Vegetarianism and Planetary Health

Author(s): Michael Allen Fox

Source: Ethics and the Environment, Vol. 5, No. 2, Conference Papers (Autumn, 2000), pp.
163-174
Published by: Indiana University Press
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Ethics and the Environment,5(2):163-174

ISSN:1085-6633

MichaelAllenFox

2000Elsevier
Science
Inc.
Copyright
Allrights
ofreproduction
inanyform
reserved.

Vegetarianism and
Planetary Health

I beginby assertingthata vegetarian,

even a vegandiet,from
in
is
least
at
as
and
all
a nutritional
healthierthan,
as,
standpoint,
healthy
probability
meat.
Scientific
evidence
on
or
includes
thisclaim is
one whichcenters
supporting
beginningto accumulate,and abundantmaterialis available forthose who wish to
pursuetheissue (Anonymous1988a; Anonymous1988b; Barnard1993; Chen 1990;
Melina,Davis, and Harrison1994; Whiteand Frank1994). In addition,everygood
bookshoptodayhas severalvegetarianand/orvegancookbooks,and manytitlescurof vegetariannurentlyon themarketcontainexcellentchapterson thefundamentals
nutritional
research.For thesereasonsI
to contemporary
as well as references
trition
to summarizeheretheevidencein favorof a vegetariandiet.
shallnotattempt
in generalis, and in particular
claim is thatmeat-eating
My secondpreliminary
The statisticalcorrelationbetweenhigh
certainkindsof meat-eating
are, unhealthy.
of colon,breast,and othercancers,heart
and increasedprobability
meatconsumption
far
and
atherosclerosis
and
disease,
away the leading causes of death in North
America has been well establishedby many independentresearchers(Barnard
1990; Fiddles 1991; Mitra 1991; NationalResearchCouncil 1989; Robbins 1987).
This realizationpromptedHealthand WelfareCanada (a federalgovernment
department)to issue a new versionof Canada 's Food Guide to HealthyEating,whichapto meats(such as tofuand legumes)are accentuated,as
pearedin 1992. Alternatives
are 5-10 servingsperday of vegetablesand fruitsand 5-12 servingsperday of grain
products.Criticsmaintainthatan even greatershifttowarda vegetariandiet might
have been endorsedin the Guide had it notbeen fortheextraordinary
(and entirely
lobbyingeffortsof the livestockindustry("Industry
predictable)behind-the-scenes
ForcedChanges" 1993).
Directall correspondenceto: Michael AllenFox, Departmentof Philosophy,Queen's University,
Kingston,ON K7L 3N6, Canada; E-mail:maf@post.queensu.ca

