Pe eer We ee Ree ener ee(CHAPTER 12JACKED BOX TUNNE 12,1 INTRODUCTION. a aie et 12.2—BASIC PRINCIPLES. Patel 123 CENTRAL ARTERY/TUNNEL (CA/T) PROJECT JACKED BOX TUNNELS. eons 124-LOAD AND STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS, 126.1Ground Drag Load and Anti-Drag System (ADS)... mo 126 12.4.2—Jacking Load i 127 12.5—GROUND CONTROL 129 12.5.1 Ground Freezing for CA/T Project Jacked Tunnels, 129 12.5.2—Face LOs8 nan q 1212 1253Over Cut we l212 12.6—-OTHER CONSIDERATIONS: 1213 12.6.1—Monitoring. : 3 12.6.2—Vertical Alignment are 1213 12.63—Horizontal Alignment : 3 (CHAPTER 13 SEISMIC CONSIDERATIONS 13.1 INTRODUCTION. 13.2 DETERMINATION OF SEISMIC ENVIRONMENT. 13.2,1—Earthquake Fundamentals 132.2—Ground Motion Hazard Anal 13.23-Ground Motion Parameters. 13.3--FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE TUNNEL SEISMIC PERFORMANCE 133.]—Seismic Hazard... 133.2—Geologie Condit 13.3 3-Tunnel Design, Consrcin, and Condition 13.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE AND SCREENING GUIDELINES OF TUNNELS... 13.45 13.4.1—Sereening Guidelines Applicable to All Types of Tunnels. i 13.5 13.4.2—Additional Sereening Guidelines for Bored Tunnels. Bas 15.43-—Additional Sereening Guidelines for Cut-and-Cover Tunnels. 13418 13.44—Additional Sereening Guidelines for Immersed Tubes. 13419 13.5 SEISMIC EVALUATION PROCEDURES—GROUND SHAKING EFFECTS. 13.5.1 Evaluation of Transverse Ovaling/Racking Response of Tunnel Structures 13.5.1.1-—Simplified Procedure for Ovaling Response of Circular Tunnel 13.5.1.2AnastialLining-Grond Iteration Soltons for Ovaling Response of Cjeular Tunnels. S 1351 3_Analtical Lining-Ground Inerection Solutions for racing Response of Rectangular Tunnels... 135.14 Numerical Modeling Approach... 13.5.2—Evaluation of Longitudinal Response of Tunnel Structures 13.5.2.1—Free Field Deformation Procedure. 135.2.2—Procedure Accounting for Soil-Structure Interaction fects. {© 2010 by the American Astoiton of tte Highvay and Transportation Osis Al rights reserved Duplin isa violation of applicable awCHAPTER 13 Seismic Considerations 13.1INTRODUCTION “Tuonels, in general, have performed better during earthquakes than have above-ground structures such as bridges and buildings. Tunnel structures ate constrained by the surounding ground and, in general, cannot be excited independent of the ground ot be subject fo strong vibratory amplification, such a the inertial response ofa bridge structure during earthquakes, Another factor contributing to reduced tunnel damage is thatthe amplitude of seismic ‘round motion tends to reduce with depth below the ground surface. Adequate design and construction of seismic~ fesistant tunnel structures, however, should never be overlooked, as moderate to major damage has been ‘experienced by many tunnels during earthquakes, as summarized by Dowding and Rozen (1978), Owen and Scholl (1981), Sharma and Judd (1991), and Power et al. (1998), among others "Near-surface rectangular cut-and-cover tunnels and immersed ‘tube tunnels in soil have also been vulnerable to transient seismic lateral ground displacements, which tend to cause icking of a tunnel over its height and increased lateral pressures on tunnel walls. Tunnels’ seismic performance ‘could be vial, particularly when they comprise important components of a critical transportation system (e.g., 0 transit system) to which litte redundancy exists. = these special conditions, the tunnel structure may be restrained from moving atthe junction point due o the stiffness of the adjoining structure, thereby inducing stress concentrations a the critical section, Complex numerical methods fare generally required for cases such as these where the complex nature of the seismic soilstructure interaction system exist 13.2 DETERMINATION OF SEISMIC ENVIRONMENT 13214 General. rthquake Fundamentals ‘Built-up strain energy accumulates in the earth's crust 4 (0201009 te Anscan Asst ofa Hishoay ad Tangient ‘Al ights reserved, Duplication isa violation of applicable law,ERMBMEEEEAE Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels—Civil Elements through the relative movement of large, exsntly intact pieces of the ears erat called tetoie plates. This rit of strain energy, commonly called fault rupture, takes place along the ruptore zone. When fault rupture 060% Strined rock rebounds elastically, This rebound produces vibrations that pas through the earth's erst and along 1 arth’ surface, generating the ground motions that are the source of most damage atibulale to earthauakes, UO fault along whieh the rupture occurs propagates upward to the ground surface and the surface is uncovered Uy sediments, the relative movement may manifest itself as surface rupture. Surface ruptures are also @ source of earthquake damage to constructed filtes including tunnel. “The major tectonic plates of the earth's crust ate shown in Figure 13.2.1-1 (modified