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UNDERSTANDING BIOTHERMAL ENERGY

A Thesis Presented
by
Zak Adams
to
The Faculty of the Graduate College
of
The University of Vermont

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements


for the Degree of Master of Science in Natural Resources
Specializing in Natural Resources
October, 2005

Accepted by the Faculty of the Graduate College, The


University of Vermont, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Science specializing in Natural
Resources.
Thesis Examination Committee:
____________________
John Todd, Ph.D.

Advisor

____________________ Advisor
Roelouf Boumans, Ph.D.
____________________ Chairperson
Fred Magdoff, Ph.D.
____________________ Vice President for Research
and Dean of the Graduate College
Frances E. Carr, Ph.D.
Date: September 6, 2005

Abstract
In the current food system, vast amounts of foods are imported
into cold-climate regions to sustain winter consumer demand that cannot
be met by local agricultural production. This process requires
transportation and storage infrastructures, which are resource intensive
and polluting. This system subsequently degrades human and ecosystem
health in both the production and destination regions. Unfortunately the
energy required to produce foods locally in the cold season using
conventional greenhouse technologies is also resource intensive, polluting,
or prohibitively expensive, therefore negating some possible benefits.
Using principles of ecological design however, it may be possible to
engineer a controlled environment that facilitates the production of food
crops in cold climates while minimizing or eliminating the use of fossil
fuels for climate control. A technology, referred to as Composting
Greenhouses, has been proposed in various forms in sustainable
agricultural networks and literature over the past three decades. This
greenhouse or bioshelter has benefits over current practices ranging from
reduction of pollution and resource use, to the strengthening of local food
security and economies. It makes use of resources that are currently
waste products of related agricultural processes subsequently reducing
waste, closing local resource loops, and creating economic niches.
Specifically, resources such as biothermal energy (heat), Carbon Dioxide
(CO2), Water Vapor, and Ammonia (NH3) are contained and transferred
from a composting operation to an adjacent greenhouse to provide a
suitable climate for horticultural production. However, few greenhouses
have actually been constructed and limited data has come from the
experimentation and operation. Furthermore, no structure of this nature
exists today that utilizes the vast amounts of feed stocks in the
commercial composting industry. In short, the technology is still in its
infancy after 30 years of experimentation.
Construction of a reproducible, commercially viable system will
require research, planning, and testing before it can be validated as a
viable technology under specified applications. Preliminary steps include
design and modeling of the contained environment to conclude issues of
functionality, scale, and economy. For this reason, a systems model of a
Biothermal Greenhouse has been created to simulate the processes. Data
on input variables such as compost heat and CO2 production,
decomposition rates, and metabolic water generation, were extracted
from peer-reviewed literature to create the basis for calculations that run
the model. Operational data from a local composting facility, Intervale
Compost, has been used. The model is run with weather data from
Burlington, VT to simulate winter climate conditions. The modeling
process has evaluated multiple hypotheses regarding operation to
determine if the system can successfully function. It has been
determined, based on experimental data, how much heat and CO2 can be

captured from a specified compost operation. The resources needed and


produced from a compost system have been determined under several
scenarios. Furthermore these results have been compared to the demand
of a specified greenhouse structure and it has been determined how the
resources produced from the modeled compost system compare to the
needs of the modeled greenhouse. This work has answered previously
unanswered questions through the comparison and has established a
basis for further design of biothermal systems.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to state my sincere thanks to all of those who have
helped me along the way. Thanks to my graduate committee: John Todd,
Roel Boumans, and Fred Magdoff. Thank you to the professionals who
took the time to help ground my ideas in reality: Bruce Fulford, Guy
Roberts, Holly Taylor, and Adam Sherman. To the researchers in this field
who are advancing it everyday with their work and who made this work
possible: H.M. Keener, R.T. Haug, N.J. Themelis, L.D. Albright, and Will
Brinton. Thanks to my students who gave their interest and attention.
My gratitude also goes out to Andy Jones and the Intervale Community
Farm for allowing me to tinker with technology and refine my ideas. To
my friend, boss, and mentor Gioia Thompson, thank you so much for
taking care of me. Finally, thanks to my family and friends for keeping me
sane and healthy.

