Chapter 2

Dos and Donts in Flow Measurement

2.1 Units of Flow Rate
The objects of industrial flow measurement are classified into the three kinds of fluids:
liquids, gases, and steams. You probably know that the units of measurement include
m3/h, Nm3/h, and kg/h, but try answering the following questions:

For gas flow rates, Nm3/h and kg/h are often used, but gases usually contain
humidity (water vapor). Should gas flow rate indications include this moisture
content?

What does N in Nm3/h mean?

What are the differences between weight flow rates, volumetric flow rates,
and mass flow rates, and how are they chosen?

The volume of a liquid varies with temperature. How do you say when the
actual temperature differs from the presumed design temperature?

Answers to these basic questions and some real-world examples of flowmeter

troubleshooting on site are given below.

2.2 Gas Flow Measurement

Gases usually contain humidity in the normal state, but in general gas flow
measurement, the flow rate of the gas content excluding the contained humidity is
measured. Such measurements are called dry gas equivalent flow rates and
expressed in units of normal cubic meters per hour, Nm3/h, which means the flow rate
converted into equivalent volumetric rate under normal conditions, which are 1 atm,
0C, and 0% relative humidity. Namely, gas flows are measured in equivalent
volumetric flow rates under normal temperature and pressure in the completely dry
state.

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Note: Some readers might think that clouds and mist are also humidity (water
vapor). However, clouds are fine droplets of water, not humidity. Humidity is water
vapor, which is a gas and so invisible.

Therefore, when manufacturing a gas flowmeter, the relative humidity under normal
operating conditions needs to be specified in addition to the operating temperature
and pressure. If the temperature, pressure, and humidity conditions specified for
flowmeter design differ from the normal operating conditions, measurement errors
result; nevertheless, temperature and pressure compensation is not implemented in
most cases because such errors do not affect serious plant operation.
Note: In the same way that errors of about 10% in a car speed meter reading are
not a problem, stability and reproducibility are regarded as more important than
absolute values and accuracy in plant operation. Nonetheless, absolute value
readings and accuracy are important when measuring speed for speeding
violation traps and altimeters in aircraft, since they may lead to fines or threaten
safety.

About gas flow meters for metering business transactions or calculating operation
efficiency, compensation is implemented to eliminate the effect of changes in
temperature and pressure. In this case, these gas flow meters are mass flow meters
since the mass of 1 Nm3 is constant.

2.2.1 Effect of Humidity Variations on Gas Flow Measurement with Differential Pressure
Flowmeters
A differential pressure flowmeter is affected not only by increases in volume by the
humidity content (water vapor) but also by changes in average density (whereas
volumetric flowmeters such as vortex flowmeters are affected by only increases in
volume).
The density of a gas is proportional to the molecular weight. For example, as the
molecular weight of water vapor is 18.02 and that of hydrogen is as little as 2.016,
hydrogen flow measurement is largely affected by changes in humidity.

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Note: Density (kg/Nm3) of gas under normal conditions (1 atm, 0C)

= molecular weight 22.4

The water vapor content is expressed as a relative humidity percentage or volume

percent of the water vapor content. As the pressure of gas becomes lower and as the
temperature becomes higher, the volume of water vapor as a percentage increases.
For example, let us consider hydrogen under atmospheric pressure and 50C with
relative humidity of 100%. As the saturated steam pressure at 50C is 12.34 kPa and
atmospheric pressure equals 101.32 kPa, the volume percent of the water vapor
content, QS, is given by:
QS = 12.34/101.32 100 = 12.18 vol%
The average molecular weight, MAVE, can be calculated by:
MAVE = (MH RHV) + (MWV RSWV)
Where,
MH = molecular weight of hydrogen
RHV = volume ratio of hydrogen
MWV = molecular weight of water vapor
RSWV = volume ratio of water vapor
Therefore, we obtain:
MAVE = [2.016 (1 0.1218)] + (18.02 0.1218)
= 1.7705 + 2.1948
= 3.9653
This is about twice the molecular weight of hydrogen that does not contain water
vapor. If a differential pressure flowmeter is manufactured for this application, the
effect of the actual density makes the flow rate readings 1.4 times (square root of 2)
the true values, and 12.18 vol% water vapor makes the readings up to1.6 times larger.