163

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164

THEENVIRONMENT
ETHICS
AND
Vol.5,No.2,2000

Evidence continuesto mountlinkingmeat-eating

withserioushealthproblems,
and vegetariandietswithbetterhealthand greaterlongevity(Jethalal1994; Melina,
Davis, and Harrison1994).1People tendto thinkof animalfatas themajorissue here,
butnumerous
otherriskfactorsare associatedwitheatingmeat.Theseincludethepresand tapeof manysorts,roundworms,
ence in itof parasites(such as microorganisms
infechelminthic
diseases
(anemia,
worms)thatcause trichinellosis,
toxoplasmosis,
cow
mad
s
disease,Hong Kong
tions,cysts,etc.),Legionnaires'disease,salmonellosis,
birdflu,and otherfoodborneillnesses;hormoneand antibioticadditives;and toxins
whichconcentrate
as theymoveup thefoodchain).2
(suchas pesticidesand herbicides,
Mindfulof thesethreatsto health,manyhave begunto acceptthata shiftin dietis not
butalso reflectsa differently
sanctionedby self-interest,
onlyprudent,and therefore
orientedworldview a new vision of how our lives on theplanetoughtto be led.
This includesan awarenessthatthegood lifefora humanbeingentailsgood health,
thatgood healthin turnrestson a carefullychosendiet,and thatour dietin partreflectsas well as determines
our species' impacton thebiosphere.Many are learning
thattheamountofmeatwe consumecollectivelyhas a profound
effecton how we use
- forests,land,water,fossilfuels.To putit simply,the
and managenaturalresources
themorewe committhese
greaterourdependenceon meatand otheranimalproducts,
resourcesto satisfying
thisdemand;if (as I also argue)theprevailingformof agroinin waysthatare deleteriousto ourhealththenthemore
dustryabuses theenvironment
animalproductswe consume,themoreourwell beingwill suffer.
Whatdawnshereis
an awarenessthattheorientation
be
of an unhealthy
must
society
changednotonlyfor
thegood of each of itsmembersbutalso forthatof natureas a whole.
We live in a societythatencouragesindividuality,
self-reliance,
self-development,and thecultivationof personaltaste.We are bombardedall thetimeby mesof selfhoodby meansof consumer
sages thatencourageus to pursuetheconstruction
that
out
self-centered
desires
and fantasiesas moreor less
preferences, is, by acting
powerfulpurchaserswithinthe global marketplace.We are well conditionedin the
modeofthinking
thatinterprets
ourconsumerchoicesas expressionsofpersonalfreedom thatare primarily,
if notexclusively,of consequenceto ourselves.And numerous vested interestsenergeticallypromotethis outlook:business leaders,industry
themedia,politicians,advertisers,
and imagemakers,to namea few.
spokespersons,
It therefore
takes major effortto develop a contrasting
formof awareness,namely,
one thatacknowledgesthatall our choices have widerconsequences.Some of these
have an impacton theenvironment.
Whenwe beginto appreciatetheseconnections,
we also startquestioningour choices and theinfluencesthathave helpedbringthem
about,a processsome mightlabel radicalor subversive,butothersmightsimplycall
exercisinghealthycommonsense.Being sensitizedbyecologicalissues,as an increasingnumberofcitizensaretoday,opensourmindsto thepossibilityofchangethrough
theformation
of new values.3Vegetarianismmay be and oftenis a partof thiscreativeferment.
The eco-destructive
side of themeatindustry'soperationshas been summarized
concisely,with ample documentationfromboth governmentand nongovernment

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Vegetarianism

165

sources,byJohnRobbinsin Dietfora NewAmerica(Robbins1987,PartIII). His findingsaresubstantiated

bymanyothersas well (Fiddes 1991,chapter14; Hill 1996 chapter4; Lappe 1992). These effectsinclude:toxicchemicalresiduesin thefood chain,
additivesin animalfeeds,pollutingchemicalsand animalwastesfrom
pharmaceutical
in waterways
andunderground
loss oftopsoilcausedbypatterns
feedlotrunoff
aquifers,
and desertification
of relentless
thatresult
grazing,domesticand foreigndeforestation
fromtheclearingoflandforgrazingandforcultivating
habitatsofwild
feed,threatened
of waterand energysupplies,and
speciesof plantsand animals,intensiveexploitation
ozone depletionowingto theextensiveuse of fossilfuelsand to significant
production
sumsup thissorrystateof affairsin
of methanegas by cattle.SharonBloyd-Peshkin
thesesimpleterms:"Meat productionis a major sourceof environmental
damage"
is also extremely
meatproduction
wastefulof
1991,67). Furthermore,
(Bloyd-Peshkin
energy.Some specificdatawillplace thesecomplexproblemsin contextso thatwe can
them.
viewthemin relationto one anotherand bettercomprehend
has been the
In Canada, sincethetimeof whitesettlement,
expandingagriculture
majorfactorin an 85% reductionof wetlands(Governmentof Canada 1991, 9-9,
since 1900,and thetotalarea under
9-15). Agricultural
acreagehas increasedfourfold
and
1988
of Canada 1991,
1970
doubled
between
than
more
(Government
irrigation
of
meat
is
a
that
the
must
be
inferred
It
26-6,9-14).
consumption
powerfulforcehere,
giventhatin NorthAmericasome 95% of oats and 80% of cornproducedends up as
Canada 1994; AnimalAllianceof Canada 1991; Governlivestockfeed(Agriculture
mentof Canada 1991). David Pimentel,a scientistwho has been studyingtheenvimethodsforovertwodecades,reronmental
impactof modernAmericanagricultural
portsthat:
livestock
a grass-feeding
animals)forthecur(usingonlyruminant
system
Substituting
rentgrainandgrasssystemwas foundtoreducetheenergyinputsabout60% andland
resourcesabout8%. ... [In addition,
it]wouldfreeup about300 milliontons[272.23
tofeeda human
tonnes]ofgrainforexporteachyear.Thisamountofgrainis sufficient
dietforan entireyear.(Pimentel1990,12)
of400 milliona vegetarian-type
population