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Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................i
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................ii
Table of Contents........................................................................................ iii
Table of Figures............................................................................................v
Literature Review ........................................................................................ 1
Compost Heat Utilization ......................................................................... 1
Prediction of Compost Heat Production .................................................. 7
Prediction of Available Heat From Compost .......................................... 10
Compost Energy Modeling ..................................................................... 12
Greenhouse Heat Loss Models ............................................................... 18
Predicting Compost Emissions ............................................................... 19
Water Vapor Emissions .......................................................................... 22
Ammonia Emissions................................................................................ 23
Trace emissions from composting ......................................................... 26
Introduction ............................................................................................... 29
Problem Statement ................................................................................... 33
Objectives.................................................................................................. 38
Methods ..................................................................................................... 41
Model Development................................................................................ 41
Model Structure...................................................................................... 44
Results ....................................................................................................... 53
Compost Property Database.................................................................. 53
Weather.................................................................................................. 57
Mass and Heat........................................................................................ 58

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Water...................................................................................................... 61
Carbon Dioxide ....................................................................................... 63
Airflow and Power .................................................................................. 67
System Sizing......................................................................................... 69
Discussion.................................................................................................. 75
Overview ................................................................................................ 75
Model Scenarios ..................................................................................... 79
Compost Resources ............................................................................... 80
Resource Requirements.......................................................................... 81
Resource Supply..................................................................................... 85
Future Study .......................................................................................... 91
Works Cited ............................................................................................... 96
Appendix A ..............................................................................................100
Simulation model (in text form)...........................................................100
Simulation Model Diagram ....................................................................127

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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual design of an integrated forced air biothermal
structure ............................................................................................. 30
Figure 2: Composting greenhouse at New Alchemy Institute................... 31
Figure 3: Jean Pain's hydronic biothermal system .................................... 31
Figure 4: Schematic design of a forced air commercial composting
operation with biofiltration ................................................................. 32
Figure 5: A common windrow open air composting facility..................... 35
Figure 6: Uncontrolled moisture at a compost site ................................. 35
Figure 7: Indoor windrow composting in a covered compost area ........... 36
Figure 8: Schematic diagrams of induced and forced draft aeration ...... 37
Figure 9: Percent dry matter disappearance (per 4 hrs) over time ......... 47
Figure 10: Heat values of compost feedstocks ........................................ 54
Figure 11: Database of compost characteristics ...................................... 56
Figure 12: Winter temperature variation (4 hr avg) ................................. 57
Figure 13: Greenhouse heat loss per hour over time (MJ / hr) ................ 57
Figure 14: Mass decomposition needed (kg/hr) to heat the greenhouse 58
Figure 15: Cumulative mass decomposition needed for greenhouse
heating ................................................................................................ 59
Figure 16: Compost mass of pile 1 over time........................................... 60
Figure 17: Mass loss rate of pile 1 (kg disappeared / hr) ....................... 60
Figure 18: Heat removal rate of pile 1 (MJ/4 hrs) ................................... 61
Figure 19: Cumulative water evaporation vs. generation in pile 1 .......... 62
Figure 20: Watering rate required for pile 1 (kg/4 hr)............................ 62
Figure 21: Cumulative watering of pile 1 .................................................. 63
Figure 22: CO2 production of all piles in scenario 1 (kg/hr) .................... 64
Figure 23: Cumulative CO2 production of all piles in scenario 1............. 64
Figure 24: CO2 vs. heat (production rates) for the entire time period (kg
and MJ per 2 hr period) ...................................................................... 65
Figure 25: Heat removal rate to CO2 production rate ratio for the entire
time period 66
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Figure 26: CO2 intake of the greenhouse based on heat need (kg/4 hr) 67
Figure 27: Enthalpy difference of all piles in scenario 1 .......................... 68
Figure 28: Airflow rate required for pile 1 (kg/4 hrs) ............................. 68
Figure 29: Cumulative air requirement of pile 1 ....................................... 69
Figure 30: Compost heat removal vs. greenhouse heating need over time
(MJ/4 hrs)........................................................................................... 71
Figure 31: Cumulative heat removal vs. cumulative heating need ........... 71
Figure 32: Mass decomposition pattern of the first six compost piles
(mass in red, water in blue)................................................................ 74
Figure 33: Heat removal rate of Intervale scenario (MJ / 4 hrs).............. 74