from Park, 1983). There are also numerous smaller, minor plates not shown in this figure. Earthquakes also occur in the interior of the plates, although with much lower frequency than at plate boundaries. ens Tectonle Plates Figure 13.21-1—Major Tectonic Plates and Their Approximate Direction of Movement (jwww.maps.com) For the continental United States, the principal tectonic plate boundary is along the western coast ofthe continent, ‘where the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate are in contact In California, the boundary between these plates is a transform fault wherein the relative movement is generally one of lateral slippage of one plate past the ‘ther. Elsewhere along the West Coast (eg, of the coast of Oregon, Washington, and Alaska), the plate Boundary is 1a subduction zone wherein one plate dives (subduets) beneath the other plate, In the westem interior ofthe United States, adjacent to the western edge ofthe North American Pete, there may be subplates that have formed as a result ‘of subcrustal low. Earthquake sources in Utah and Montana may be attributable to such subplate sources. ‘Farihquake source ateas in the central and eastem United States and along the St, Lawrence Valley are within the ‘North American Plate and are considered to be intraplate source zones. The mechanisms generating earthquakes in these iniraplte zones ae poorly understood but may be related to relief of locked in stresses ffom ancient tectonic movements, erutal rebound from the ie ages, readjustment of stess in the interior of the plate due to boundary loads, sediment load such asthe Mississippi River basin, or other unrecognized mechanisms. Earthquakes in Hawaii are belived tobe associated with an isolated plume of molten rock from the mantle referred to as ahot spot. ‘The intensity and impact of earthquakes may be as great or greater inthe plate imeriors as they ate at the active plate boundaries. The differences between plate boundary aud intraplate earthquakes are in their geographic spread and {©2010 by te American Astocition of State Highnay and Tarsportdion Ofc. L “Al ps eseeved Dplcan ss vsaion ot appibc nwerations SEC Chapter 13-Seismic Consi the fequency of occurrence. Farthquake activity is much greater along plate boundaries than in the plate int Howete, proud motions from inaplae earthquakes tend to atleast, ar dissipate, much more slowly than Hoes fom pat boundary events, late botnary ful are elatvely Tonge tha ose inte pla interior an fend 40 be associated with a smaller stess drop (he stress drop i the sudden reduction of stress across the fault plane during ‘uplure, longer dation of shaking, anda more frequent rate of earthquake occurrence ‘Fault Movements, Pauls are created when stresses within geologic materials exceed the abil of those materia 0 svthstnd the swesses. Most faults that exist today are the result of tectonic activity that occured in earlist rological mes. These faults are usally nonsesmogenic (ie, incapable of generating carthguakes, ov inactive) However fants related 1 past tetonism may be reactivated by present-day tectonism in seismically active aas and can also be activated by anthropogenic (man-made) activities such as impoundment of a reserve Py 2 dam oF injection of fluids (eg, waste liquids) deep into the subsurface. The maximum size of an earthquake on an nthropogenically reactivated fault sa subject of some controversy, but earthquakes as large as moment magnitude 65 have been aneibuted to reservoir impoundment Notall faults stong which relative movement is occurring ate a source of earthquakes. Some faults may be surfaces along which relaive movement is occurring a a slow, relatively continuous rate, with an insufficient stress drop to ‘cause an earthquake. Such moyement is called fault creep. Fault creep may occur along a shallow fault, where the fow overburden stress on the fault results in a relatively low threshold stess fr initiating displacement along the fault, Alternatively, a ereeping fault may be at depth in soft or ductile materials, or both, that deform plastically. ‘Also, there may be a lack of fictional resistance or asperties (nonuniformities) along the fault plane, allowing, ‘Steady ctesp and the associated release of the stain energy along the fault. Fault creep may also prevail where ‘phenomena such as magma intrusion or growing salt domes activate small shallow faults in soft sediments. Faults generated by extraction of fuids (eg, ol or water in outer California), which causes ground settlement and thus sctivates faults near the surface, may also result in fault creep. Faults activated by other nontectonic mechanisms, for xample, faults generated by gravity slides that take place in thick, unconsolidated sediments, could also produce fault creep ‘Active faults that extend into crystalline bedrock are generally capable of building up the stun energy needed to produce, upon