thepopulationof theUnitedStates,farmanIn Canada, a countrywithone-tenth

million
imalsproduce322 millionliters(85
gallons)of manuredaily,an overwhelmof whichcomes fromcattle.Each marketedkilogramof edible beef
ing proportion
40 kg (88 lbs) of manure,and each of pork 15 kg (33 lbs). These
at
least
generates
of waterused to clean farmbuildingsand equipmentand pestirunoff
the
wastes,plus
cide residuesand otheragricultural
chemicals,are oftenpoorlyhandledand cause the
of Canada
of waterwaysand soil as well as air pollution(Government
contamination
and
400
and
between
that
it
is
calculated
2,500
(1,691
1991, 9-26). Finally,
gallons
which
one
in
the
overall
are
water
10,570L) of
processby
pound(2.2 kg) of
required
meatis produced(AnimalAllianceof Canada 1991); a poundof wheat,by contrast,
requiresonly60 gallons(254 L) (Fiddes 1991,215).
hostileeffectsof today'sunsoundagriObviouslynotall of theenvironmentally
to
the
culturalpracticescan be attributed
productionof animalsforfood. And it is

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166

ETHICS
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Vol.5,No.2,2000

clearthatsomeoftheabusescouldbe mitigated
by,forexample,a morededicatedapto
animal
manure
human
intocropfertilizer,
(and
waste)
proach recycling
greaterreliance on naturalmeansof pestcontrolinsteadofharmful
like.So it
and
the
chemicals,
has been arguedfrequently
thatthepropertargetof criticismis notmeatproduction
per se, butrathertheintensiverearingmethodsused by contemporary
agribusiness.
There is some pointto thisrejoinder,and surelythosewho obtaintheirmeatfrom
theirown or others'free-range
operationsdedicatedto organicmethodsof animal
contribute
less to theenvironmental
tollon theplanetthatis exactedbyhuhusbandry
man life. But given the appallingrate at which smaller-scalefamilyfarmingbusinesses are beingforcedout of competition
(and out of existence),to be absorbedby
of
driven
the
worst
corporateconglomerates
by
dynamicsof capitalistconcentration
wealth in ever fewer hands, the opportunitiesfor obtaining"environmentally
meatare extremely
rarein practice.4Only a tinyfractionof thepopulation
friendly"
could exercisethisoption,takingcurrent
trendsintoaccount,and an even
agricultural
- who do find
tiniergroupdesiresto do so in thefirstplace. In anyevent,vegetarians
environmentalconsiderationsimportantlymotivatingrelative to their dietary
choices- are able to live even morelightlyon thelandthando meat-eaters
of anydescription.
Is theresufficient
evidenceto back up thisassertion?I have no doubtthatthereis.
Considerthefollowingobservation,
forinstance.
All thegrainfedto livestockcouldfeedfivetimesas manypeople.(Proponents
ofintensive
animalagriculture
claimthatweonlyputanimalsonlandthatcouldnotsupport
Butwecouldgrowmorethanenoughplantfoodforhumanconsumpplantproduction.
tionifwe usedevena fractionofthelandthatis nowusedtogrowplantfoodforlivestockconsumption.)
(AnimalAllianceofCanada 1991)

If one of theguidingideals of ecologicallyinformedethicalthinking

is thatwe
- on
and collectively
oughtto minimizetheharmful
impactof ourlives- individually
thebiosphere,thenit followsthatwe oughtto makethoselifestylechoices thathelp
achieve this objective. The principleof nonmaleficence(avoiding or minimizing
harm)certainlyseems to be aboutas basic a moralpreceptas can be imagined.And
even if we added to the"Do no harm"rulethequalifier"all thingsbeingequal," the
obligationto choose thevegetarianoptionwould stillremain,forit has been shown
thata vegetariandietlacks nothingpeople need: meat,in short,
by manynutritionists
is not necessaryforgood health.And it is highlyquestionable,as I have already
pointedout,whetherrelianceon consumingonlyfree-range,
organicallyfarmedanimals would sufficeto maintainthekindof dietmostNorthAmericanshave come to
take forgranted,or even a diet thatfeatureda significantly
reducedcomponentof
meat.It plainlycould notsustainhigh,NorthAmerican-style
levelsof meatconsumptionworldwide(Brown,Abramovitz,
Bright,Flavin,French,Gardner,et al. 1997,40A
diet
that
relies
on
meat
41).
heavily
onlyappearsaffordableand environmentally
sustainableto thosewho are unawareof thelargerecological costs of meatproduction;who assumethattheydo nothave to be factoredintoourchoicesandtheirconse-

