ANIMAL SCIENCE 5

JULY 01, 2015

PRINCIPLES
BREEDING

OF

GENETICS

AND

ANIMAL

A) Definition of genetics and heredity

B) Mendelian laws of inheritance
C) Function
of
genes:
Segregation
and
recombination of genes
D) Dominance and recessiveness
E) Genotype and phenotype
F) Selection
G) Selection of superior breeding stock
H) Methods of selection
I) Breeding systems
J) Importance of genetics and breeding in the
animal diversity
INTRODUCTION

EARLY
DOMESTICATION
Humans began domesticating animals more than 10,000 years ago beginning with
dogs.
Ruminants (cattle, sheep and goats) were the first food animals to be domesticated
followed by pigs, possibly to dispose of table scraps and waste products.
Horses and cattle were domesticated primarily for transportation and draft work
purposes.
Early people found animals that form large herds or flocks and eat a wide variety of
feeds are easier to domesticate.

Domestication involves more than simply taming. Animals are

considered to be domesticated when:

they are kept for a distinct purpose

humans control their breeding
their survival depends on humans
they develop traits that are not found in the wild
Domestication
humans to:

allowed

Contain animals with the right temperament

Have a steady food supply
Use animals for companionship, religious purposes and draft work

In return, the animals received protection and a constant food supply.

Selective breeding occurred as humans got rid of animals with
undesirable traits, not allowing them to reproduce.

Which of these animals was

domesticated first?
List them in the order you think they were domesticated on your notes
page.
Cattle?
Horses?
Goats?
Chickens?
Pigs?
Turkeys?
Sheep?

WHATS YOUR GUESS?

Sheep: Domesticated 11,000-15,000 years ago

-Domesticated in the mountains of Southeast Europe and Central/Southwest Asia.
These areas include the countries of Greece, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Hungary, Uzbekistan,
Syria Yugoslavia, Turkmenistan, Iraq , Romania, Tajikistan, Bulgaria, Afghanistan and
Iran.
-Favorable because of their wool and meat for which they are still used and bred today.
Because of selective breeding for traits and other results of domestication, sheep are
the only species of livestock that would be unable to return to the wild.

Cattle: Domesticated 10,000-15,000 years ago

-Domesticated near the boundary of Europe and Asia and/or Southwest Asia. This area
includes the countries of: Russia, Turkey, Ukraine, Syria, Moldavia, Turkmenistan, Iran,
Iraq.
-In the beginning, cattle were used mainly for meat, milk and labor but eventually
were replaced by horses in most of the draft work.

Horses: Domesticated approx. 5,000 years ago

-Horses were domesticated in Eastern Europe and Western Asia. This area includes the
countries of Mongolia and Siberia.
-Originally, horses were used for meat and milk, but eventually became useful as pack
and draft animals.

Pigs: Domesticated 5,000 -9,000 years ago

-Pigs were first domesticated in the Middle East (Mesopotamia) in countries such as
Syria, Iraq and Turkey and then spread across Asia, Europe and Africa.
-Pigs were utilized more in settled farming communities than in nomadic groups
because they are difficult to move for long distances.

Goats
-The goat was among the earliest animals to be domesticated, around 6000 -7000 B.C.
in Western Asia.
-The goat could easily revert to its wild state.

Chickens
-Chickens were known in China more than 3,400 years ago and also in Southeast Asia
(China, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Burma)

Turkeys
-The turkey is the only North American domestic animal and was domesticated in
middle North America.

BASIC PROCESS OF INHERITANCE

INHERITANCE anything acquired or possessed by decent or succession.
- Physical or mental characteristics from ancestry.

Bodies of all higher organisms are composed of many billions of microscopic

cells. Each of these body or somatic cells contains a large number of hereditary
units called GENES.

GENE the chemically complex unit which is assumed to be the carrier of

specific physical characters from parents to offspring, being transmitted through
the chromosomes of the gametes and subject to many influences, as mutation,
translocation and crossing over.

Genes occurs in pairs.

CHROMOSOMES deeply straining, rod or looped shaped bodies into which the
chromatin of the cell nucleus divides during mitosis, generally of a fixed number
for any given species.

The fundamental processes of heredity were discovered over 1oo years ago by
an Austrian monk, GREGOR MENDEL, in experiments with garden peas.
ASSIGNMENT:
DIPLOID CHROMOSOME NUMBERS OF SOME COMMON MAMMALS
COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAME
Man Horse Ass Cattle Swine Sheep Goat Mouse Rat
Chicken
Duck
Turkey
Geese
Quail

CHROMOSOME NUMBER

UNIT 1
ANIMAL BREEDING AND INTERRELATIONSHIPS

OBJECTIVES OF ANIMAL BREEDING:

The improvement of farm animals by selective breeding is highly effective and sustainable means of
improving livestock.
Genetic change is cumulative and permanent so that an improvement gained is maintained without
further input.
New genetic gain also builds upon past improvement.
In the past, breeding objectives are relatively simple, such that animals were selected that grew faster,
produce more milk or lay more eggs.
In recent years the aim of the breeding industry have broadened and become more complex, because
consumers become increasingly interested in product quality and safety, concern about the welfare of
the animals and the environment.
These change resulted in broader range of traits being included. Many of these traits now included are
more difficult to work with being expensive and difficult to measure (e.g. meat quality, disease
resistance).
The overall aim of research in animal breeding is to allow animal breeders to respond very effectively
to changing priorities and to take full advantage to new emerging new technologies such as
genomics, cloning, and increasing computer power.
Research thrust in animal breeding includes selection for disease resistance, increased reproductive
performance, and animal behavior.