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Literature Review
Compost Heat Utilization
For the past 30 years, biothermal energy has been researched
informally through numerous entrepreneurial experiments (Poulain 1981),
(Turner, 1983),(Fulford, 1986),(Schonbeck, 1989),(Edey,
1998),(LoCasio, 2001), (Biette, 2004), (Fulford, 2005). While intriguing
and fascinating in their own right, this experimentation on small farms and
research stations has unfortunately not led to a cohesive body of
knowledge on the subject. Some non-peer reviewed information can be
obtained on the internet and in magazines about past experiments, but
this information cannot be considered a guide to the field of study or to
the planning and building of experimental structures (Editors,
1999),(Diver, 2001), (Young & Quazi, 2004) (and also see above
references). Past experiments utilized either hydronic or forced air
systems as a means to transport heat from compost to a destination
such as a greenhouse structure. It is unclear from the information
available which systems functioned more efficiently and cheaply than
others. Furthermore it is uncertain which systems are easier to operate
and manage than others.
Limited scholarly analysis and research on utilizing compost energy
exists in peer reviewed literature. A system was developed in which
compost heat and exhaust gases (CO2 and ammonia (NH3)) were utilized in
a greenhouse (Beck et al., 1992). The process, entitled Carboferm,

consisted of an external concrete composting chamber from which air


was drawn through compost (induced draft). This air was then scrubbed
by a jet washer and then allowed to pass to a greenhouse structure (see
paper for details). It was implied that the washer removed volatilized
compounds such as NH3 through condensation and the condensed water
was collected. The stored water was exposed to a heat exchanger to
remove useful heat, and then eventually the water was used for
horticultural irrigation. No data supporting the efficacy and efficiency of
the scrubber for soluble gas removal was presented. The percentage of
heat recovery from the condensate was also not reported.
Other parameters from the process are also difficult to interpret
and furthermore compare to other studies. It was stated that .25
kilograms (kg) of CO2 were produced for every kg of material applied. It
was not specified as to whether .25 kilograms was an average, or a
maximum value for the process. However, it was further stated that a
mean of 200grams of CO2 were produced for every kg of fresh green
residues (wet weight) with a 40% percent dry mass fraction, or 200kg
per 400kg dry matter. It was not specified if this figure represents dry
matter fed into the composter or dry matter decomposed. A maximum
energy savings of 20% was reported in a season due to the storage and
use of latent heat at night time. It is unclear if this percentage
represented actual energy or energy cost savings. A horticultural surplus
yield of 20% was also reported for the process. It was not specified: for

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what crop this occurred (possibly just cucumbers, no specific cultivar


mentioned), over what time period, if the 20% represents cost or dry
weight yield, and if this surplus was an average or maximum value
observed for the process. The maximum power use of the process was
reported as 15 watts/ square meter (W/m2), however it is unclear if this
represents watts per square meters of greenhouse area, or some other
space measurement. It was further stated that the composting process
produced 30 W/hr/m2 with respect to greenhouse space, and it is likely
that the power use reported was referenced to the same area. This
energy production coincided with a feeding rate of 20 grams (g) of dry
matter/hr. It is unclear what percentage of this matter was decomposed,
which is important for comparison. However, this figure represents 1.5
kilowatts (kW) per kilogram of dry matter fed into the reactor (5.4
megajoules (MJ) per kg). If it is assumed that only between 25-33% of
the fed dry material was oxidized, then this heat production number
would be in the range of reported values for heat of oxidation or
combustion of common feedstock materials. Unfortunately it is unclear if
the heat production reported was the total heat produced in the
composting process or just the heat recovered. Even though the heat of
combustion is similar for many materials, it can differ and the heat
removal amounts can widely differ among the types of composting
systems. Useful parameters from the study remain ambiguous and
require elucidation.