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Vegetarianism

167

quences; or else who believe thatthecosts can be passed on to others,forexample

thosein developingnationsand ourchildren.We all have to eat,and some appreciable impacton theplanetis inevitableas we pursuethisnaturalend.But we shouldaim
to minimizetheecologicalstressesthatare underourspecies' control.Vegetarianism
harmand degradation
seemsclearlyto be thebest way to reducetheenvironmental
caused by humans'quest fornourishment;
by enablingus to eat lowerdown on the
use of solar and caloricenergyinputs.By being
foodchain,it makesmoreefficient
also
lightensthe exploitativeload we place upon the
vegetarianism
energy-saving,
a commitment
thatshould,
earth'secosystems.This alternative
diet,then,represents
forthereasonsgivenabove (amongothers),be made by each of us. Many authors,as
to theseriousglobal environmental
we have seen,drawattention
consequencesof the
as
much
is itseffects
been
to
What
has
not
meatproduction
scrutiny
subjected
system.
towardnatureas a whole.Let us look at
and on ourattitudes
on planetary
biodiversity
theseissuesin turn.
bothnaturaland human.AndwithreTherearemanycauses of speciesextinction,
accountstotallyforthesortofecocidethatunno singleactivity
specttohumanfactors,
thattheprocesswhereby
derminesspeciesviability.We shouldnotexpect,therefore,
thefleshofanimalsappearson ourtablesbyitselfexplainswhycertainecosystemsand
orcompromised
thelife-forms
beyondrecovery.
theysupportareeitherunderthreat
We needto beginby gettingsome idea of thescope of specieseradicationby humans.Accordingto EdwardO. Wilson,who has conductedone of themostdetailed
studiesof theproblem,"Ninety-nine
percentof all thespeciesthateverlivedare now
of
thiscarnageresultsfromnaturalcauses (evoluMost
extinct"(Wilson 1993, 344).
and astronomicaleventsbeing the principalagentionary,geological,atmospheric,
forwhichhumansare
that
therainforestextinctions
Wilson
however,
cies).
projects,
times
the
naturalrate(Wilson
and
between
at
are
10,000
1,000
responsible occurring
of
of
numbers
1993, 280). Whatdoes thismeanin terms
species lost?AnitaGordon
and David Suzukitellus that20,000 speciesare drivenintoextinction
annually(Gordon and Suzuki 1990,2). RichardSwiftoffersa stillgraverstatistic:"We are pushing
a hundredspecies a day, fourspecies an hour,into evolutionaryoblivion" (Swift
of 27,000 peryear(74 per
1997, 8). Wilson's "maximallyoptimistic"approximation
extremes
these
between
mean
is
a
3
1993, 280). A recently
(Wilson
hour)
day, per
shows that"at least
Union
Conservation
World
the
studyby
completedtwenty-year
in
theUnitedStatesin
three
one
and
in
world
the
in
one eightplantspecies
nearly
are underthreatof extinction"(Stevens 1998). Whateverthe mostaccuratefigures
stemsfromseveralmajorsources,includpace of destruction
maybe, thishorrendous
forests
foragricultural
and
domestic
of
the
purposesand developing clearing foreign
and abuse of coral
use
of
ment,drainageand fillingof wetlands,damming rivers,
and overreefs,and relentlesshigh-techocean fishing.Amongthese,deforestation
diet and
human
between
a
in
which
areas
most
evident
the
are
relationship
fishing
said to
fish
stocks
are
of
ocean
70%
found.
to
be
are
extinction
Approximately
species
of
the
United
be in imminent
Organization
dangerof collapse (Food and Agricultural
Nations1995,54). Even moreworrisomeis thedevastationoftheearth'sforests,
par-