Objectives of Animal Breeding (summary)

1. Improve the quantity of production of farm animals and their products per unit of time.
2. Improve the efficiency of production of farm animals and their products.
3. Improve the quality of farm animals and their products.
4. Improve the aesthetic value of farm animals and their products.

GENETICS is the science that deals with heredity and variation.

ANIMAL GENETICS is the branch of genetics that deals with the principles of genetics exclusive to animals,
whether feral or domesticated in nature.
PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL BREEDING

ANIMAL BREEDING is the science that deals with the application of various animal genetic principles
purposely:
::: to improve or enhance the performance of livestock or poultry species.

ANIMAL BREEDING is an art and science of the genetic improvement of farm animals.

GENETIC IMPROVEMENT is the purposeful manipulation of the genetic constitution of animals which
determines the expression of their inherent characters.
REPRODUCTION the flow of genetic material from one generation to the next.

Rate of genetic improvement depends on:

a.
b.
c.
d.

Reproductive efficiency of the breeders

Production of superior progenies
Generation interval
Effective selection scheme

TWO PROCESSES OF ANIMAL REPRODUCTION:

A. GAMETOGENESIS production of gametes (Haploid)
a.1. Spermatogenesis sperm production in the testis (Seminiferous tubules)
a.2. Oogenesis egg or ovum production in the ovary
B. FERTILIZATION restore the diploid chromosome number of an animal

GENES AND CONCEPTS

Law of Biogenesis states that:

- All living organisms come from other living organisms through the process of reproduction where
each of the parents transmits a sample of their genes through the gametes to their offspring or
progenies.

Nuclear Inheritance and Cytoplasmic (non Mendelian) Inheritance

A. Nuclear DNA basis of Mendelian inheritance or is considered as the universal genetic material
-

The ovum contains the XX chromosomes (homozygous)

The sperm contains the XY chromosomes (heterozygous)
In poultry, ZZ is for male while ZW is for female

GENOTYPES are the actual genetic make up or composition of an individual

PHENOTYPES - are the external expression or manifestations of the genes which are perceived by the senses
Function of the genes:
1. Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell (cell division) and from parents to offspring (meiosis
and fertilization)
2. Copy and replicate itself with great consistency and precision

Sex Chromosomes for Gender Identification:

Class of animals

Male

Female

Mammals
Birds

XY
ZZ

XX
ZW

BASIC PROCESS OF INHERITANCE

INHERITANCE anything acquired or possessed by decent or succession.
- Physical or mental characteristics from ancestry.

Bodies of all higher organisms are composed of many billions of microscopic

cells. Each of these body or somatic cells contains a large number of hereditary
units called GENES.
GENE the chemically complex unit which is assumed to be the carrier of
specific physical characters from parents to offspring, being transmitted through
the chromosomes of the gametes and subject to many influences, as mutation,
translocation and crossing over.

Genes occurs in pairs.

CHROMOSOMES deeply straining, rod or looped shaped bodies into which the
chromatin of the cell nucleus divides during mitosis, generally of a fixed number
for any given species.

The fundamental processes of heredity were discovered over 1oo years ago by
an Austrian monk, GREGOR MENDEL, in experiments with garden peas.
ASSIGNMENT:
DIPLOID CHROMOSOME NUMBERS OF SOME COMMON MAMMALS
COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAME
Man - homo sapien
Horse -equus caballus
Ass -equus asinus
Cattle bos Taurus
Swine sus scrofa domesticus
Sheep ovis aries
Goat capra hircus
Mouse mus musculus
Rat rattus novergicus
Chicken- gallus gallus domesticus
Duck- anas platyrhynchos
Turkey- meleagris gallopavo

CHROMOSOME NUMBER
46 (23 pairs)
64 (32 pairs)
62 (31 pairs)
60 (30 pairs)
38 (19 pairs)
54 (27 pairs)
60 (30 pairs)
40 (20 pairs)
42 (21 pairs)
78 (39 pairs)
80 (40 pairs)
82 (41 pairs)

Geese- cygnopsis cygnoides

Quail- coturnix coturnix
Dog -

80 (40 pairs)
78 (39 pairs)
78 (39 pairs)

BASIC BIOLOGY AND MENDELISM

Basic Biology
CELL is the basic component of all living tissue.

Inside the cell is the jelly-like protoplasm and in the center of this is the cell
nucleus, the control mechanism of life itself.
The main parts of the animal cell are:
- Cell nucleus containing the chromosomes
- Cell membrane
- Vesicle (used for carrying food)
- Mitochondria (energy producer)
Within the cell nucleus is the chromatin from which a thread-like chromosomes
are develop. On these chromosomes are the genes which are the units of
inheritance.
In 1953, the chemical structure of a gene was proposed ( this is now the welldocumented substance called DNA.

