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a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 2 May 2010
Accepted 23 August 2010
Available online 16 September 2010
Variable-speed wind turbines are able to adapt to low wind speeds and therefore have greater efciency
than xed-speed turbines during partial-load operation. Unfortunately, the high cost and low reliability
of the electronics that enable variation in speed have discouraged this mode of operation for distributed
wind turbines. Alternatively, a Variable-Ratio Gearbox (VRG) can be integrated into the xed-speed wind
turbine to facilitate operation with a discrete set of variable speeds that boost efciency. The VRG concept
is based upon mature technology taken from the automotive industry and is characterized by low cost
and high reliability. In this paper, a model-based design methodology is introduced to study the
performance gain of integrating a VRG into a xed-speed stall-regulated wind turbine system. The results
demonstrate how this device can improve the efciency of the xed-speed turbine in the partial-load
region and the potential to use the VRG to limit power in the full-load region where pitch control is often
used.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Distributed wind turbine systems
Variable-ratio gearboxs
Region 2 wind energy harvesting
Partial load operation
Wind turbine power coefcient
1. Introduction
Distributed wind turbines could provide electricity for a number
of entities such as agricultural communities, public lands, schools,
rural homeowners, and private businesses [1]. However, when
considered on a cost-per-watt basis, small wind turbines are more
expensive than large turbines. It is reasonable to believe that this
disparity has hindered distributed wind development and points to
a need for a low cost concept that can boost efciency of this class of
turbines.
Wind turbines are categorized into two groups that are based on
either xed or variable-speed operation [2e4]. The former is the
traditional approach that is most widely used and has the lowest
cost [5e7]. Additionally, xed-speed wind turbines utilize induction generators, which are highly reliable and facilitate a direct
connection to the grid. The drawback to these congurations is
a lack of efciency during partial-load operation, also known by
Region 2, as illustrated in Fig. 1. In order to increase efciency in
Region 2, variable speed operation was introduced to allow the
rotor speed to adapt to changes in wind speed, thus increasing
aerodynamic efciency in this region [2,8e11]. This technique also
reduces drive train fatigue and is the latest trend in wind energy
conversion. During variable speed operation, the power produced
by the generator consists of varied frequencies that necessitate
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 512 471 4487; fax: 1 512 471 8727.
E-mail address: dmchen@mail.utexas.edu (D. Chen).
0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2010.08.037
1076
1.2
Region 2
Partial load operation
0.6
0.4
cut-in
0.2
rated speed
cut-off
cp c1
0
(3)
0.8
power [ p. u.]
PT
Region 3
Full load operation
10
15
20
c2
li
25
c3 b c4 b c5
x
c
6
e li
(4)
where,
li
The intention of this paper is to illustrate how a low-cost VRG
can increase the efciency of xed-speed wind turbines. This
section has described the benets of this device and why it may be
particularly useful for the distributed wind class. In the following
section, a model is presented that can be used to characterize the
power curve for the VRG along with a design methodology. The
subsequent section applies these concepts to a case study of
a 100 kW wind turbine and illustrates that performance is
improved through the implementation of the VRG. The nal section
makes conclusions upon this study and provides an outline of our
future work.
l 0:08b
(5)
b3 1
Pgen f Tm
By varying the gear ratios, one can determine the effect this has
on the power curve. As shown in Fig. 3, lower gear ratios correspond to an increase in the amplitude of the power curve. Moreover, with the exception of the low speed region less than 10 m/s,
each lower gear ratio curve envelops those that have higher ratios.
For example, the gear ratio of 14.71 makes a shell that surrounds
all the higher gear ratios. As shown in Fig. 3 the lowest gear ratio of
14.71 intersects the maximum power line at a lower wind speed
than any other curves, which means it will harness the most energy
4
(1)
12
where
10
PT GR
ug
(2)
Model
Wu and Chen, 2008
8
power [W]
Tm
x 10
6
4
2
0
0
10
15
20
25
3.5
x 10
power [W]
2.5
2
1.5
Maximum power
GR = 14.71
GR = 17.1
GR = 19.15
GR = 20.54
GR = 21.03
GR = 21.59
1
0.5
0
0
10
15
wind speed [m/s]
20
25
from the wind at this point. Beyond this point of intersection the
power transferred through this gear ratio is too great for the
generator. Hence this gear ratio is not practical for wind speeds
above that point. In the conventional single speed turbine, only the
gear ratio curve that is entirely below the maximum power line
provides the continuous operation across the wind spectrum. In the
case of stall-regulated turbines, those gear ratios end up being only
ideal for a single rated wind speed. On the other hand, if a mechanism is put in place to allow these outer shells to be used below the
maximum power line, greater wind capture can occur in these low
and high wind regions. This is the impetus for the VRG.