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2.2.2

Effect of Humidity Variations on Gas Flow Measurement with Vortex Flow Mater
Vortex flowmeters are flow speed meters, so they are unaffected by changes in
density and will exhibit only 10% larger readings than the true values due to the effect
of the water vapors volume ratio at 12.18 vol% in the case discussed in the preceding
section.
Besides the effect of water vapor, be careful about the density. Vortex flowmeters
cannot measure flow rates of gases whose density is less than 0.7 kg/m 3 as the vortex
signals generated by such gases are too weak to detect.
Vortex flowmeters cannot measure hydrogen gas flow under normal atmospheric
pressure since its density is as low as 0.09 kg/Nm 3; however, at 700 kPa or higher,
they can measure the same hydrogen because the density exceeds 0.7 kg/m3.
Reference: The density of hydrogen gas at 700 kPa, o, can be obtained by the
following equation where MH is the molecular weight of hydrogen:

= MH 22.4
= 2.016 22.4

= 0.09 kg/Nm3... cannot be measured by vortex flowmeters

For the density of hydrogen gas at 700 kPa, 700,

700 = 0 (700 + 101.32) 101.32

= 0.09 (700 + 101.32) 101.32

= 0.71 kg/m3...... can be measured by vortex flowmeters

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2.3 Expressions of Humidity

Humidity is expressed in several ways as described below, but gas flow is usually
measured using relative humidity:
Relative humidity (%)
= (water vapor pressure in gas) / (saturated water vapor pressure) x 100 (%)
Absolute humidity
= moisture content in kg contained in 1 m3 of gas
or,
= moisture content in kg contained in 1 kg of gas
Dew-point temperature
= the temperature at which the water vapor starts condensing during gradual cool-down
Assuming that the gastight enclosure shown on the left in Figure 1 is full of steam and
that no air remains, then as the temperature lowers, the internal pressure changes to
the saturated steam pressure at each temperature.

Saturated steam
pressure

Pressure

(kPa)
101.32

Steam

47.37
12.34
100C 80C 50C
0C

Water

Figure 1 Saturated Steam Pressure

The volumetric ratios of pure gas and water vapor can be calculated from the
saturated steam pressure at the current gas temperature and relative humidity of the
gas. For air at atmospheric pressure (101.32 kPa) and 50C with relative humidity of
100% for example, as the saturated steam pressure at 50C is 12.34 kPa, applying
the same calculations as in Section 2.2.1 will give the volumetric ratios of water vapor
and air as follows:

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Volumetric ratio of water vapor = (12.34/101.32) 100 = 12.2 vol%

Volumetric ratio of air = 100 12.2 = 87.8 vol%
If the relative humidity is 50%, the water vapor pressure is 6.17 kPa because it is 50%
of the saturated water vapor temperature, 12.34 kPa. Hence, volumetric ratios are as
follows:
Volumetric ratio of water vapor = (6.17/101.32) 100 = 6.1 vol%
Volumetric ratio of air = 100 6.1 = 93.9 vol%

Air
In reality, water vapor
and air are present as a
dispersed mixture.

87.8 vol%

Water vapor
12.2 vol%

Figure 2. Example of Saturated Water Vapor Volume in Air

Note: The absolute humidity (moisture content in kg contained in 1 m3 of gas)

of this water vapor-laden gas is given by:
(Molecular weight of water)/22.4 volumetric percentage of water vapor
100
= 18/22.4 12.2/100
= 0.098 kg/m3
2.4 Differences between Volumetric, Weight, and Mass Flow Rates,
and Liquid Flow Rate Compensation
Both the most popular unit of gas flow rate, Nm 3/h, and that of liquid flow rate, m 3/h,
are volumetric flow rates; however, the most popular unit of steam flow rate, kg/h, is a
weight flow rate.