N
BODY CELLS AND GERM CELLS
Cells are classified into body cells and germ cells.
Body cells are concerned in the main structure of the animal.
Germ cells are the spermatozoa (sperm) of the male and the ova (eggs) of the
female.
Each animal species has a definite number of chromosomes and these are
arranged in pairs (homologous pairs) in the cell nucleus. For example:
- Man has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), etc.
KAROTYPING a genetic counseling to examine the chromosomes if there are
defects of shape or missing parts. (ex. Mongol children, in human).
When body cells divide in the normal process of animal growth, the
chromosomes are halved by splitting down their length into chromatids, and
equal number of these halved chromosomes are drawn to either end of the cell
which then constricts between the two new nuclei. This produces two new cells,
each with the same number of chromosomes as the parent cells, and the
process is called MITOSIS.
In the formation of germ cells or gametes, the process is different from mitosis
as the germ cells end up with only half the number of chromosomes that are
present in the body cells. This ensures that when a new offspring is formed from

the united sperm and egg, it finishes with correct number of chromosomes for
their species. This is called MEIOSIS.
Meiosis and mitosis contrasted
When the female cells divide in meiosis, one half produces the ovum and the
other half is thrown out of the cell as a polar body. In the division of male cells, nothing
is wasted and each half produces a sperm.
The term diploid is applied to the double chromosome (or normal) state (e.g. 54
chromosomes in sheep), while haploid is used for the germ cells that carry half this
number of chromosomes (27 in sheep). A gamete is the male or female germ cell.
When these gametes combine, the result is called a zygote.

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION
SELECTION
-

Process in which some individuals are chosen over others as parents of the next
generation.
causing or permitting certain individuals within a population to produce the next
generation. This process is of two types namely:

NATURAL SELECTION This is done naturally through the survival of the fittest. This type of
selection involves the natural processes of death, predatory characteristics of animals.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION This is a selection process that is practiced by man in an attempt to
increase the proportion of desirable genes in a population.
METHODS OF SELECTION

PEDIGREE METHOD In this method, selection is done on the basis of the individuals record of
inheritance.
INDEPENDENT CULLING LEVEL This method establishes the standards of which animals will
be culled or retained for each trait. The culling level to be established for each trait is determined on
the basis of the heritability of that trait, its economic importance, and the percentage of animals that
are to b culled.
TANDEM METHOD This method is best used when the different traits under consideration are
entirely independent of each other or when the desirability of one is associated with the desirability of
another.
SELECTION INDEX METHOD The total score or selection index method establishes a single
figure to measure the individual net merit of potential breeders based on the combined scores of two
or more traits.

LEARNING ACTIVITY NO. 2

ANIMAL SCIENCE 5

NAME:__________________________________________

DATE:__________________________

PART I. Definition of terms

1. Polled animals
2. Lethal genes
3. Linkage
4. Crossing-over
5. Sex linkage
6. Mutations
7. Gene frequency
8. Pleiotropy
9. Gene interaction
10. Complete dominance
11. Over dominance
12. Incomplete dominance
13. Epistasis
14. Dizygous
15. Genetic engineering
16. Heterosis
17. Nicking
18. Genetic population or population
19. Polygenic
20. Regression
PART II. Answer the question below:

1. Phenotype is the external expression of the genes perceived by the senses and
it is measured through the interaction of genetic and environment. Why is it that
the environment has a bigger contributions compared to the genetic variations?

Animal Behavior and Restraint

A. Cattle Characteristics/Behavior
1. Prey animals

2. Grazers
3. Poor depth perception
4. Panoramic vision
- 310-360 degrees
- Blind side behind them
5. Keen hearing
6. Curious

Normal Cattle Behavior

1. They are herd animals
- Will follow the leader
- Will eventually group
- Frightened by intruders
- Anxious when isolated
2. Isolated animals are more dangerous
3. Mothers will protect their young
- Avoid separating cow-calf pairs

Handling & Moving Cattle

1. Utilize cattles routine
2. Avoid
Abuse, Loud noises, yelling, Isolating animals, Distractions
3. Use slow, deliberate movements
4. Balking

Flight Zone
a. Animals are handled easily if flight zone is understood
1. Animals personal space
2. Indicator of possible threat
b. Size of flight zone determined by
Tameness
Degree of excitement
c. Move away from things in flight zone

Herd Flight Zone

a. Same as individual

b. Collective flight zone

c. Move in slight arc, gradually tightening to obtain desired movement

Safety
a. Avoid Injuries from Cattle
1. Kicks
- Cows kick with back feet
2. Crowding
3. Crushing
4. Can inflict injuries with head
5. Dont bite
6. Will run over you if desperate
B. Swine Behavior

Swine are gregarious and social animals.

They have a natural tendency to follow each other and maintain visual or body contact.
Isolation from a social group is very stressful for pigs
They will establish a social order, with one animal becoming the dominant individual for the
group.
If a pig is removed or added, the group will fight to re-establish social order
Swine have an inquisitive nature and spend much of their time in forage-related activities,
such as rooting, grazing and exploring with their snout.
They like to chew on objects, including each others ears or tails at times.
Pigs are unable to sweat and are therefore very susceptible to hot temperatures or
conditions. Avoid handling animals under these conditions.
Pigs have a strong natural urge to escape.
Small gaps between pens, alleys, ramps, side gates, chutes, may encourage a pig to
escape
During these escape attempts, pigs frequently injure themselves
Swine prefer lighted areas, opposed to darkness; this can be used to encourage movement
(e.g., facilitate loading).

