Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Open Access
doi:10.5366/jope.2013.1
Keywords
tropical soils, soil management, oil palm,
marginal soils, soil limitations
JOPE 2013,4:1-16
1. Introduction
Tropical soils are often considered to be
problematic soils due to their:
Acidic nature pH<5.5
Low cation exchange capacity (< 12
cmol(+)kg-1clay)
Low base saturation (< 10%)
Deep profiles high leaching losses
Situated in high rainfall areas (> 200
mm/month high leaching and
erosion)
2013 S. Paramananthan
This is an Open Access article which permits unrestricted
use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
2. Objective of Paper
This paper discusses the characteristics and
problems that each of these groups of soils
have and the various management practices
that can be taken to overcome or minimize
these problems. The objective is to produce a
crop such as oil palm on a sustainable basis.
3. Need for Semi-Detailed Soil Survey
The first step that needs to be taken is to
identify the problems that these soils have.
This is achieved by carrying out a semidetailed soil survey of the area. Such a survey
at an intensity of one auger examination for
every twenty hectares will result in a soil map
at a scale of 1:50,000 or 1:25,000. Such a
map and accompanying report with selected
profile descriptions and analytical data will
delineate the various problem soils found in
the area. Such a report should include the
topographic map, geology, climatic data and
also a soil management group map of the
area.
The yield potential of the various
management groups can also be given. Thus
the soil map becomes the key to sustainable
and productive use of the soils.
4. CHARACTERISTIC AND MANAGEMENT
OF PROBLEM SOILS
4.1. Soils on Steep Terrain
There is no clear and precise definition of
steep terrain. The Land Conservation Act
1
1960-Revised 1989
suggests that the
Government can gazette any land above 18
slope as hill land for conservation and
protection from soil erosion. However this Act
has seldom been enforced especially in Sabah
and Sarawak2.
Topography is an important land characteristic
that determines the suitability of a piece of land
for agricultural purpose. Today in Malaysia,
the Departments of Agriculture generally
designates any land above 25 or 50% as
steepland. Thus no land above this slope
should be cleared and planted for plantation
agriculture.
Land clearing by native and
indigenous population is a notable exception
as these involve small pockets of land used for
shifting cultivation.
Land on steep terrain is often strongly
dissected with long slopes and narrow vshaped valleys and they often occur at
elevations above 75 m. Depending on the
aspect (direction in which the slope faces) the
land can have either the morning or evening
sun If the number of sunshine hours that the
Table 1: Estimated potential yields from oil palm for different regions in Malaysia (tonnes FFB/ha).3
Wet Region
Dry Region
Year of
Harvest
Level to
Undulating
(0-12%)
Rolling
(1224%)
Hilly and
Somewhat Steep
(24-50%)
Level to
Undulating
(0-12%)
Rolling
(12-24%)
Hilly and
Somewhat Steep
(24-50%)
Level to
Undulating
(0-12%)
Rolling
(12-24%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
9-11
16-18
23-25
28-30
31-32
31-32
31-32
31-32
30-31
30-31*
30-31*
29-30
29-30
29-30
28-29
28-29
27-28
27-28
26-27
25-26
24-25
23-24
22-23
21-22
20-21
7-9
14-16
20-22
25-27
28-29
29-30
29-30
29-30
28-29
28-29
28-29*
27-28*
27-28
27-28
26-27
26-27
25-26
25-26
24-25
24-25
23-24
22-23
21-22
20-21
19-20
5-6
10-12
14-16
18-20
21-22
23-24
24-25
24-25
24-25
24-25
23-24
23-24*
23-24*
23-24
22-23
22-23
21-22
21-22
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
17-18
17-18
16-17
7-9
14-16
20-22
25-27
28-29
29-30
29-30
29-30
28-29
28-29
28-29*
27-28*
27-28
27-28
26-27
26-27
25-26
25-26
24-25
24-25
23-24
22-23
21-22
20-21
19-20
5-7
11-13
17-19
22-24
25-26
27-28
27-28
27-28
26-27
26-27
26-27
25-26*
25-26*
25-26
24-25
24-25
23-24
23-24
22-23
22-23
22-23
21-22
20-21
19-20
18-19
4-5
8-10
12-14
16-18
18-20
20-21
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
21-22
21-22*
21-22*
20-21
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
18-19
18-19
17-18
16-17
16-17
15-16
4-5
7-8
10-11
13-15
16-18
18-20
20-22
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
22-23
21-22
21-22
20-21*
20-21*
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
18-19
17-18
17-18
17-18
16-17
3-4
5-6
8-10
11-13
14-16
16-18
18-19
20-21
20-21
20-21
20-21
20-21
19-20
19-20
18-19
18-19*
18-19*
17-18
17-18
17-18
17-18
16-17
16-17
16-17
15-16
Note:
* Recommended age for thinning (if yield starts to decline).
First year of harvesting at 31 months after planting.
Yields are approxim ate and obtained based on standard agronomic management and good soils.