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A pilot scale in vessel composter was constructed to recover heat


energy from yard wastes (see paper for specifications) (Jaccard et al.,
1993). The vessel operation was an automated feed process in which
augers moved compost material through the reaction chamber at a rate
of 0.83 kg/hr. With a reactor volume of 0.5 cubic meters (m3), and a
density of 199.2 kg/m3, 99.6 kg (calculated) of material were contained
in the reactor for a retention time of 120 hours (hrs). It is unclear if the
feeding rate to reactor is based on final weight or initial weight of the
incoming material. It was stated that the incoming material had a
moisture content of less than 15% percent, and that water atomizers
located at the top of the chamber added the proper water mass to
facilitate composting processes. The final moisture percentage of the
material was not stated. If it is assumed that the final percentage after
mixing and before composting was 50%, then 49.8 kg of dry matter input
produced the reported 1kw/m3 of power for the process (3600kj/hr/m3).
This figure correlates with an energy recovery of 8.67 MJ/kg of dry
matter input for the process (calculated). No dry matter loss figures
were provided, so it is unclear how many oxidized kg of dry matter
produced this energy. Also reported was an airflow of .23 m3 of
air/minute (min)/m3 of compost (or a calculated .1406 m3/hr/kg of dry
matter input). The energy consumption of the process was not reported
and an energy ratio for the process cannot be ascertained. No gas

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emissions were recorded for the process. The total mass of water used in
the process was not reported.
Another in vessel composter was constructed to analyze heat
production from compost (H. Seki & Komori, 1995). A mixture of
chicken manure, rice bran, and sawdust was used with an approximate
carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) of 30 and a moisture content of 60%.
Although no mass loss rates or mass feeding rates were provided, heat
production and recovery rates were given. It was shown that 16-22%
(120-260 MJ) of the available energy was recovered from the
composting process. It was also reported that the amount of exergy
recovered (3.0-9.3 MJ) was 50% of the total input power required to run
the process. Airflow varied throughout the process in response to
temperature feedback, but the optimal airflow initially designed for was
200 liters (l) of air per minute per m3 of compost (200 l/min/m3).
Unfortunately, no density data was provided, so airflow per unit mass and
furthermore airflow per unit dry matter decomposed cannot be
determined.
An integrated greenhouse system was constructed in which 2.5
wet tons of compost (2:1 ratio of cattle manure and rice hulls) were
mixed and then placed into trenches in the greenhouse floor (see paper
for details) (Hong et al., 1997). Perforated pipes were located in the
trenches beneath the compost and supplied .22 l of air/hr/kg of compost
(initial wet weight). Heat production quantities were not reported for the

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process. Temperature of several zones in the greenhouse including the


soil between trenches, compost in the trenches, and the greenhouse air
were measured and recorded. It was shown that the compost raised soil
temperature, more significantly in the soil between compost trenches
than the soil next to the trenches. However, the compost was not
sufficient to maintain total desired greenhouse temperature, and a
supplemental heater was needed to heat the greenhouse air. NH3 was a
significant problem in the beginning of the experiment, and the
greenhouse had to be constantly ventilated for the first ten days of
composting. The 8 cm soil layer placed on top of each trench was not
sufficient for filtering the exhaust. Emissions were not specifically
measured however, and a NH3 production rate per compost or dry matter
decomposition was not quantifiable. Furthermore, this cannot be
compared to soil mass to understand the ammonia loading and causality
for its inability to filter ammonia.
These experiments that have specifically looked at compost for
heat production have provided some useful parameters, specifically for
internal experiment comparison.

However due to the variation in

data collected and methodologies used, limited information can be


extracted for comparison among studies or for future design of viable
systems. From these studies alone it cannot be determined the amount
of heat that can be expected from various compost systems. It can also
not be determined what energy recovery amounts, rates, and ratios can

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be expected from the various system designs. This is critical for the
intelligent design of future systems. Furthermore it cannot be
ascertained which and what quantity emissions can be expected when
utilizing compost for its heat production. To understand all of the
aspects of using biothermal energy further research must be conducted
with respect to parameters of energy and mass balances, energy
efficiency, emissions, and scalability of system design.

