: Look at him. Hes famous, isnt he?
B: Yes, hes very well-_________.
2. A: What a handsome man!
B: Yes, he is good-________, isnt he?
3. A: Do nurses earn a good salary?
B: No, they are badly -________.
4. A: Julies so relaxed, isnt she?
B: Yes, I find her very easy-_________ too.
5. A: Theyve got plenty of money.
B: Yes, theyre not badly-________.
6. A: So you work all day?
B: Yes. Its a full-_________ job.
7. A: That lady always looks so smart.
B: Yes, shes very well-_________.
8. A: Those children are always so good.
B: Yes, theyre very well-_________.
Exercise 6 Re-order these words from sentences. Add a hyphen (-) where necessary.

1. bill / I / yesterday / the / dollar / found / a / fifty / street / in

2. ten / to / it / a / drive / is / minute / only / office / my
3. delay / had / airport / hour / three / the / unfortunately / we / a / at
4. hotels / in / stay / star / movie / often / five / stars
5. a / child / cant / year / understand / you / old /expect / three / to
Exercise 7 Complete the letter below with suitable compound adjectives from the box.
badly-paid
easy-going

well-behaved
south-west

part-time
brand-new

five-minutes
six-year-old

four-month-old
well-off

Dear Martha,
Well, Ive arrived in London and Ive been incredibly lucky I found a job the day
after I arrived here! I m staying with an English family and Im looking after the
children. Its only a (1) __________ job, so Ill be free in the morning and evenings.
The family are really nice very relaxed and (2) __________ and the house is big and
beautiful, so they are obviously quite (3) __________. Whats more, theyve got a (4)
__________ car which Im allowed to drive when Im collecting the children from
school. Theres a (5) __________ baby and (6) __________ twins who are very (7)
___________ children, which makes life easy for me! The house is in (8) ___________
London, which is a very pleasant area and its near Wimbledon only a (9)
___________ walk from the famous tennis club! The only problem is that looking after
children is a (10) __________ job, but I have got free accommodation. Why dont you
come and see me?
Love, Erica
Exercise 8 Fill the gaps with a suitable word.
1. I bought a second-_________ coat but unfortunately its very _________-made.
2. The film was well-________ (Tom Cruise was brilliant), but very _________directed.
3. _________-handed people find it more difficult to use normal scissors.
4. he went out in the cold wearing only a short-_________ shirt.
5. He managed to find a seat in the first-_________ section of the plane.
Keys to tasks and exercises
TASK 1. 2 A.; 1 C; 3 B.
TASK 2 Exercises with compounds.
Exercise 1. Look at vocabulary of the units 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Exercise 2.

1. mother tongue; 2. science fiction; 3. box-office; 4. baby-sitter; 5. traffic jam; 6.

dinning room; 7. income tax; 8. brother-in-law.
Exercise 3
1. traffic lights; traffic jam; traffic congestion; warden;
2. box office; post office; ticket office;
3. bedroom; living room; dinning room; bathroom; sitting room; waiting room; spare
room;
4. brother-in-law; sister-in-law; mother-in-law; father-in law; son-in-law; daughter-in
law.
Exercise 4.
1. first aid; 2. cheque book; 3. film star; 4. washing machine; 5. parking meter; 6.
writing paper.
Exercise 5
1. well-known; 2. good-looking; 3. badly-paid; 4. easy-going; 5. badly-off; 6. full-time;
7 well-dressed; 8. well-behaved.
Exercise 6
1. I found a fifty-dollar bill in the street yesterday.
2. It is only a ten-minute drive to my office.
3. Unfortunately we had a three-hour delay at the airport.
4. Movie stars often stay in five-star hotels.
5. You cant expect a three-year old child to understand.
Exercise 7
1.part-time; 2.easy-going; 3.well-off; 4.brand-new; 5.four-month-old;
year-old; 7.well-behaved; 8.south-west; 9.five-minute; 10.badly-paid.

6.six-

Exercise 8
1.second-hand; badly-made; 2.well-acted; badly-directed; 3.left-handed; 4.shortsleeved; 5.first-class.