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Mass flow rates indicate flow rates compensated for avoiding any impact from
changes in fluid conditions, namely, temperature, pressure, and density. Liquid flow
rate measurement is less affected by changes in pressure and temperature, and the
resulting errors are negligible in industrial measurement. However, in measurement
for business transactions such as gasoline and kerosene metering, temperature
compensation is implemented because errors of even a few percent cannot be
neglected. For petroleum products, the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) stipulates the temperature compensation method with the normal temperature
set to 15C or 60F (15.6C).

Page 7 of 19

2.5 Capacitance Magnetic Flow meters A Revolution in Magnetic Flowmeters

It was always considered that magnetic flowmeters could never measure fluids with
low conductivity of less than 5 20 S/cm. However, capacitance magnetic
flowmeters, as shown in Figure 3, have a non-wetted electrode structure and can
measure fluids with a minimum conductivity of 0.01 S/cm.

ADMAG CA

Electrode

Ultra High
Impedance
Head Amplifier

Ceramic
Liner

Figure 3. Structure of Capacitance Flowmeter

Note: The name, capacitance magnetic flowmeter, is derived from the inventive
measuring method in which plate electrodes reside outside a ceramic tube and
the electromagnetic force generated by the process fluid is sensed through the
tubes capacitance. In addition to the revolutionary non-wetted electrode design,
thanks to the epoch-making dual-frequency excitation, the high-frequency
excitation eliminates flow noise and the low-frequency excitation ensures zeropoint stability.

2.6 Flow Measurement Applications Made Possible by Capacitance Magnetic Flow eters

Application 1: Raw Material of Rubber (Latex-blended Water)

With conventional magnetic flowmeters, adhesion of the latex to the flow tubes and
electrodes disabled measurement within two days or so.

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Application 2: Acetic Anhydride

With area flowmeters, decreases in temperature caused crystallization or adhesion,
bending the float shafts. Meanwhile, possible increases in temperature required the
wetted parts to be glass-lined or made of tantalum for anti-corrosion.

Application 3: Pure Water (Conductivity: 0.2 0.5 S/cm)

With positive displacement flowmeters, the low lubricity of pure water frequently
caused the chipping or galling of gear teeth.

Application 4: Dewatered Cake from Sewage (Water Content: 70 80%)

Slurry noise as shown in Figure 4 caused instability of measurements.

Application 5: Liquid Mixture of Zinc Powder and Zink Sulfate

Different metals with electrode mixed in the liquid caused conventional flowmeters to
exhibit more unstable readings than shown in Figure 4 and disabled the
measurement.

Electrode

Lining

Flow

Electrod
e
Slurry noise

Figure 4. Conventional Magnetic Flowmeter

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Capacitance magnetic flowmeters ensure stable measurement because solid matter

does not touch the electrodes, as shown in Figure 5.

Electrod
e

Flow

Lining

Electrod
e
No slurry noise

Figure 5. Capacitance Magnetic Flowmeter

Application 6: Recycled Fuel Oil (Water Content: 43%)

Coriolis mass flowmeters exhibited unstable flow rate signals as shown in Figure 6
under the following fluid conditions:
Constituents: Oil 48%, water 43%, others 9%
Flow rate: 5 t/h

Temperature: 30C

Pressure: 10 kg/cm2

Conductivity: Approximately 3 mS/cm

Signal of capacitance
magnetic flowmeter

Signal of Coriolis mass

flowmeter

Signal

Time
10 minutes

Figure 6. Application of Reclaimed Fuel Oil Measurement

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Note 1: If oil and water are clearly separated and form a laminar flow, even
magnetic capacitance flowmeters may not be able to perform measurement.
To check the degree of separation, sample the fluid into a transparent
container such as a beaker and leave it to stand. If the water and oil separate
from each other quickly, care must be taken.
Note 2: Emptying the flowmeter tube makes heavy oil prone to adhere to the
tube lining. Devise the piping arrangement to prevent the flowmeter from
being emptied.