rupture, eathqukes strong enovah to affect ransporation facilities. Fault ruptures may propagate From the enstaline bedrock tothe ground suface and produce ground rupture. Fault ruptures that propagate to the surface ina relatively narrow zone of deformation that can be raced back tothe causative fault i erystalline rock are sometimes referred to as primary faut ruptures. Fault ruptures may also propagate 10 the surface in diffuse Givibuted vones of deformation that cannot be traced directly back to the basement rock. Ta this cas, the surface deformation may be refered to as secondary fault upture Whether oF not a faut has the potential to produce earthquakes is usualy judged by the recency of p movements, Ifa fault has propagated tothe ground surftee, evidence of faulting is usually found in geomorphic features associated with fault rupture (c.,telative displacement of geologically young sediments). For Sats that do rot propagate to the ground surface, gonworphic evidence of previous earthquakes may be more subdued and more Gificult to evaluate (cg, near-surface folding in sediments or evidence of liquefaction or slumping generated by the tarthquakes) I fault has undergone relative displacement in elatively recent geologic time (within the timeframe ofthe current tectonic setting) its reasonable to assume that this fault has the potential to move again, Jf the fault moved in the distant geologic past, during the time ofa different tectonic stress regime, and ifthe fault has not ‘moved in recent (Holocene) time (generally the past 11,000 year), it may be considered inactive, For some very important and critical facilis, sch as those whose desig is governed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRO), a timeframe much longer than the 11,000-yea eiterion has been used. In acordance with NRC regulations 4 faults defined as capable (as opposed to active) iit has shown activity within the past 35,000 years or longer. (©2010. the Ameriean Asaciaon of Sate Highway an Tanspotation Ofc ‘Alps served, Duplization i vain of ppiable aw(SERENE Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels—Civil Elements, fault displaces the base of ent cannot always be dated. In practice, if a tneonsolidated allviom, glacial deposits, or surficial sol, then the fault is Tikely to be ative. Also, ifthe tmico-seismic activity associated with the fall, the fault may be judged as active and capable of generating carhguakes. Micrearthquakes occuring within basement rocks at depths of 7 to 20 kim (4 to 6 mi) may be indicative of the potential fr large earthquakes. Mieroearthquakes occurring at depths of 1 to 3 km (0.6 to 2m) are hot necessarily indieatve of the potential for large, damaging earthquake events Inthe absence of geomorphic, tectoni, oF historical evidence of large damaging earthquakes, shallow microtremors may simply indicate @ potential for small or moderate seismic events. Shallow mictocarthquakes of magnitude 3 or less may also sometimes be associated sith mining or other nonssismogenic mechanisms, If ther is n@ geomorphic evidence of recent seismic activity and there is no miotoseismic activity inthe area, then the fat may be inactive and not capable of generating earthquakes Geomorphie evidence of fault moven In some instances, fault rupture may be confined to the subsurface with no relative displacement at the ground surface due to the fault movement, Subsurface faulting without primary fault rupture at the ground surface is characteristic of almost al but the largest magnitude earthquakes in the central and eastern United States, Due to the rarity of large-magnitude intrplate events, geological processes may erase surface manifestations of major tearthquakes in these areas. Therefore, intraplate seismic source zones often must be evaluated using instrumental seismicity and paleoseismicity studies, This is particularly true ifthe intraplate sources are covered by a thick mantle fof sediments, as in the New Madrid, Tennessee, and Charleston, South Carolina, intraplate seismic zones Instrumental recording of small-magnitude events ean be particularly effective in defining seismic source zones. Essentially all active fault with surface fault traces in the United States are shallow crustal faults west of the Rocky. ‘Mountains. However, not all shallow crustal faults west of the Rocky Mountains have surface fault traces, Several recent significant earthquakes along the Pacific Coast plate boundary (e.g. the 1987 Whittier Narrows earthquake and the 1994 Nomhridge earthquake) were due to rupture of thrust (compressional) faults that did not break the ground surface, termed blind trust faults ‘A ong fault like the San Andreas Paul in California or the Wasatch Fault in Utah, typically will not move along its entire length at any one time. Such faults typically move in portions, one segment at a time. An immobile (or “Jocked”) segment, a