Swine Handling

Proper animal handling plays a key role in the health and welfare of the pig. Animal handlers
should be trained to use behavioral principles of handling such as flight zone and point of
balance.
Pigs will grunt or bark when agitated and may squeal loudly when restrained or frightened.
Hearing protection should be used
Avoid:
1. Abuse
2. loud noises
3. Yelling
4. isolating animals and distractions
Use slow, deliberate movements
Allow animals to walk at their own pace
Non-slip flooring is critical
Primary movement aids may be helpful:
Flags, plastic paddles, panels
Frequent electric prod use is detrimental
Do not kick the pigs or use sticks/prods to directly hit the pigs.
Minimize or avoid distractions, such as shadows, reflections, moving objects, air drafts,
people, other noises

C. Normal Goat Behavior

Herd queen:

a. Every goat herd has a dominant female.

b. She usually leads the way and decides when to go out to pasture.
c. She gets the best sleeping spot, the primo spot in front of the feeder and, if she is
a dairy goat, she gets to be milked first. If another goat tries to change things,
beware! The herd queen won't like it.
d. The herd queen's kids are royalty by birth.
e. The herd queen lets them share in the best eating spot next to her. She will
defend them if any other goats try to get them out of the way
f.

The herd queen is responsible for testing new plants to determine whether
they're edible and she also stands off predators.

g. She usually retains her position until she dies or until she becomes old and infirm
and another doe fights and wins the position.
Head buck:
a. He is usually the biggest and strongest (and often the oldest) buck. Bucks also
fight for the top position but, like the herd queen, a buck retains his position as
head buck until he dies or a younger, more dominant buck challenges him and
wins.
Here are some goat behaviors you should understand:

Biting: Goats sometimes communicate by biting. Some don't bite at all and others bite
a lot.

Butting: Like biting, butting serves a role in the goat world. Goats butt to bully others
out of their way, to establish their place in the herd, as a form of play, or to fight, often
during rut.
Butting is one reason that keeping horned and dehorned goats together is unwise. The
dehorned goats are at a distinct disadvantage and can be seriously injured.
The most common reason for butting and biting is to establish a place (as high as possible)
in the herd. When you introduce a new goat to the herd, the lower-status goats are usually
the first to fight. They want to maintain or raise their position in the herd.

Mounting: Goat kids start mounting each other even when they're only a few days old.
They are practicing to be grownup goats, but they're also attempting to establish
dominance. As they get a little older, the mounting takes on a sexual connotation.

Watch bucks during rut to ensure that they're safe from each other and to separate them
when they aren't. You also need to make sure not to turn your back on a buck during this time
because they also can be aggressive toward humans.

Poultry Behaviour
Knowledge of the behaviour of the stock and the application of that knowledge in the care of the stock plays an
important part in the maximisation of production efficiency of a poultry production enterprise. In addition, the
management of the domestic fowl has received considerable attention over recent years from the community,
particularly animal liberation groups, because of the way that commercial poultry management systems have
intensified. As a consequence, the study of poultry behaviour is important to the unit manager, not only to ensure that
the welfare of the birds and production efficiency are maintained but also to minimise the influence of what is often
uninformed debate. Behaviour is the way that animals respond to the different stimuli they encounter in their
environment. The stimuli may be from other birds, their environment, people or any other thing or occurrence.

General behavior
The domestic fowl by nature is a wary, shy animal with limited ability and short-term flexibility. However, in the longer
term, it displays a good ability to adapt to different circumstances and changing conditions. It has excellent vision and
hearing, but its other senses tend to be poorly developed. In the wild state it lives on the jungle floor in a thick forest
habitat and its behaviour tends to fit into that niche. Here it uses the ground space for foraging, dust bathing and
nesting. At night it perches in the trees for protection against ground predators. A number of these behaviour activities
are innate (inborn) and it is believed that the inability to carry them out may lead to a state of frustration.
Social behaviour
Fowls are a gregarious species with an elaborate social behaviour based on a definite group structure when kept in
flocks. They maintain personal space by communication via postural changes. Important signals are associated with
the position of the head and the relative angles of the head and the body to other birds. They maintain contact with
flock mates by sight up to intermediate distances and by vocal communication at longer distances or if out of sight. The
wild and/or feral male establishes a territory with his harem. Subordinate, unattached males occupy the same territory
so long as they adopt a subordinate relationship to the dominant male. However, these subordinate males do most of
the crowing while the dominant male suppresses all hens fighting in the vicinity.
Breeding behaviour
The hen is a seasonal breeder and is secretive about its nesting site. It lays on a 23 to 26 hour cycle and produces up
to 10-15 eggs before incubating them constantly with only one major daily break for feeding and plumage care. The
male mates regularly with the hen and also acts as an escort to and from the nest. On hatching, the chickens rapidly
imprint (bond) onto the hen. They move about with her, initially staying quite close and are brooded very often. As they
grow and their need for brooding diminishes they range further and further from the hen. Her brood remain living on
the ground until the chickens are about 6 weeks of age when the hen re-commences to roost, encouraging the
chickens to join her. When the chickens are about 10 to 12 weeks old she starts the weaning process by driving the
chickens from her. When they are weaned by about 16 to 18 weeks the hen re-joins the harem and the chickens join
the juvenile flock.