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2.7

Steam Flow
Units of weight flow rate include kg/h and t/h. In cases where the actual process
temperature and pressure largely change from the design conditions, temperature and
pressure compensation is required. Recent vortex flowmeters have a temperature
sensor built into the vortex shedder.
These vortex flowmeters with a built-in temperature sensor contain a microcomputer
and can calculate mass flow rates based on the temperaturesteam density curve
data in memory when measuring flow rates of saturated steam. Besides saturated
steam, the microprocessor can also perform temperature compensation for
superheated steam, gases, and liquids.

Silicon
rubbe
r
Magnesiu
m oxide

Pt1000, Class A
temperature
sensor
Thin film platinum

Figure 7. Vortex Flowmeter with Built-in Temperature Sensor

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2.8 Real-field Examples of Flow Measurement Troubleshooting

2.8.1 Unmatched Steam Flow Measurements of Vortex Flowmeters

This is an example where the supply flow rate to a 1-MPa steam header does not

Steam header

match the outlet flow rate.

Vortex flowmeter B

Vortex flowmeter A

Vortex flowmeter C

Vortex flowmeter D
Vortex flowmeter E

Phenomenon and Cause

The sum of the readings
flowmeters
B toMeasurement
E in Figure 8 was approximately
Figureof8. vortex
Example
of Steam Flow
5% larger than the reading of vortex flowmeter A.
The same design pressure was used in the setups of all flowmeters A to E. Due to the
pressure drops through the piping and steam header, the actual steam pressure at
flowmeters B to E was 50 kPa lower than the design pressure and this caused a +5%
error.

Remedy
The density was sat to 5.553 kg/m 3 in the converters of flowmeters B to E as it is the
saturated steams density at the original design pressure, 981 kPa. This setting was
changed to 5.31 kg/m3 which is the density of the saturated steam at the actually
measured pressure, 937 kPa.

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Example of Calculating the Reading Errors of Vortex Flowmeters B to E:

Process fluid: 981kPa saturated steam
Design pressure: 981kPa
Density of sat. steam at design pressure (S): 5.553kg/m3
Actual pressure: 937 kPa
Density of sat. steam at actual pressure (A): 5.31kg/m3
Reading error = (S /A 1) 100 = (5.553/5.31 1) 100 = +4.58%
Note: Vortex flowmeters are volumetric flowmeters and thus directly affected by
changes in the density of steam in line with varying temperature and pressure.

2.8.2

Flowmeters Installed at Outlet of Control Valve

Flowmeters must be installed on the upstream of a control valve. This is an example
of troubleshooting a case where this principle was not observed.

Phenomenon and Cause

A bad example of vortex flowmeter installation for reactor feed steam flow
measurement is shown on the left of Figure 9. The steam pressure at the flowmeter is
low at the start of reactor operation and rises as the reactor temperature increases.
Hence, the totalized flow rate of the steam flow meter was approximately ten times
larger than the actual flow.

FIS

FIS

Changing
pressure
1.4 MPa
steam

Reactor

Constant
pressure
1.4 MPa
steam

Control
valve

Vortex
flowmeter

Vortex
flowmeter

Control
valve

Page 14 of 19
Figure 9. Steam Flow Measurement

Remedy
As shown on the right of Figure 9, the flowmeter was relocated to the upstream of the
control valve to eliminate the changes in pressure. This solved the problem.

Phenomenon and Cause

A vortex flowmeter was installed on the downstream of a control valve for aqueous
ammonia flow measurement but the flow rate signal disappeared when the ambient
temperature increased.