segment that has remained stationary while adjacent segments of the fault have moved, is a strong candidate for the next episode of movement Type of Faults. Faults may be broadly classified according to their mode, or style of relative movement. The principal modes of relative displacement are illustrated in Figure 13.2.1-2 and are described subsequently. (0200 by te Antics Aion fie Highway and Ta ante ay ntichapter 13-Seismic Considerations 2 gee e ih ara Let ater (t) Stike Sip ee eS SP z x “a 6 Reverse (Tt Nera Dip sip eyerse Cows (RO-LL) Norma bique(NO-LL Obkque Slip Figure 13.2.1-2—Types of Fault Movement ‘Sivike Slip Faults. Faults along which relative movement is essentially horizontal (ie. the opposite sides of the fault lide past each other laterally) are called strike slip faults. Stik slip faults are offen essentially linear (or planar) features, Strike slip faults that are not fury linear may produce complex surface features. The San Andreas Fault is 1 strike slip fault that i essentially north-south linear feature over most of its length, Strike slip faults may Sometimes be aligned in en-echelon fashion wherein individual subparallel segments are aligned slong a linear tuend. En-echelon strike slip faulting is sometimes aecompanied by step over zones where fault displacement is ttansferred from adjacent strike slip faults. Ground rupture pattems within these zones may be particularly complex. Dip Stip Faults. Faults in which the deformation is perpendicular to the fault plane may occur due to either normal (extensional) or reverse (compressional) motion, These faults are referred to as dip slip faults. Reverse faults are also referred to as thrust faults. Dip slip faults may produce multiple fractures within rather wide and irregular fault Other Special Cases, Faults that show both strike slip and dip slip displacement may be referred to as oblique slip faults. Earthquake Magnitude, Earthquake magnitude, M, i a measure ofthe enery released by an earthquake, A. variety of fferent earthquake magnitude scales exist. The differences among these scales ar ttrbutabe othe earthquake characteristic used to quantify the energy content. Characteristics used to quantify earthquake energy content include the loca intensity of ground motions, the body waves generated by the earthquake, and the surface waves yenevated by the earthquake, tn the eatem United States, earthquake magnitude is commonly measured asa (short pried) body wave magnitude, m, However, the (long period) body wave magnitude, my, stale i also sometimes weed tn the cena and easter United States In Calfoia, earthquake magnitude is often measured asa local (Richter) magnitude, Mi, or surface wave magnitude, M,. The Japan Meteorological Agency Magnitude (Mpa) scale is commonly used in Japan. ‘©2010 by te American Associaton of Ste Hihvay and Trnyporation Of ‘Allrighsresava Dpleaon a volaton ofopliaie ln‘Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels—Civil Elements iues above a certain amplitude, some of Ducts he biy some reading stones © me « 4 this, the moment magnitude, Mu, seal these magnitude seales tend to reach an asymptotic upper limit. To correct ee swat developed by seismologists (Hanks and Kanamori, 1979). The moment magnitude of an earhauake © & icasure of the kinetic energy released by the earthquake. Mis proportional to the seismic moment “clive fe product of the material rigidity, fault ruplure area, and average dislocation of the rupture surface. Mome nagnitude has been proposed as a unifjing consistent magnitude measure of earthquake enesgy content. Figure 1521-3 (Heaton etal, 1986) provides a comparison of the various other magnitude scales with the moment magnitude scale e = 7 [iscate]__ Magnitude Loca Ree Surface Wave mh Me my [snor-Peos Body nave my | Long Period Bocyave Mua Japanese Metecrlogcalazenc ean ete Tn 48), 10 Moment Magnitude, My wre 132.1-3—Comparison of Earthquake Magnitude Scales (Heaton etal, 1986) Hypocenter and Epicenter and Site-to-Source Distance. The bypocenter (focus) of an earthquake is the point from whieh the seismic waves first emanate, Conceptually, it may be considered as the point on a fault plane where the efor an earthquake was initiated. The epicenter isa point on the ground surface ditectly above the . Figure 13.2.1-4 shows the relationship between the hypocenter, epicenter, fault plane, and rupture zone of'an earthquake, Figure 13.2.1-4 also illastats the strike and dip angles ofthe fault plane, ‘The horizontal distance between the site of interest to the epicenter is termed epicentral distance, Rr, and is ‘commonly used in the eastern United States, The distance hetween the site and the hypocenter (more widely used in the westemn United States) is termed hypocentral distance, Ry. {©2010 by the American Asocation of Stat High and Tranpotton Offi ‘Alrigns texned Dopizaon a visletonaplichietaneChapter 13 Seismic