Factors governing behaviour responses

There are a number of factors that influence the behaviour responses of fowls to any stimuli. These are:

Genetic the birds genetic make-up has an important influence on its reaction to any stimuli. Some strains
are more docile than others and this characteristic responds to selection pressure. In a similar way, fowl can be
selected for a number of behavioural characteristics, some considered to be quite important in their management.

Experience while much of their behaviour is innate, there is that which has to be learned. Chickens know

instinctively how to eat, but they do not know what to eat or where to find it. In the natural situation, the hen teaches
her brood what to eat and where to find it.
Age in addition to the need to learn many aspects of their behaviour, age has another implication. Certain

behaviour is not expressed until the chickens reach appropriate ages. Examples of these behaviours include the
development of the peck order and reproduction behaviour.
Environment the environment plays an important part in the way chickens respond or behave. High light

intensity tends to increase activity which is a beneficial response in very young chickens in encouraging them to
seek food and water. However, in older birds it can lead to harmful behaviour such as cannibalism.
Sight
The sense of sight is good with the embryo showing its first reaction to light at about day 17 after the start of
incubation. Fowls have little mobility of the eye and while they have approximately 300 of vision, only 26 are
binocular. Fowls have excellent sharpness of vision (acuity). They see colour in much the same way as humans and,
like humans, are most sensitive to green. However, chickens prefer blue objects with red being the next preferred
followed by orange and green. The contrast in colour is very important in attracting chickens e.g. to food and water.
The threshold of activity (the intensity of activity under normal circumstances) is believed to be higher than for humans
and this is used as an aid for flock management by scheduling handling procedures at night whenever possible (when
the birds are at rest and least active). The colour of light influences some behaviour and aspects of production
efficiency but white light is generally preferred because it requires less power to achieve a given intensity and hence is
more cost effective.
Smell
It is believed that fowls have very limited smelling ability because they are not repelled by obnoxious odour.
Hearing
The fowls ear is well developed but does not include an ear lobe or pinna. It is located behind the eye and a tuft of
feathers protects the opening. Calls in the range of 250 to 3000 hertz are used in vocal communication. A large
number of calls by chicks and adults have been identified. Chickens are attracted to sounds that have a low frequency,
short duration and which are repetitive i.e. the sound of a broody hen clucking to her chickens. A chicken in distress
gives a loud, high frequency call.
Taste
Fowls have approximately 300 taste buds and they discriminate between strong tasting compounds, particularly in the
drinking water. They will reject water that is above approximately 32C although they will drink very cold water.
Touch
Birds are highly responsive to touch. Females will often adopt a sexual crouch when touched on the back.

Learning ability
While much of the fowls behaviour is inherent, they do need to learn in order to survive. Individuals will copy others
and this is an important part of the learning process. When a bird sees another pecking at something, it will copy, thus
learning what to eat, and where to find food (and water).

Fowls are highly adaptable and become conditioned to many environmental and management situations. Training in
relation to a number of management requirements is an important part of flock management. Fowls soon learn to pull,
tug, peck, and scratch and their nature is such that they will remain at these tasks for lengthy periods. They are good
at visually discriminating tasks and tend not to generalise, i.e. they stay at the task at hand without becoming bored or
becoming side-tracked. This limited flexibility means that they adapt to intensive forms of housing very easily and
quickly unlike those species which do generalise and which do get side-tracked and bored.

Social behaviour
There are a number of factors that influence social behaviour. These include:
1.

Individual recognition

2.

Communication

3.

Pecking and the peck order

Individual recognition
Fowls recognise each other by appearance based on the shape of the comb, wattles and head generally. Colour
changes in plumage are identifiable, with intense colours being more noticeable than lighter or those with a washed
appearance. Only very abrupt, major changes result in a failure to recognise flock mates that have been altered.
However, they forget each other fairly quickly. Members of flocks that are broken up forget each other within 3 to 4
weeks.
Communication
The fowl uses a variety of sounds in order to communicate with other fowls. The most commonly used are food calls,
predator alarm calls, pre- and post-laying calls and rooster crowing. Chicken distress calls draw immediate attention
from their broody hen. The clucking calls of the broody hen to her brood will result in all of the chickens gathering close
to her. They will respond to these calls even played as a recording.
Fowls communicate also with others by displays and changes in posture such as head up or head down, tail up or tail
down, or feathers spread or not spread. Displays play an important part in mating behaviour. Thus communication
plays an important part in the maintenance of individual personal space, flock organisation and integrity in a group
situation.
Pecking and the peck order
Pecking as a skill is recognised as being species specific for fowls. They peck to escape from the shell, to feed, to
drink, to obtain and keep personal space and to establish relationships as well as for other reasons. Hens maintain a
personal space around their heads and keep a distance from each other by holding their heads at an angle and
maintaining a specific body orientation or angle to other birds. If a direct head to head stance is adopted, pecking will
usually result.
Submission is usually demonstrated by escape or crouching. However, the main purpose of pecking is for eating which
is a precisely tuned movement of the head and neck. The food is picked up by one action and swallowed by
another. Beak trimming changes the relationship between the top and bottom beak and, in so doing changes their
ability to peck. They can no longer pick food particles from hard, flat surfaces and, consequently, food and water
troughs must carry an adequate depth of food and water to ensure that the birds are able to obtain a sufficient quantity
of both.