To understand how this shell effect occurs requires an explanation of the constitutive parameter behavior across the wind
speed continuum. As shown in Fig. 4 the lower gear ratios are
associated with higher tip-speed ratios. This effect shifts the power
coefcient curve to the right for the lower gear ratios. At very low
wind speeds around cut-in, the higher speed ratios have a greater
power coefcient. At this point there is also very little variation in
the torque, and hence the higher power coefcient allows these
higher gears to be more effective near the cut-in speed. In the range
of 8e12 m/s, the power coefcient peaks. Beyond this point, the
power coefcient increases as the gear ratio decreases. Moreover,
above this region the mechanical torque delivered to the generator
becomes more pronounced for the lower gear ratios. In the
high-wind region, the power curve normally drops off for xed
speed, stall regulated, wind turbines. However, the increased
power coefcient and torque of the VRGs lower gears allow the
power curve to stay close to the maximum level until the cut-off
speed is reached.
In examining a set of power curves, such as those in Fig. 3, the
design objective is to look at a point along the wind speed axis and
choose the curve associated with the greatest power that does not
exceed the generator rating. It is clear that the lower gears will be
most productive in the low and high wind regions. Toward the
middle of the spectrum, higher gear ratios yield lower efciencies
and provide suitable torques that do not overheat the electrical
generator.
For a conventional stall-regulated turbine, the best gear ratio to
use is that associated with the power curve that has a peak value
consistent with the rating of the electrical generator. For our analysis, this curve serves as the baseline that is compared to the power
generated by using multiple gear ratios. This baseline ratio is also the
highest gear ratio used in the VRG. Without this curve, a discontinuity occurs across the wind spectrum. Additionally, curves generated with higher gear ratios fall below the baseline curve shell, are
less efcient, do not make any contribution that could otherwise be
made by those with lower ratios, and therefore are not used.
On the other hand, there is a low limit the gear ratio can reach.
Therefore the lowest useful ratio must be identied. It was pointed
out in Fig. 3 that lower gear ratios intersect the maximum power
line at lower wind speeds than the higher gear ratios. Beyond the
lowest useful ratio this dynamic changes and the intersection
begins to shift to the right. Our simulation shows that the gear ratio
selection is always constrained by this low limit. The lowest gear
ratio used is associated with the power curve that intersects the
maximum power line at the lowest wind speed.
The signicance of the VRG is that it enables lower gear ratios to
be used in Region 2, thus capturing wind energy would normally be
lost. Beyond the rated wind speed, these lower gears are used again
to maintain a level of power that would otherwise drop-off. The
design objective is to select gear ratios that allow the transition to
take place continuously without exceeding the maximum power
line. Moreover, if the gear ratios are spaced too far apart, a large
change in torque may occur that jolts the drive train. To avoid this
occurrence the power should not drop below a certain threshold
20
1800
16
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
0.5
0.4
Power c oeffic ient [-]
14
14.71
17.1
19.15
20.54
21.03
21.59
12
10
8
14.71
17.1
19.15
20.54
21.03
21.59
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
1600
1400
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
GR =
18
1077
0.3
0.2
14.71
17.1
19.15
20.54
21.03
21.59
1200
1000
800
600
6
400
0.1
200
2
0
10
15
20
wind speed [m/s]
25
10
15
20
wind speed [m/s]
25
10
15
20
wind speed [m/s]
Fig. 4. Effect of gear ratio on speed ratio (left), power coefcient (middle), and torque (right).
25
level to prevent large changes in drive train torque during operation. This means the design must contain enough gears to make
these transitions smoothly while at the same time minimizing the
number of gear ratios to avoid complexity. Keeping these
constraints in mind, the VRG design can be implemented through
an algorithm as described in Fig. 5.