Prediction of Compost Heat Production


Fortunately, in research on the optimization and control of the
composting process specific parameters that can increase the
understanding of utilizing biothermal energy have been analyzed. A
database was constructed in which important parameters for the
composting process were collected from past experiments (incorporated
into the database presented here) (Keener et al., 1993). Mass and
energy balance equations were also presented, along with equations to
complete energy and cost calculations. This paper presented a basis for
standardizing data in compost research and variables to utilize in mass
and energy balance modeling. Important variables include: maximum rate
of dry mass disappearance per day k rate, water (H2O) produced per
dry mass decomposed (DMD), CO2 produced per DMD, heat produced per
DMD and Oxygen (O2) consumed per DMD. Most importantly when values
for heat, CO2, O2, and H2O were compared across studies, standard
deviation was low and average values were obtained.
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The previous work was expanded upon to include total pressure


demand from forced aeration (pressure drop in the compost pile and
piping infrastructure)(Keener et al., 1997b). This work provided a
complete equation to calculate energy and cost demand in a forced
aeration static pile composting system. It also provided parameters to
calculate pressure drop for some composting materials, along with
recommendations for blower and pipe configuration to minimize cost and
maximize efficiency.
A summary of a series of pilot scale compost experiments with
various materials was constructed in a database (Keener et al., 1997a).
In this synopsis, k rate (DMD per initial dry mass and per initial
compostable mass), o (percentage of non-compostable mass in the
initial mass, dry basis), airflow characteristics, and moisture loss were
analyzed. Standard deviations and averages were established for all of
the compost mixes.
A database of common municipal solid waste fractions including
food wastes, paper, and yard wastes was provided in (Tchobanoglous et

al., 1993) (incorporated into the database presented here). Elemental


fractions (dry weight) of the wastes, and energy production per unit dry
mass (ash free basis) figures were presented. The paper also provided
calculations for determining the wet weight, as received energy value of
a waste mix. This calculation was not complete in regard to determining
energy from oxidation due to composting, but it gives a basis for

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calculating non-ash fractions (dry mass) of some common waste


materials. These calculations in amended form can determine the
potential energy amounts from a compost mixture.
The elemental analysis of common wastes were used as the basis
for calculating heat values of a compost mix (Themelis & Kim, 2002).
Furthermore, the molecular composition of food wastes with their major
constituents (fats, proteins, carbohydrates, oils) was presented, with heat
of combustion provided for the materials. The heat generated by
decomposition was then approximated by taking the common chemical
formula, calculating an oxidation reaction, and assuming that the reaction
was representative of the process as a whole.
Oxygen consumption during the composting process has been used
as an indicator of heat generation (Weppen, 2001). This approach allows
also for an online measuring of heat production with a respirometer that
negates measurements of compost mass and water balance. A narrow
relationship (452 +/- 29 kj/mol O2) was found between compost heat
production and O2 consumption in series of 37 individual experiments with
a lab scale reactor. A strong correlation between the direct calorimetry
(lab scale) and indirect calorimetry (commercial scale reactor) was found
as well. This work implies that on-line measurement of oxygen
consumption to obtain an oxicalorimetric coefficient (heat/O2
consumption) is reliable. A linear relationship was found between O2
consumption and heat production in a commercial scale reactor (Harper

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et al., 1992). The relationship deviated at higher temperatures however.


This was attributed to inaccuracies of concentration measurement being
multiplied across high mass flow rates, and also the damper control
rapidly mixing recirculated exhaust air with fresh air intake. A mean of
9.8 MJ produced per kg O2 consumed (313.6 kj/mol O2) was found. This
rate differs significantly from the aforementioned values. This was
attributed to possibly incomplete oxidation, and the release of volatilized
organic compounds (VOC). Unfortunately, VOC were not measured in
either study mentioned, and this uncertainty will need to be resolved
before oxicalorimetric coefficients are used as constants.

