Hydraulics

Chapter 3: Water flow in pipes

The mean velocity of flow in a pipe is:

V=

Q
A

Reynolds number (NR):

N R=

DV DV
=

Where

: kinematic viscosity (m 2 /s )

An Empirical formula to approximate the kinematic viscosity of water:

6

1 0 =1.00490.02476 ( T 20 ) +0.00044 (T 20)

NR:
A dimensionless quantity that is related to the turbulence of flow. As (N R)
increases the flow becomes more turbulent.
Critical NR value is 2000, since the turbulence in the flow starts at this point
Below 2000 the flow is called laminar:
o Laminar flow: a state of ordered flow where the velocity profile is
parabolic
Between 2000 and 4000 (NR critical zone):
o Transition state: where the flow is not laminar but also not fully
turbulent.
Above 4000:
o Turbulent flow: the flow is in complete turbulence, velocity profile
shows an average value

Continuity equation:
A 1 V 1=A 2 V 1

Forces in a pipe flow:

F=Q (V 2V 1 )
Applying the equation:

The equation can be applied for every axis separately.

As in fluid mechanics, define a control volume then consider all forces and velocities
(entering/leaving it).
The term (sum of forces) includes: forces due to pressure from adjacent fluids and reactions

General form of energy equation:

p1
V 21
p2
V 22
+z +
+h p =
+ z +
+ht +h L Where:
1 1 2g
2 2 2g

) (

h p : head added by pumps

ht : head extracted by turbines
h L : head loss due to viscous effects
: kinetic energy correction factor

The head loss term

hL

is of our concern in this chapter.

Head loses divided into:

Major loses:
o Loses due to pipe friction
Minor loses:
o Loses due to pipe contraction
o Loses due to pipe expansions
o Loses due to pipe bends

o Loses due to pipe valves

Each of the above will be discussed in details
Head loss due to pipe friction (

hf

):

Darcy Weisbach formula:

2

h f =f

L V
D 2g

equation applicable for laminar turbulent flows

Where:
f: friction coefficient
L: pipe length
D: pipe diameter
V : mean velocity

From the above equation, the characteristics of friction losses are:

hf

is independent of pressure gradient in the pipe

hf

is linearly proportional to L and inversely proportional to D

Calculating the friction factor f:

Laminar flow:

f=

64
NR

Turbulent flow:
o For computer calculations:

1
D 2.51
=2 log
+
3.7 N R f
f

o For hand calculations:

0.25
f=
2

D
5.74
log
+ 0.9
3.7
NR

((

) ( ))

o Moodys diagram: specify a curve according to the given roughness

value (/D), and at the point of intersection of

NR

with that curve,

go horizontally to the left to find f.

Common problem scenarios:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Finding
Finding
Finding
Finding

D
V
hL
Q

Empirical equations for friction head loss:

Empirical equations are equations derived from experimental data, they may not
be dimensionally equal and do not have a strong origin base. Empirical
equations are also sometimes limited to certain ranges. However they have
proved to be very useful in certain cases; we will discuss 2 examples of useful
empirical equations below
1. Hazen-Williams equation
This equation approximates velocity in large pipes (D 5 cm) and within
velocities 3 m/s
0.54
V =0.849 C HW R0.63
h S

Where:
C HW

: Hazen-williams constant, it ranges from 140 (smooth pipes) to 80

(unlined pipes)
S: head loss per unit length of pipe, S =

h f /L S is called slope of energy

grade line

Rh : hydraulic radius,

Rh

= A/p, where A is cross-sectional area, and p is

the wetted perimeter

for circular pipes

Rh

= D/4

2. Manning equation:
This equation approximates velocity in open channels

1
V = R 2/ 3 S1 /2
n
Where:
n: Mannings coefficient of roughness, known as Mannings n
S: head loss per unit length of pipe, S =

h f /L S is called slope of energy

grade line
Tables in textbook give values of Mannings n and Hazen-williams constant

hf

Q relations:

From observing Moodys diagram, the curved graphs become horizontal at fully
turbulent flows. This simplifies the calculation of the friction factor in fully turbulent
cases into:

h f =K Q

Where K and m are given below:

Equation
Darcy-Weisbach
Hazen-Williams

m
2
1.85

Manning

Head loss due to pipe contraction

K (SI units)
0.0826 f L / D
10.7 L /

D4.87 C1.85
HW

10.3 n L / D

hc

5.33

When flow moves from a pipe of a higher diameter to a smaller one, head
drops due to loss of energy in turbulence associated with the increase in
velocity

hc =K c

V 22
2g

( )

Where:

K c : is the coefficient of contraction, it depends upon the ratio

D2 / D1

and the flow velocity

V 2 : velocity of flow after it enters the second pipe

Special case: Flow entrance:
When fluid in a reservoir enters a pipe,
ratio

D2 / D1

D 2 is much smaller than

D 1 and the

is almost 0.

Values of the coefficient of (in this case it is noted by

K e ) and the equation for

entrance head loss are:

he =K e

V2
, notethat velocity of fluid reservoir is almost 0
2g

( )

Head loss due to pipe expansions

hE :

A scenario is opposite to the above, where a fluid moves from a smaller pipe
to a larger one.

V
( 1V 2 )
2g
h E =

Special case: Flow discharge (exit):

When flow discharges from a pipe to a reservoir (large diameter) the calculation of

hE

simplifies into:

hd =

V
2g

Head loss in pipe bends

hb :

V2
hb =K b
2g
Where

Kb

depends on R/D ratio (common values area given in textbook page 76)

Head loss in pipe valves

hv :

h v =K v

V
2g

The values of

K v depend on the type and design of the valve used.

Common values are given in table 3.6

Method of equivalent pipes
When dealing with a system of pipes (whether in series or parallel arrangement) it is
desired to find the total head loss. This section shows how a system of pipes can be
reduced to a single equivalent pipe
Case I: Pipes in series

From continuity equation,

The total head friction loss

Case II: Pipes in parallel

Q1=Q2=Q E
h fE =hf 1+ hf 2

From continuity equation,

o The total head friction loss

QE =Q1 +Q2
h fE=hf 1=h f 2

The application of the above conditions with different equation is shown in the table
below:

Equation
DarcyWeisbach

Pipes in series

fE

N L
i
=

fi
5
5
DE
D
i=1 i

Pipes in parallel

LE

N
5
D E5
= D i
f E LE
f i Li
i=1

Manning

N L n2
LE nE
=
f i i 5.33i
5.33
DE
D
i=1 i
2

HazenWilliams

N L
i
=

fi
1.85
4.87
C HW E DE
D5
i=1 i
LE

N
DE

5.33

5.33

= Di
2
n E LE
ni 2 L i
i=1

n C HW i1.85 Di4.87
C HW E1.85 D E4.87
1.85
= 1.85
LE
Li
i=1