The pecking habit is used to establish a hierarchical organisation or ranking structure in the flock of dominant and
progressively subordinate members. This organisation is established separately for males and females in the same
flock. Called the peck order, the organisation commences at an early age and, depending on flock size and complexity,
will be established by 10 to 16 weeks. This process follows a well-recognised sequence:

For day 1 to 3 there is a strong imprinting or bonding period when the newly hatched chicken bonds onto the
broody hen. In commercial situations they bond onto other objects and, because of this, are more easily trained.

This is followed fairly quickly by the development of escape behaviour a protective mechanism.

Shortly after, the first signs of aggressive behaviour are seen. Two chickens approach each other aggressively
and then, before contact is made they race away i.e. escape.

This stage is followed by a period of play fights where they spar but do not make real contact.

The final stage is where real contact is made and is the truly aggressive stage. It is from these true fights that
the dominant/subordinate relationships are established. The age that this is completed depends on the size and
complexity of the flock but in most cases would be sometime after 10 weeks of age.

A separate peck order is established for males and females in mixed sex flocks.

Once established the birds live in a harmonious state with no obvious dominant/subordinate relationship until the flock
structure is altered. In the practical situation, the manager must give consideration to the various aspects of the social
organisation of his flock in order to minimise the disturbance of established relationships at those times when
performance could be affected. Some key points in this aspect are:
1.

Form new groups of hens before production starts, ie. move new layers into the laying house before
production is due to start.

2.

Do not move single birds or even small groups of birds from one flock to another.

3.

Provide adequate space needs floor, eating, drinking and, if appropriate, nesting space.

4.

If it is necessary to join two groups, do so by separating the pen into two with wire netting and housing the
groups, one on each side for a few days. Provide food and water for each group. After an appropriate time open
the netting barrier a small amount to allow the two groups to mingle gradually. If the two groups are combined
immediately the conflict that will probably develop will result in a significant number being injured by pen mates.

5.

Run males together as a group before placing them in the breeding pens.

6.

Place a male in with a group of females to reduce pecking (this will produce some fertile eggs).

Roosting and perching

The desire to roost or perch above the ground is an inherent protective mechanism against ground predators.
However, modern commercial stock do not necessarily seek to use perches when provided with them. This indicates
that, in these strains, the urge has been weakened and some managers believe it is unnecessary to provide roosts or
perches. There is strong evidence, however, that layer and breeder replacements can be trained to better use nests
thus reducing the number of floor eggs if platforms carrying food and water are located in pens of growing
replacements.
The inclusion of roosts or perches and direct entry to nests from them in the laying house will also reduce the number
of floor eggs in most cases. The development of the perchery system of housing is aimed at using the inherent
behaviour to perch. The perchery permits a significant increase in the number of birds that will comfortably occupy the
house. Another important benefit of perches in the pen is to provide a place of escape from harassment from penmates during periods of light.

Preening and other behaviour

This is another example of inherent behaviour and has the function of maintaining feather condition. These activities
include dust bathing, oiling (of the feathers from the uropygial or preen gland) and preening with the beak or foot.
Dust bathing is claimed to be a behaviour need of hens which both rids them of external parasites and aligns their
feathers. Failure to dust bathe is believed to lead to frustration.

Eating (maintenance) behaviour

At hatching, chickens inherently know how to peck and they can pick up objects i.e. eat. However, they do not know
how to discriminate between what they should or should not eat. It is largely by trial and error that they find out the
difference. Therefore, the first feeding experience should provide easy access to food and deny access to material
other than food. The normal practice is to place paper on the floor of their accommodation and to sprinkle a small
quantity of food on that for the first 24 hours. The paper is usually removed after about 3 days. It is also normal
practice to place food in large, shallow trays called scratch trays or chick-type feeders for the first 7 14 days.
Feeding chicks
When reared by a hen the chickens feeding problems are greatly reduced because the hen shows them what to eat
and what not to eat. She does this by example and vocal calls. There are a number of feeding systems that may be
used by the poultry manager to feed the stock. Fowls are able to adapt to different types of feeders very easily
provided the opportunity is given to do so progressively when changes are made. Therefore, once the chickens have
learnt to discriminate between what is food and what is not, feeding systems can be changed and those systems can
be operated at a height to minimise wastage and to fit other management requirements. Fowls are very adept at
moving food particles with their beak. This can lead to selectivity of larger particles or in excessive wastage of food (up
to 10%). The problem of selectivity is overcome by preparing the food in finer form (but not too fine) or by pelleting.
Placing a mesh on top of the food after filling can reduce food wastage from manually filled troughs. The mesh
(recommended size 25 30 mm) prevents the birds from flicking food particles and thus reduces food wastage.
Feed intake
There are a number of factors that will affect a birds voluntary feed intake. Commercial poultry are usually fed a mixed
feed that supplies the proper balance of nutrients, however poultry have the ability to balance their own dietary
requirements if the main ingredients are provided separately in different receptacles. The materials supplying the major
nutrient groups are provided independently and the hens eat sufficient quantities of each to satisfy individual needs.
The feed pattern for fowls is to eat small quantities frequently. However, their crop provides them with a good storage
capacity and consequently, there is no relationship between the length of time between meals and the amount eaten.
Even if deprived of food for several hours they can consume more when the food is available and store it in the crop
until required.