Prediction of Available Heat From Compost


Although assessing heat generation in compost is crucial to
understanding the process as an alternative energy, determining how
much of the heat generated in the process is actually available to the user
is the most important calculation. Several researchers have monitored
the types of heat loss (conduction, convection, evaporation/convection,
and radiation) from the composting process, and the quantities vary
considerably with system design. The thermal balance of forced air
composting process at the laboratory scale was compared with a
commercial scale bin reactor and a multi-stage tower reactor (Bach et al.,
1987). Conduction through the walls of the laboratory reactor was the
main form of heat loss at 51.6%, with heat loss from evaporation
comprising 34.3% of the heat loss. Heat loss in both the commercial
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scale reactors was predominantly through evaporative heat losses at


75.6% (bin) and 86.2 (tower). Sensible heat loss from the exhaust air
was the second biggest loss at 12.4% and 8.5% respectively. In total
88% and 94.7% of heat released in the commercial scale processes
respectively, was removed by the air passing through the compost. In an
enclosed, insulated, environmentally controlled compost reactor (10 ton
loading capacity) latent heat losses were the dominant method of heat
removal (Harper et al., 1992). They never dropped below 70% of the
total heat loss. Through calculation of heat balance, it was found that
heat removal from natural conduction/convection (through compost
surface and bin walls) and radiation from the static composting cell (bin
reactor) could only equal a fourth of the required heat removal (Themelis
& Kim, 2002). Therefore 75% of the heat generated in a static pile
needed to be removed by forced aeration to optimize the process and
control temperature. Interestingly it was further calculated that the
aeration rate was seven times the stoichiometric oxygen requirement of
reaction. Energy and mass balances were also analyzed in a turned
windrow operation with no aeration (Robinzon et al., 2000). Three
windrows were compared (1 turn/day, 1 turn every five days, and no
turning). It was concluded that water evaporation was the dominant form
of heat loss (about 70% in all windrows), and that more frequent turning
facilitated greater overall surface evaporation. Interestingly, the less
frequently turned and unturned windrow had 82% and 42% of the mass

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loss of the windrow turned everyday as well. The heat gain in the
windrows from solar radiation was also analyzed. Even though it was
concluded that the net effect of the radiation was cooling, the energy
from the sun equaled less than a third of the compost generated heat.
This was the first time that this type of comparison was performed.
The amount of heat available from compost will be dependent on
how the energy is recovered from the process. It can be seen that
recovery of the exhaust air, especially with forced air in-vessel operations,
will retrieve a significant amount of the heat released in composting. This
amount recovered will vary with reactor and process type due do
differences in amounts radiated, conducted, and passively convected.
These types of losses will be a function of compost mass geometry,
compost housing (or lack thereof), and process control (such as
frequency of turning). There are fixed heat sinks that also reduce the
amount of heat available. The initial heat generated in the process will be
used to bring the initial wet mass up to process temperature. Also, any
water that is added to the pile will take heat to be brought up to process
temperature as well. Depending on the composting vessel, other
materials such as concrete walls may absorb heat to reach their
respective operating temperatures.

Compost Energy Modeling


Many researchers have modeled the composting process in terms
of mass loss, energy evolution, and energy needs of the system.
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Elements of a compost model include auxiliary variables (such as how


much heat is produced per kilogram dry matter decomposed), but they
are truly run by functions such as the calculation to predict
decomposition rate (dry mass decomposed per day). A methodology for
calculating composting rate as a first order expression is used by several
researchers and was first presented in Compost Engineering (Huag,
1993). The expression consisted of two separate calculations for the
fast and slow fractions of the compost. It was found that this model fit
most experimental data reviewed better than a single expression. The
composting rate function was predominantly controlled by temperature,
with the rate coefficient almost doubling for every 10oC rise in temp.
This enabled a rate recorded at a reference temperature to be adjusted
across the temperatures occurring throughout the composting process.
This expression was based on data but also on basic biological and
thermodynamic principles. This relationship is only relevant below
temperatures that are not limiting to microbiological processes. It was
assumed that temperatures above 70oC were rate limiting. It was
acknowledged that different composting substrates most likely have
different temperature optimums, but the expression was found to fit data
from several experiments. The rate derived from this expression is the
maximum decomposition rate for the substrate in question, and it must
be further adjusted for rate limiting factors such as oxygen availability,
free air space, compost moisture, and microbial population distribution.