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168

AND
THEENVIRONMENT
ETHICS
Vol.5,No.2,2000

our attenticularlyits irreplaceablerainforests.For thisreasonwe shall concentrate

tionhere.
Most people who follow the news are aware thatglobal rain forestsperform
uniquefunctionswithintheregulativecyclesof thebiosphere,helpingmaintaingloand
bal temperature,
providingfreshsuppliesof oxygenand waterto theatmosphere,
are
more
the
most
It
is
that
"there
web
of
life
sheltering
complex
imaginable.
reported
different
speciesof birdsin each squaremileof theAmazonthanexistin all ofNorth
America"(Gore 1993,23). Up to 300 speciesof treesperhectare(2.47 acrearea) and
in
2,200 plantspecies per square kilometer(0.37 square mile) have been identified
A
of
a
mere
19
rain
forests
1992,
75). survey
Neotropical(LatinAmerican)
(Terborgh
treesin Panama yielded955 speciesof beetles,whilein Peruone sampletreehoused
43 species of ants(Terborgh1992, 58). In all, 40% to 50% of theworld'splantand
animalspecies dwell in therainforests(McKisson and MacRae-Campbell1990,25).
This superabundance
of life-forms
yieldsa wide rangeof raw materialsused in the
manufacture
of all mannerof consumergoods and Pharmaceuticals
upon whichthe
qualityof humanlifecruciallydepends.Productsof greatvalue includehardwoods,
rattan,naturalrubber,waxes, essentialoils, fruits,and nuts.One-quarterof all drug
whileformost
compoundsobtainedfrompharmaciescontainrainforestingredients,
of the world's people, traditionalmedicinesextractedfromplantsare used exclusivelyto treatailments(Collins 1990, 30, 32, 186; Food and Agricultural
Organization of the UnitedNations 1995, 60). A "habitatholocaust"5continuesaroundthe
clock,however,withan estimated142,000squarekilometers
(54,000 squaremiles)of
rain forestbeing sacrificedto humanneed and greed annually(Collins 1990, 96).
Sadly, "fewerthanone percentof tropicalrain forestplantshave been chemically
screenedforusefulmedicinalproperties"(Collins 1990, 32). Meanwhile,"studiesin
Peru,the Brazilian Amazon, the Philippinesand Indonesiasuggestthatharvesting
forestproductssustainablyis at leasttwiceas profitable
as clearingthem[i.e.,theforests] fortimberor to provideland foragriculture"
(Food and Agricultural
Organizationof theUnitedNations1995,62).
Thattherainforestsare theearth'sprincipalsustainersof speciesdiversity
seems
unarguable.But whydoes species diversitymatterso much?Thomas E. Lovejoy,a
conservation
biologist,places thematterin perspective:
ten
Assumingthatthe[earth's]biotacontainstenmillionspecies,theythenrepresent
millionsuccessful
setsofsolutions
toa seriesofbiologicalproblems,
anyoneofwhich
couldbe immensely
valuabletous ina number
ofways.. . . Thepoint... is notthatthe
"worth"of an obscurespeciesis thatit maysomedayproducea cureforcancer.The
us withnewwaystoimprove
pointis thatthebiotaas a wholeis continually
providing
ourbiologicallot,andthatspeciesthatmaybe unimportant
on ourcurrent
assessment
ofwhatmaybe directly
usefulmaybe important
tomorrow.
(Lovejoy1986,16-17)

In moregeneralterms,Wilsonhas commented
is ourmostvaluthat"biodiversity
able but least appreciatedresource"(Wilson 1993, 281). Quite simply,it has often
been greatlyto humanadvantageto be able to drawuponthispreciousresource,and
therefore
itis likelyto be so in thefuture.
Our ownchancesof survivalas a speciesde-

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Vegetarianism

169

thatabound,and therainforestscompendupon therichvarietyof otherlife-forms

(Collins 1990,32).
prisea unique"geneticlibrary"of virtually
untappedinformation
The assumptionbeingmadehere,of course,is thatglobalbiodiversity
belongsto
And
it
does
or
should.
But
there
is
also
an
sense in
everyone.
perhaps
important
whichthosewho live in developingnationsand who are oftencaughtin themiddleof
large-scaleassaults on biodiversityhave special interestsat stake. Vandana Shiva
pointsoutthat:
is a people'sresource.
Whiletheindustrialized
worldandaffluent
societies
Biodiversity
thepoorintheThirdWorldhavecontinued
turned
theirbackstobiodiversity,
todepend
forfoodandnutrition,
onbiologicalresources
forhealthcare,forenergy,
forfiber,and
forhousing.. . . Biodiversity
is fastbecomingtheprimary
siteof conflictbetween
basedon diversity
andnonviolence
andthosebasedon monocultures
worldviews
and
violence.(Shiva 1996,66, 120)