Drinking (maintenance) behaviour

Chickens initially approach the water because they are attracted to some physical aspect of it. FOr example, a bubble
or dust settled on the surface. The mirror surface of very still water is less likely to attract them. Chickens hatched in
incubators operated at low humidity or high temperature, or from eggs with thin shells, or where the eggs have been
incorrectly stored prior to setting are likely to be dehydrated on arrival on the farm. High early brooding temperatures
add to these effects. It is, therefore, imperative that they are given a drink as soon as possible after their arrival and
that easy access to clean, cool, good quality water continues throughout their life.
Once they have learned where to find their water, the drinkers should be adjusted for depth and height to ensure that
spillage is kept to a minimum. The recommended depth is up to 1 cm and the height of the lip of the trough level with

the bottom of the birds wattles. It is important with young chickens newly placed in the brooder that they be attracted
to the drinkers. It is thought that troughs are better for day olds than are bell type drinkers for this. Bottles are also
better than bells. Important features of drinkers is colour contrast (e.g. the yellow and red of bottles), and a drinker lip
height of less than 6 cm (i.e. not too high for them to see the water).
Water consumption and maximum temperature
Water consumption increases with egg production and with temperature. High environmental temperature causes the
birds to commence panting in an effort to increase the elimination of body heat by the evaporation of water from the
surfaces of the respiratory organs. If this did not occur the birds body temperature would increase until it became
overly stressed and died from heat prostration. Therefore, the availability of good quality, cool, clean water is of the
utmost importance in hot climates. Drinker systems that supply enough at lower temperatures may not be adequate at
high temperatures. It should be noted also that poultry do not drink water that is over approximately 32C.
If the change is progressive, fowls will adapt to different types of drinker systems. Sudden changes may result in some
birds failing to learn how to use the new system for some time. Recent research has shown that the type of drinker is
not as critical as the availability of the water. The water and food should be co-located in the pen. Domestic fowls are
discriminating in relation to taste in the water. They are likely to reduce consumption when the waters taste is too
strong which could have serious effects when using the water as a means of administering some medication.

Reproduction behaviour
Males usually reach sexual maturity at 16 weeks and this will vary greatly with management and breed strain. Nutrition
and lighting programs are of great importance in this respect, especially with modern commercial strains. Meat chicken
breeders have been bred to mature at an older age than egg layer stock. Although there is significant variability
because of genotype, the following conditions are important to consider when aiming for good mating performance
from males:
1.

The males have had previous mating experience.

2.

Light breed males are more active than heavier genotypes but produce semen with lower sperm counts.

3.

Females will usually crouch more frequently for younger males that, in turn mate more often.

4.

Higher socially ranked males mate more frequently initially, but this advantage is short lived.

5.

Most mating occurs after mid-afternoon.

6.

Mating ratios 8-10 males per 100 layer type females and 10-12 males per 100 for meat type breeders.

7.

Increasing day length will stimulate semen production although sufficient is produced on normal day length.

8.

Water deprivation for 48 hours or longer will lead to a lower semen production for up to 6 weeks.

9.

High iodine intake in excess of 5,000 ppm causes a reduction in sperm quality.

10.

Mouldy food, if eaten, may result in a lower sperm quality.

11.

Males will mate many times during the day but many of the latter matings will be dry.

Courtship and broodiness

Males and females have an elaborate courtship sequence prior to mating. In a free-living situation females will
commence mating behaviour as young as 18 weeks although this depends also on genotype, sexual maturity, nutrition
and environmental factors. High status birds crouch less frequently than do lower status birds. Broodiness describes
the changed state in the hen when egg laying ceases and the incubation of the eggs and subsequent mothering of the
chicks begins. While the onset of this stage is controlled mainly by hormonal mechanisms, the presence or absence of

the broody trait cab be controlled genetically. Most modern commercial strains have been selected for non-broodiness
because, when in the broody state, the hen ceases to lay.
Hatching synchronisation and vocalisation
Activity that is of a behavioural nature can be detected in the incubating egg from about the 17th day. The embryo is, at
this stage, located so that its head is under the right wing and the beak is directed towards the aircell in the large end
of the egg. Just prior to hatching the beak pierces the aircell and pulmonary respiration commences. At this stage the
chickens commence vocalisation that acts as an auditory stimulus for the synchronisation of the hatching process. This
synchronisation is enhanced if the eggs are in contact with each other.
Imprinting period
The chicken escapes from the shell by piercing it with its beak and then contines to break through the shell as it rotates
around the egg until the two parts separate and the embryo escapes. A hen will usually accept strange chickens in her
brood during the first 3-5 days (i.e. the more intensive part of the imprinting period). After that she is likely to reject
them.