Consider igure 132.1-4—Definition of Basic Fault Geometry Including Hypocenter and Epicenter 13.2.2—Ground Motion Hazard Analysis For the seismic design of underground tunne! facilites, one of the main tasks isto define the design earthquake(s) and the corresponding ground motion levels and other associated seismic hazards. The process by which design [ground motion parameters are established for a seismic analysis is termed the seismic hazard analysis. Seismic hazard analyses generally involve the following steps: “+ Tdentification ofthe seismic sourees capable of strong ground motions at he project site ‘+ Evaluation of the seismic potential for each capable source ‘© Evaluation of the intensity ofthe design ground motions at the projet site ‘Identification of seismic sources inchides establishing the type of fault and its geographic location, depth, size, and orientation. Seismic source identification may also include specification of a random seismic source to accommodate earthquakes not associated with any known fault. Evaluation of the seismic potential of an identified source involves evaluation ofthe earthquake magnitude (or range of magnitudes) thatthe source can generate and, often, the expected rate of occurrence of events of these magnitudes. dentifieation of capable seismic sources together with evaluation of the seismic potential of each capable source say be refered to as seismic source characterization. Once the seismic sources ae chacactetized, the intensity of {ground motions atthe projec site from these sources must be characterized. Thee are three general ways by which the intensity of ground motions a a project site is assessed in practice. They ate, in order of complexity: (1) use of ‘existing hazard analysis results published by credible agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and some state agencies; (2) project-specific and site-specific deterministic seismic hazard evaluation; and (3) project- _specific and site-specific probabilistic seismic hazard evaluation, Which particular approach is adopted may depend ‘on the importance and complexity ofthe project and may be dictated by regulatory azencies, {©2010 the American Association of State Highsoy a Tanportion Oils ‘Allis estrved. Duplin i vilaon of pliable ee‘Technical Manual for Design and Construction of Road Tunnels—Civil Elements Jt purposes) during or after 8 major ‘The collapse of « modein wansportation tunnel (particularly for mass seismic event could have catastrophic effects as well as profound social and economical impacts this lower level earthquake is generally defined to have a 50 percent probability of exceedance 75 years, coresponding 0 a 108-year retum period. Ih the eastern United States, here earthquake occurrence is much less frequent, the lower level design al twansporation tunnels is generally defined ata higher return period such as 500 ‘earthquake for modern and ert years Use of Existing Hazard Analysis Results, Information used for seismic souree characterization can often be obtained from publications of the USGS oF various state agencies, These published results are offen used because they provide credibility forthe Designer and may give the Engineer a feeling of security, However, if there is significant fag time between development and publication, the published hazard results may not inncomporate recent ‘developments on local or regional seismicity. Furthermore, there ae situations were published hazard results may bbe inadequate and require site-specific seismic hazard evaluation. These situations may include: (1) design certhquake levels (eg, in terms of return period) that are different from those assumed in the published results, {Q) sites located within 15 km (6 mi) of an active surface or shallow fault where the near-field effect is considered important, and (3) published hazard results that fail to incorporate recent major developments on local or regional seismicity Seismic hazard maps that include spectral acceleration values at various spectral periods have been developed by USGS under the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP). Map values for peak and spectral accelerations with a probability of bing exceeded of 2 percent, § percent, and 10 percent in SO years (corresponding approximaely 1 a 2500-year, 1,000-year, and SO0-yearrlum petiod, respectively) can be recovered in tabular form, Figure 1322-1 shows an example of national ground motion hazard maps in terms of peak ground acceleration (in Site Class B—Soft Rock Sit) for an event of 2 percent probability of exceedance in 50 yeas (i.e 2,500-year return period). In adtion, USGS also provides information (eg, the de-aguregated hazard) that can be ‘sed to estate the representative “magnitude and distance” fora stein the continental United States, | ©2010 by he Amerian Asoiton of Sie High wl Tran ‘Alrigis wveved Diplsion sv vsiicasr pee