Vortex
flowmeter

Aqueous
ammonia

Control
valve

Aqueous
ammonia

Control
valve
Vortex
flowmeter

Figure 10. Aqueous Ammonia Flow Measurement

Since the cause was gasification of part of aqueous ammonia, the flowmeter was
relocated to the lowest place in the upstream of the control valve, enabling normal
measurement. Although this countermeasure may impose a shorter straight run of
pipe in the upstream of the flowmeter than required by the specifications, much better
measurement can be achieved than allowing partial gasification.

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2.8.3

Incorrect Readings of Magnetic Flowmeter

Phenomenon
Magnetic flowmeters of 100 mm nominal diameter were installed in multiple flue gas
scrubbers. As shown in Figure 11, a 90 elbow was directly connected to the
downstream-side process connection of each flowmeter and the flowmeters were
used for a relatively high-speed flow region of around 3 m/s. Then, some flowmeters
indicated lower readings than the others by several percent.

Nonuniform Flow Speed

Distribution by Elbow

90 elbow
Cleaning gas

100 mm magnetic
flowmeter

Flue gas
scrubber

Plastic pipe
OD: 110; ID:
90

Flue
gas

Flow speed

Trend of flow
speed
distribution

2D long
straight pipe run
is required in
the downstream
too.

The average speed

is measured on the
right of Figure 12.

This low
speed is
measured on
the right of
Figure 12.

Figure 11. Example of Measurement with Insufficient Straight Pipe Run for Magnetic Flowmeter

Cause and Remedy

Checking the installation of all flowmeters revealed a difference in electrode
orientation. The electrodes of some flowmeters are oriented as shown on the right of
Figure 12, and others as shown on the left. Since the readings of the flowmeters
installed as shown on the right are close to the correct values, the other flowmeters
were reinstalled in the same way.

Page 16 of 19

This problem was caused by the effect of nonuniform distribution of flow speed in the
elbow as shown in the right graph of Figure 11. In the case shown on the right of
Figure 12, it is presumed that the voltage between the electrodes aligned across the
low-flow-speed part and high-flow-speed parts are both measured and that the
consequent measurements are near the average speeds with a little error.

Electrode
orientations after
corrected installation

90 elbow

Electrode of
magnetic
flowmeter

.
Direction of
flow

Figure 12. Example of Counteracting Effect of Insufficient Straight Run of Pipe

Page 17 of 19

2.9

Nine Rules of Flowmeter Installation

No.
1

Subject
Pressure taps on pipe for a
differential pressure flowmeter

Rule
Dont: Use globe valves as the stop valves.
Do:

Use gate valves as the stop valves.

Do:

Ensure that the mounting bolts and nuts at

where drain may develop in

the pressure lead tubing, such
as for steam measurement
2

Teflon-lined magnetic
flowmeters

the process connections are tightened

gradually with the torque specified in the
vendor documentation.

Flowmeter for resin pipe

Do:

Ensure that reinforcements are made to

prevent the flowmeters weight from
placing a burden on the piping.

Do:

Use soft gaskets.

Do:

Ensure that the flowmeters inner diameter

is not less than that of the pipe.

Inner diameter of pipe on the

Do:

upstream side of flowmeter

Ensure that the inner diameter of the

upstream pipe is larger or equal to the
flowmeters inner diameter. If it is less,
errors may result.

Gaskets for vortex flowmeter

Do:

Ensure that part of a gasket is not lying off

inside the pipe.

Process pressure and

Do:

Ensure that actual working conditions

temperature conditions for

agree with those specified when ordering.

steam or gas measurement by

If they differ, errors will result.

vortex flowmeter
7

Gas flow measurement in

Do:

Ensure that the process pressure and

Page 18 of 19

general

temperature conditions are stable.

Do:

Ensure that on the upstream part there is

no control valve or any other device that
disturbs flow.

Diaphragm seal transmitter

Do:

Check whether the transmitter

characteristics have been degraded after
several months or years of use. If they
have, hydrogen may permeate through the
diaphragm.

Diaphragm seal transmitter for

vacuum service

Do:

Ensure that the transmitter body is

installed at least 600 mm vertically lower
than the flanges.

Page 19 of 19