Nesting behaviour
In the free-living state hens select a nesting site with great care, often accompanied by a male if there is one present.
Nesting is characterised by secrecy and careful nest concealment. Nesting behaviour has four stages:
1.
2.
3.

Seeking a place to lay a quite protracted activity as she becomes restless, and paces about giving pre-laying
calls and showing characteristic body postures. In litter houses she will often examine the walls and corners.
Inspecting a number of nest sites before selecting one and entering it.
Settling, squatting and forming the nest by rotating her body several times, she usually stands to expel the
egg.

4.

After laying she examines the egg and leaves the nest, cackles and joins the rest of the flock.

5.

The cackle will often bring a male back to her if such is possible. Mating often occurs at this time.

Nesting behaviour in cages

Hens housed in cages try to adopt the same procedure, but because of the restrictions applied by the cage, she
cannot and consequently is believed to suffer a degree of frustration which is demonstrated by the display of nonadaptive behaviour. She searches the cage, and pushes other hens away till she settles. The time spent in laying is
often a period of harassment from other hens. Some hens will squat to expel the egg while others stand. The position
adopted influences the number of cracked eggs eggs expelled while standing are more likely to be cracked.
In wild flocks, nests are made on the ground in the semi-darkness of deep shadow. Where hens are housed in
systems other than cages, they often select sites other than those provided i.e. they lay on the floor rather than in the
nests. A minimum of one nest is required for each 5 hens and these should be available before the hens start to lay.
Significant improvements in labour efficiency can be achieved by having the nests at a convenient height for the stock
persons to collect from. It is therefore important that the eggs be laid in nests provided and not on the floor of the
house. To avoid this, it is necessary to train the birds during the growing phase to use platforms off the ground. All
nests should be at floor level at the start of laying and raised progressively once production has started and the birds
are using the nests. All attractive floor-nesting sites should be eliminated.

Floor eggs
Hens will use single and/or community nests although timid birds are less likely to use the community type. In any one
flock it is likely that both types will be found and hence better control of floor eggs may be achieved by giving the birds
a choice of nest type. The following recommendations will help reduce the number of floor eggs produced by a flock:
1.

Fence off the corners of the pen and eliminate any dark areas in the house except in periods of darkness.

2.

Provide more than the minimum number of both single and communal nests.

3.

Open the nests before the birds start to lay.

4.

Start with the nests at floor level and progressively lift these to normal operating height as production
increases.

5.

Limit floor litter depth to 10 cm.

6.

Provide roosts or their equivalent during growing to train them to use the landing platforms on the nests when
needed.

7.

Provide roosts or slatted floor areas and locate nests close to these so that the hens can move directly from
such floor to the nest landing platform and into the nest.

8.

Make nests attractive by:

o

providing sufficient nest litter and replacing it regularly.

keep nests darkened.

keep them free of lice and similar parasites.

Maintain landing platforms in good condition.

Collect eggs frequently nest eggs four times per day and floor eggs each 1-1.5 hours.

Stocking density
The key to success is ultimately to identify the relationship between capital costs, production costs, returns and bird
welfare for each flock. One important element in this relationship is that of stocking density the number of birds
placed into a given area. Production per bird tends to remain constant until flock size reaches a certain number. As this
number is increased above what could be called the maximum stocking density, mortality will increase and production
will probably decrease. The losses associated with this per bird production decrease will initially be more than
compensated for by the increased total production from the house from the increase in the number of birds.
As the number of birds is further increased a point is reached when production losses from higher mortality and lower
per bird production are so great that the increased total house population cannot compensate for them. There is a
point before this where modern society will not accept the conditions that are considered inferior caused by increasing
the number of birds. The successful manager will take all of these factors into consideration and house the maximum
number of birds without reaching a population density that has poor consequences. Therefore it is important for
managers to be aware of regulations regarding stocking densities and cage size.

Early handling
When young chickens are given a lot of attention and are handled gently but frequently, they respond by better growth,
resistance to disease and usually react less to stress and are less fearful. Those flocks where this approach to

management is used and continued throughout the birds life will have a significantly lower reaction to day-to-day
management problem situations. Making time to spend with the stock will result in better production efficiency and well
being of the birds.

Non-adaptive or displacement behaviour

While poultry are known for their adaptability, they do possess innate behaviour needs that, if they are not given an
opportunity to carry out may lead to non-adaptive or displacement behaviour. These activities are seemingly irrelevant
activities that appear when the birds have been thwarted in some aspect of their behaviour. Examples of this behaviour
include escape behaviour, preening, redirected pecking and various other types of movement. The situations that lead
to these types of activity are believed to produce a level of frustration in the birds. This in turn may develop to where
production efficiency is adversely affected.

Environmental enrichment
Environmental enrichment Poultry welfare and productivity can be improved by environmental enrichment which also
decreases harmful behaviours, especially fear or feather pecking. Chickens which are kept in both industrial poultry
facilities and facilities... read more

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often display fearful behaviour when in proximity to humans. The initial fear experienced by... read more