is underthreat,so too is culturaldiversity,

forthe human
Thus, wherebiodiversity
oflife-forms
areintimately
woventogether
livessustained
withit.
bya richenvironment
reasonsforpreserving
are to be found
Solid, human-centered
biologicaldiversity
in thesereflections.
Butmighttherenotbe additionalgood reasonsforpromoting
speWe
have
no difficulty
in termsof
cies diversity?
valuingotherspeciesinstrumentally,
whattheycan do forus. Perhapswe can also value themfortheirown sake,thatis, for
of
quiteindependently
havinga marvelousway of beingthatis worthyof celebrating
All
use
we
make
of
them.
valuations
of
nature
are
huor
actual
might
potential
any
to theextentthatit is humanswho make themand humanexperience
man-centered
thatencompassesboththedeparture
pointfor,andtheend stateofreflection
upon,the
valuationprocess.This conclusionseemsinescapable.But itdoes notnegateourabilforitsown sake and in itsown terms.We can admireand appreityto value otherness
ciate theunique adaptationsand capacitiesthatcharacterizeotherspecies no matter
how remotelyrelatedto ourselvestheymaybe. We can also discoverin naturenonresourceinstrumental
values,thatis, sourcesof value to humansthathave an entirely
animalsand naturalobthan
different
significance whatis yieldedwhenwe transform
We all recognizethatnaturehas profoundaesthetic,symbolic,
jects intocommodities.
to us, and also thatit offerspotentialsforpsychoand spiritualimportance
historical,
as
renewal
(such open space and wilderness)thatmanyof us enjoy.6In short,
logical
nature
as a whole and partsof naturebothas meansto specificends of our
value
we
- and as thingsto celebrateand cherish
own physical,mental,and spiritualhealth
fora wide varietyof reasons.
We are now in a positionto considertherole animalagriculture
plays in underAl
U.S.
Vice
President
Gore
has
written
that
the
planet.
miningspecies diversityon
"at the currentrateof deforestation,
virtuallyall of the tropicalrain forestswill be
to establisha
next
the
century"(Gore 1993, 119). It is difficult
gonepartwaythrough
rain
forest
decimation.7
Rain forand
animal
between
correlation
agriculture
precise
estsare clearedby humansseekingfirewood,settlement
space, farmplots,monocultureplantationspace, expandedland holdings,oil, minerals,and pasturelandforcattle.Hydroelectric
projects,roads,and otherdevelopmentschemesalso taketheirtoll.

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thatthesepressuresare numerousand diverse,grazingmaybe idenNotwithstanding