Hilly and
Somewhat
Steep
(24-50%)
2-3
4-5
6-7
9-10
12-13
14-15
16-17
17-18
18-19
18-19
18-19
18-19
18-19
18-19
17-18
17-18
17-18*
16-17*
16-17
16-17
16-17
15-16
15-16
14-15
14-15
Table 2: Total monthly rainfall (mm) and raindays in Tradewinds Melor Estate, Kuching (2007-2011).
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
5-Year Mean
(2007-2011)
2011
Month
mm
days
mm
days
mm
days
mm
days
mm
days
mm
days
Jan
912
27
403
18
1,044
24
641
18
718
19
744
21
Feb
764
22
375
18
344
10
281
13
410
10
435
15
Mar
485
18
451
25
242
16
193
17
507
21
376
19
Apr
260
14
44
324
19
408
17
405
18
288
15
May
234
11
188
10
289
14
234
12
212
12
231
12
Jun
401
11
211
144
99
11
176
206
Jul
396
17
276
16
62
302
17
159
239
12
Aug
261
11
309
325
16
242
15
192
13
266
13
Sept
410
12
156
13
101
251
19
390
14
262
13
Oct
514
21
219
19
415
16
602
16
432
21
436
19
Nov
313
24
344
20
372
21
397
18
442
17
374
20
Dec
485
25
402
24
698
22
289
15
526
22
480
22
5,435
213
3,378
188
4,360
177
3,939
188
4,568
182
4,337
190
Total:
2008
5
2009
0
3-Year Mean
(2007-2009)
2010
4
Feb
Mar
14
32
179
75
Apr
86
16
60
71
54
May
320
318
205
136
281
Jun
131
147
113
241
130
Jul
447
101
107
248
218
Aug
583
205
241
333
343
Sept
217
366
639
260
407
Oct
38
73
183
220
98
Nov
64
106
23
na
64
Dec
Total:
33
29
12
1,938
1,393
1,766
na
(1,511)
25
1,698
na not available
Dry month (<100 mm)
Table 4: Key to the identification of potential (sulfidic materials) and true acid sulfate (sulfuric horizon) soils in Malaysia
Depth to
Sulfuric Horizon/
Sulfidic Materials
Sulfidic Materials
within 50 cm
Depth to
Underlying C
Horizon
No Diagnostic Horizon
High
Moderate to Low
Conductivity
Conductivity
>4 dSm-1
<4 dSm-1
High n value
Low n value
No Diagnostic
Horizon
Cambic Horizon
<50 cm
>50 cm
50-100 cm
>100 cm
Non-Acid Sulfate
Soils
AC/OAC/OC
OAC/AC1C2/
OC 1C2
ABwC/OABwC
ABjC/OABjC
ABjC/OABjC
ABwBjC
ABwBj
ABwC
Horizonation
Subsoil
Properties
Clayey
(>35% clay)
Gray B matrix
Moderate to strong
structures
Moist sticky dry
hard
Clayey
(>35% clay)
Brown B matrix
Weak to moderate
structures
Friable
Fine Loamy
(18-35% clay)
Coarse Loamy
(15-18% clay)
Sulfidic Materials
between 50-100 cm
AC/OAC/OC
Sulfuric Horizon
within 50 cm
No Sulfidic or
Sulfuric Horizon
within 100 cm
Rajang
(Kranji)
(Weston)
Punda
(Merbok)
Kalibong
Kluang
(Moyan)
(Chenaam)
Kuala Perlis
Parit Botak
Telok
Tongkang
Bernam
Tualang
Briah
Bergosong
Linau/sh
Metah
Linau/mod.