The sequence starts by considering the baseline curve as
previously explained. This curve peaks at the maximum power line,
and eventually drops below the minimum power line that is
established by our threshold to avoid large torque changes. The
wind speeds at the two points where this curve intersects the
minimum power line is then determined. Each of these wind
speeds is then considered separately to construct a power curve
that intersects the maximum power line by varying gear ratios. The
purpose of this exercise is to determine the gear ratio at the point
that provides continuity while the change is made from the higher
gear that intersects the minimum power line, to the lower gear that
intersects the maximum power line. Ultimately the curve that has
the highest gear ratio is kept. This approach captures maximum
power from the wind, while also maintaining continuity.
In this approach, the side that is not used does not drop down to
the minimum power band, and thus experiences less change in
torque. Our simulation indicates the right side prevails in determining the power band. In the event the wind speed on the right side
is greater than the desired cut-out speed, this side no longer needs to
be considered. At this point the left side dictates the gear ratio. The
process continues until the lowest useful gear is reached, which then
becomes the nal gear in the VRG. As an option, the number of gears
may be limited, in which case only the higher gears are used.
The VRG power curve is ultimately determined, and can then be
used to calculate the area under the curve that represents the total
energy captured. This area is compared to that of the baseline. This
metric can further be split into Regions 2 and 3, which are
respectively separated below and above the rated speed of 17.8 m/s.
3. Results
To quantitatively understand the effect of using multiple gear
ratios, the VRG is compared to the conventional xed-speed
12
x 10
10
8
power [ W]
1078
6
4
Maximum power
Minimum power
GR = 21.59
GR = 21.03
GR = 20.54
GR = 19.15
GR = 17.1
GR = 14.71
2
0
0
10
15
wind speed [m/s]
No
Yes
No
25
20
Yes
End
12
12
Maximum power
Minimum power
Single speed
4 speed VRG
10
15
wind speed [m/s]
20
25
Maximum power
Minimum power
Single speed
6 speed VRG
0
0
x 10
10
power [W]
8
power [W]
x 10
10
1079
0
0
10
15
wind speed [m/s]
20
25
gears that are used to boost power on the low wind region are also
used in the high speed region to minimize power. The changes in
gear ratio as a function of wind speed for this case study are discussed later in the section. With the exception of those gear
changes that occur just after cut-in, all transitions take place within
the power band that is dened by the maximum and minimum
power lines. The changes that occur in the high wind region span
the entire band and limit the step size between the gears.
The power curve shown in Fig. 8 is for a ve-speed VRG. Fig. 8
illustrates how more gear ratios increase area under the power
curve. In this case, maximum power is rst reached around 12.5 m/
s versus 13.2 m/s for the four-speed case. There is no change on the
right hand side since only three gears, denoted by three peaks are
needed to take the power curve out to the cut-out speed.
The last scenario presented in Fig. 9 implements six gears, which
is the full set required to reach the lowest useful gear. Fig. 9 shows
the maximum power is rst achieved at 12.2 m/s versus 12.5 m/s
for the ve-speed case. The addition of this nal gear does not push
the full power envelop out much further than what occurred in the
previous step of going from four to ve gears. As shown in Fig. 9,
peaks on the left side of the curve generally get closer together at
the outside as shifting to lower gears occurs. This suggests that the
greatest gain in area under the curve occurs with the addition of the
rst few gears, beyond that, adding lower gears makes a less
signicant contribution to wind energy capture.
The results can be further analyzed by quantitatively measuring
the power curve area, which can be broken into Regions 2 and 3.
The single-speed, stall-regulated case has an area of 140.9 W$m/s,
and is used as a baseline to determine the amount of increase for
each VRG scenario. The results in Table 1 suggest that a four-speed
12
x 10
10
power [W]
Maximum power
Minimum power
Single speed
5 speed VRG
6
4
2
0
0
10
15
wind speed [m/s]
20
25
1080
Table 1
Comparison of VRG to single speed turbine.
Total area ( 104 W m/s)
Gears
No.
Low
High
Single
VRG
% inc
Single
VRG
% inc
Single
VRG
% inc
2
3
4
5
6
21.0
20.5
19.1
17.1
14.7
21.6
140.9
145.7
147.8
149.6
150.8
151.0
3.4%
4.9%
6.2%
7.0%
7.1%
75.6
77.4
78.6
80.4
81.5
81.7
2.3%
3.9%
6.3%
7.8%
8.0%
65.3
68.4
69.3
69.3
69.3
69.3
4.7%
6.1%
6.1%
6.1%
6.1%
22
21
Gear rat io
20
19
18
17
16
15
RD = 18.5 m, GR = 21.59
0
10
15
wind speed [m/s]
20
25
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