tifiedas a majorcontributor
to theprocessof destruction.
Conversionof tropicalforestto pasturelandforcattlehas proceededat a remarkable pace in CentralAmericasincethemiddleof thetwentieth
century(Rifkin1992).
The inherent
natureofrainforestsis suchthatwhencleared,onlypoorquality,unsustainablepasturelandremains,and thiscontributes
to the dynamicof expandingdestruction
as new grazingareas are soughtto replaceolder,exhaustedareas (Collins
1990). NormanMyerscontendsthatnotonlyin CentralAmericabutalso fromMexico to Brazil,"thenumberone factorin eliminationof LatinAmerica'stropicalforests is cattlegrazing"
(Myers 1984,127). Most of thebeef producedin thisregionis
to
American
the
market,thoughan increasingportiongoes to WesternEuexported
ropeand Japan(Myers1984, 128; Rifkin1992, 193). The UnitedStatescontainsonly
5% of theworld'spopulation,yetitproduces,imports,
and consumesmorebeefthan
other
The
beef
1984,
129).
any
country(Myers
importedfromLatinAmericaendsup
as fastfoodburgers,processedmeats,and pet foods.Myersnotesthat"convenience
in theUnited
foods . . . constitute
thefastest-growing
partof theentirefoodindustry
States";50% of all mealsare nowconsumedin eitherfastfoodor institutional
settings
American
fastNorth
to
Arnold
for
each
1984,
Newman,
130). According
(Myers
foodhamburger,
"theenvironmental
. . . Expressedas
cost is halfa tonof rainforest.
- for
forestarea, thecost is 67 square feet- morethan6.25 square metersof forest
forcefully
everyhamburgersold" (Newman 1990, 126).8 This patterndemonstrates
theconnectionbetweenmeat-eating
whatMyerscalls "the
and rainforestdestruction,
of theomof theforests,"and yieldsa further
moralindictment
'hamburgerization'
nivorousdiet (Myers 1984, 142). We cannotsave theforestsjust by excludingfastfood hamburgers
fromour diets,butwe can help turnthingsaroundif enoughof us
makethischoice and other,relateddietarydecisions,and if in thisway we all set an
examplefortherestof theworld.
The case of rainforestdecimationforcattlegrazingmaybe readas a typicalecological horrorstory.We have observedthatit is muchmorecomplicatedthanthisin
reality.But viewedthrougha different
prism,whatwe encounteris one of themany
formsof humanmanipulation
of nature.By introducing
thistermI meanto markout
thatrangeof activitiesthatstarklydisplayour species' tendencyto treatnatureand
naturalbiological systemspurelyas instruments
to achieve human,and oftenvery
narrowobjectives.
Accordingto the manipulativemindset,natureis, or partsof nature(such as
membersof nonhumanspecies) are,merelya collectionof resourcesor materialsfor
our disposition,use, and disposal. The slash-and-burn
practicethatseals thefateof
rainforestsas obstaclesthatare "in theway" of profitto be gleanedfromlow-cost
meatprovidesbutone example.While therainforestsare treatedas dispensable,the
animalsnow bredon thisland are themselvesno morethancommoditiesdestinedfor
some distantstockyard,
contentsof theorganiccash tillthatis nature.But
just further
theattitudethatis evidenthere,whichpermitstheruthlessdominationand exploitationof cattlefromrainforestregions,is in factno different
fromthatwhichapproves

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Vegetarianism

171

on factoryfarms.Animalstherehave
thewidespreadpracticeof animalconfinement
become machinesor artifactsof productionand reproduction.
It is not
manifestly
and to theconsumenoughthattheygive theirlives (and deaths)to thefoodindustry
ers of food,however.Now the silent"laws" of demand,supply,economicgrowth,
and profitmake it necessaryfortheseanimalsto be genetically"improved"so that
food generatorsor, in otherwords,ever morecontheywill be even moreefficient
Over a decade ago a reportpreparedfortheU.S.
and
stantly
productive reproductive.
a
bit
overzealously)that"beforetheturnof thecentury
Congresspredicted(perhaps
cattleranchesin Texas maybe able to raisecattleas big as elephants.CaliforniaDairy
farmers
by morethantenpercentwithout
maybe able to ... increasemilkproduction
intake"
Office
of
food
(U.S. Congress,
TechnologyAssessment1985, Inincreasing
and
five
twelve
feet
feet
troduction).
long
highare notbeyondscientificspeculaPigs
whichhave been aptlycalled "monstrosities
of utiltion.9Such laboratory
triumphs,
but
clones
never
come
to
identical
be,
1992,
104),
(Fox
may
(genetically
copies)
ity"
animalsare alreadyon theway (BritishMedical Association1992,
of superproductive
100-101; Spallone 1992, 116).
lifeshouldnotsurpriseus, as we now witnesspurpose-bred
These developments
formsbeingpatented(Fox 1992), and animalsbeinggeneticallyengineeredto grow
improvedbody partsthatcan be harvestedfor humantransplantsurgery(Concar
1994). Some have even mootedthepossibilityof breedinganimalswithoutpain receptors,whichwould turnthesecreaturesintotheinsensatemachinesDescartesfantasizedall animalsto be (Rollin 1995). Pigs withmodifiedphysiologiesthatexperience littleor no stressare thesubjectsof activeresearch(Mason and Singer1990). If
theseexperiments
succeed,then(thethinking
presumablygoes) it will be all rightto
antreattheseanimalsas merethings,and majorethicalobjectionsto factory
farming,
will simplymeltaway.
imalresearch,and similartypesof exploitation
itselffeedingoffhumandemand
Whatdoes all thisadd up to? The meatindustry,
forcertaintypesof food,is usheringin a formof animalraisingand use thatis totally
withnature.Geneticengineering
argulackingin compassionanda senseofconnection
it
in
as
breedinherent
the
animal
farming manipulates
factory
suffering
ablyaggravates
ingstockstoproducenewanimaltypes(Fox 1992). One authorobservesthat"thedisastrous effectsof industrializedagriculturalmethodsare being repeatedwith new
biotechnology"
(Spallone 1992,54). We seemto be learningto connecton one levelon another.Most people
concernwithecological issues- while badly disconnecting
what
and from
foranyreason,10
wouldnotvisita slaughterhouse
theyknowof modern
livestockproduction
processes,would neverwanttheirpet or any animaltheycared
are.Butat thesametimetheconsumerselection
abouttreatedas foodanimalsroutinely
about.
of meatand meatproductsas foodsof choicegoes on and simplyis notthought
ofnaturethatas sensiIn thismannerwe conditionourselvesto acceptthemanipulation
tive,caringpeoplewe oughtto be awareof andreject.We thusfindourselvescaughtin
and dea trapofourownmaking.We can,however,seeka wayoutbybeingreflective
of
nature
and
the
sufon
the
not
rest
does
that
a
subjugation
cidingin favorof lifestyle
formsoflife.Thisis thevegetarian
ofnonhuman
optionwithwhichI began.
fering