Kemang
Tebuan (cosc)
Guar
Sedu
Jawa/sh
Juru/sh (cosc)
Jawa
Juru (cosc)
Selangor
Paloh
Nagor
Lari (calcaric)
Tambun
Carey (fscl)
Jugra (fscl)
Tumpat
Pandak
Belat
Sandy
(<15% clay)
(>70% sand)
Notes: Textural Variant
(cosc) = coarse sandy clay
(fscl)
= fine sandy clay loam
Timun
Mersan
Phases
sh
= shallow
mod
= moderately deep
Others
calcaric = underlain by calcareous materials
Figure 2: Effect of increased drainage and subsequent raising of water table on yield of oil palms on severe
acid sulphate soils 18
Soil Type
Revised Legend
Malaysian Soil
18
Taxonomy
Typic Haplaquod
Typic Haplohumod
Gleyic Podzol
Carbic Podzol
Aquic Haplohumod
Leptic Haplohumod
Typic Haplohumod
Carbic Podzol
Typic Haplohumod
Typic Quartzipsamment
Typic Tropopsamment
Typic Haplohumod
Haplic Arenosol
Albic Arenosol
Typic Quartzipsamment
Typic Tropopsament
Table 6:Yield potential of oil palm in Sarawak, Sabah and Kalimantan Tengah
Region
Climate
(Rainfall)
Parent Material
SARAWAK
(Miri)
Miri Airport
Total annual
rainfall 2,677
mm
No dry month
Sedimentary
rocks
(Sandstones)
SABAH
Estate near
Telupid
Total annual
rainfall 3,682
mm
No dry month
KALIMANTAN
TENGAH
(Sampit)
Estate near
Sampit
Total annual
rainfall 2,625
mm
1-2 months dry
Dominant
Slope
Soil Series
Hilly to steep
12-30 slopes
Tika
Sibuga
Silantek
Bako
Baiayo
(Buso weakly
cemented)
Sandy Terraces
Sandy Terraces
Level to
undulating
0-6 slopes
Level to
undulating
0-6 slopes
Krah
Serai
(compacted
phase)
(mapped as
Krah)
Current or
(Estimated)
Yield
(mt/ha/yr)
16-24
(18-24)
(18-24)
(18-24)
22-32
(Mixed Fields)
14-20
(Baiayo/Serai)
(24-28)
(24-28)
Serai
(18-22)
Buso
(18-22)
Miri
(18-22)
10
Peat
Mukah Family
50-100 cm
Anderson 1
100-200 cm
Anderson 2
200-300 cm
Anderson 3
>300 cm
Depth of peat
Depth of peat
Depth of peat
Depth of peat
24
Paramananthan
proposed
a
Unified
classification for the Organic Soils of Malaysia
using the structure of Soil Taxonomy 7 but
modified to soil local conditions. Under this
system, seven categoric levels are recognized
(Table 7).
Many of the inherent characteristics of the
organic soils can result in problems for crops
planted on peat. The fact that organic soil
materials dominate the soil implies a complex
soil nutritional problems both for major
nutrients (N, K) and micro nutrients (Cu, B,
Sub-Group
Differentiae
Presence/Thickness of OSM
Histosols
Folists, Gambists
Thickness of OSM
Thick (> 150 cm) Ombro
Thin (< 150 cm) Topo
Central concept.
Dominant material in subsurface tier (50-100 cm).
Presence of Sulfuric Horizon/Sulfidic Material.
Nature of Substratum:
Residuum (Lithic/Paralithic)
Ombrogambist
Topogambists
Fibric (Typic), Hemic, Sapric, Mossic, Mineral
(Terric), Sulfidic, Sulfuric, Fluventic
Fine-earth (Soil/Riverine/Marine)
Isom esic/Isothermic/Isohyperthermic
Presence/absence of wood/decomposition
stage.
Non-woody/Undecomposed/Decomposed
Reaction Class
(pH CaCl2 0.01 M)
Nature of Surface Tier
Drainage Status
Drained/Undrained Phases
Depth Phases
Soil Family
Soil Series
Remarks (examples)
-1
Soil Phase
Non-saline
<1 dSm
-1
Weakly saline 1-4 dSm
-1
Strongly saline >4 dSm
Low <10%
High >10%
Dysic < 4.5 in all parts of surface tier
Euic > 4.5 in some part of surface tier
Fibric, Hemic, Sapric, Terric (clayey, loamy,
sandy)
11
Type of drain
Width (m)
Depth (m)
Top
Bottom
Field
1.0-2.0
0.5-0.6
0.9-1.0
Collection
1.8-2.5
0.6-0.9
1.2-1.8
Main
3.0-6.0
1.2-1.8
1.8-2.5
12
Figure 5: System of consolidation of harvesting paths and planting rows in peat swamp.
13
14
10.
11.
12.
References
1. Government of Malaysia, 1989.
Land
Conservation Act 1960 (revised in 1989).
Govt. Printers, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
2. Paramananthan, S., 2002. Cultivation of
Tree Crops on Steep Terrain. The Planter,
Kuala Lumpur, 78 (920), 609-615.
3. Foong (private communication)
4. Paramananthan, S., 1987. Soil Taxonomy
and Land Suitability with special reference
to Tree Crop Cultivation. Pertanika 10(2),
125-134.
5. Oldeman, L.R. and Frre, M., 1982. A
study of agroclimatology of the humid
tropics of South-East Asia, Secretariat of
the World Meteorological Organization
Geneva Technical Note No. 179 WMO-No.
597.
6. Watson, G.A., 1989. Climate and Soil. In:
Rubber. Eds. C.C. Webster and W.J.
Baulkwill. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New
York.
7. Soil Survey Staff, 1999. Soil Taxonomy
Second Edition. A Basic System of Soil
Classification for Making and Interpreting
Soil Surveys. U.S. Dept. of Agric. Soil
Conserv. Ser. Agric. Handbook No. 436.
U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washing D.C.
8. Paramananthan, S. and H. Eswaran, 1984.
Problem Soils of Malaysia:
Their
characteristics and Management. FFTC
Book Series No. 27. Problem Soils in
ASIA.
9. Tan, K.S. and Thong, K.C., 1975.
Observations on the performance of oil
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
15
16