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

172

AND
THEENVIRONMENT
ETHICS
Vol.5,No.2,2000

I believevegetarianism
us to thinkof ourselvesas partof nature
encourages
of
rather
thanas apartfromnature.
theimportance
Thevegetarian
outlook
recognizes
to
we
seek
that
the
sustainable
human
and
affirms
requirement
ecologically
activity
of
do
in
the
course
ourimpacton theplanetandtheamountofharmwe
minimize
conofbothshortandlong-term
ourownessential
needs.Mindfulness
lookingafter
comhallmark
of
a
is
a
of
and
collective
human
behavior
individual
choice
sequences
comitment
tovegetarianism
as a wayoflife.Thischoicealsoentailscompassionate
these
that
extent
withotherspeciesandrespect
fortheearthtothegreatest
habitation
andin socialpoliciesand
can be followedbothin one's personalactivities
precepts
with
contact
us thechancetore-establish
Thevegetarian
wayoflifeoffers
planning.
in
is
thelandandtorecover
connections
withnature.
Finally,
vegetarianismliberating
anditfreesus to
ofanimalsandnature,
thesensethatitfreesusfromtheexploitation
forboth
discoverwhowe arein morepositive,
life-affirming
waysthatarehealthy
humans
andourplanet.

NOTES
- as I assumehere- thattheidealvegetarian
dietis ade1. It is assumedin all suchdiscussions
highin fiberandlow in fat.
quateinproteinandotheressentialnutrients,
see Niki2. Thisis basedinparton Vorhaus(1988). In relationtotheproblemofdrugadditives,
foruk(1997).
See Sears(1964).
3. It is forthisreasonthatPaul B. Searsfirst
labeledecology"subversive."
4. Large multinational
seek to controlthe commercialfoodproduction
process,
corporations
and meatpacking.For discussionof thesetrends,see Noske
fromfeedgrainsto slaughter
(1997),Rifkin(1992),MasonandSinger(1990),Strange(1988),andFox (1992).
5. The termcomesfromNewman(1990, 126).
6. Forfurther
see Fox (1993-1994; 1998)andNorton(1988).
discussion,
cattle
7. One factorthatcompoundstheproblemwill notbe knownto mostreaders:Imported
which
onceitentersthecountry,
meatis classifiedas "domestic
beef bytheU.S. government
obscuresitspointoforigin.See Norman(1984, 131).
8. Some fast-food
giants,notablyBurgerKingandMcDonald's,claimno longertobe usingrain
beef;othershavemadeno suchstatement.
forest-grown
9. Fox (1992, 104) attributes
thisprediction
toJ.Mintz.
10. I have,anditis a profoundly
stomachs
and
Forreaderswhohavestrong
experience.
disturbing
Dead
thepagesof a book,I recommend
mightbe willingto "visit"a slaughterhouse
through
MeatbySue Coe (1995) andSlaughterhouse
byGail Eisnetz(1997).

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