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The algorithms for these rate limiting factors were presented, and it was
assumed that microbial population distribution was not limiting. The
limiting factors had an individual net effect on the composting rate, i.e.
the end values for free air space or moisture were between 1 and .01and
the rate was multiplied by each limiting factor. Although the calculations
for limiting factors were based on experimental evidence, the cumulative
effect of multiple factors on the composting rate was not specifically
verified by experimental data. Although it remains unclear if multiple
limiting factors actually have a cumulative effect on the composting rate,
the model presented a basis which was able to fit multiple experimental
results and performed adequately relative to the current state of the art.
A rate function based on the same experimental data as Huag and
the so called Q10 effect of temperature was presented in (Keener et
al., 1993), but it was concluded that the equation was only valid up to
60oC. It was also stated that compost moisture levels between 50-65%
(mass basis) were not inhibiting on the decomposition rate. This finding
conflicts with Huags methodology which presented a moisture coefficient
of around .87-.98 (slight decrease of the rate) for moisture percentages
of 50-65%. It was stated as well that optimum moisture levels may vary
for different compost materials because of their specific water holding
capacities. This again slightly conflicts with Huags approach which uses
the same moisture coefficient curve for all materials. Given the state of
the art, only further research will elucidate the situation and present

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verified approaches, but until then the methodology presented provides


general understanding and prediction capabilities when constants are used
or derived in the context of the experimental data.
Multiple laboratory scale composting trials were conducted and
presented in (Keener et al., 1997a), which provided a database of
observed values for decomposition rates and maximum decomposable
masses. It was found that decomposition rates varied from a low of 2.4%
to a high of 24.8% initial dry mass disappeared or completely oxidized per
day. Total dry matter losses were found to be between 14.2% to 51% of
initial dry matter. Other composting experiments have observed values
outside of these ranges, and they can only be considered in light of the
context of the composting trials (laboratory scale reactors with varying
aeration schemes and time periods). However, the results do provide a
greater understanding of the parameters that determine the rate and
extent of decomposition and therefore heat production. They have been
used as a guide in the modeling process.
An iterative modeling process to determine parameters of a turned
windrow process was presented in (Robinzon et al., 1999) based on
recorded temperature and mass loss data. A separate equation was not
used for fast and slow fractions of the compost, and one rate constant fit
the experimental data best. It was also found that this constant was one
third the value of constants found in the initial phase of forced air
operations with similar feedstocks. This finding indicates that rate

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constants obtained in certain types of processes, such as forced aeration


in vessel composting cannot be accurately transferred to other
processes, such as turned windrow operations that do not use forced
aeration. Unfortunately to predict the decomposition rate of a given
composting process accurately with rate constants, there must be
experimental data for specified materials under specified processes. Such
a database of information does not exist yet and will take much more
future experimentation.
An approach for modeling temperature effects on decomposition
rates based on proximate carbon classification was presented in (Crohn &
Valenzuela-Solano, 2003). Recalcitrant (slow) and liable (fast) fractions
of mulch and compost feed stocks were classified by proximate carbon
analysis (PCA) and therefore the rates of types of fractions could be
classified, as opposed to the general feed stock material.

Also analyzed

were several types of models to predict decomposition rates (including


the Arrhenius Q102 approach used by Huag and Keener), (see paper for
details). It was concluded that an Arrhenius Q10 approach with separate
Q10 values for each fraction performed best when data from a mesophilic
mulch decomposition study was applied to thermophilic paper sludge
composting. This study does provide a standard approach for recording
and modeling decomposition rates though, and also provides a more
thorough standard for classifying liable and recalcitrant fractions. This
approach may also allow better prediction of heat production as the

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amounts of constituents soluble in polar (fats and lipids) non-polar


(sugars, tannins, starches), and acid (cellulose and hemi cellulose) media
are able to be classified. However, moisture, particle size, and oxygen
availability were not analyzed in the study, and it may be that the
observed rates were limited by one or more of these factors. The study
looked solely at carbon (C) fractions and not nitrogen (N). Within the
carbon fractions, there may be some difficulty tracking fractions during
the composting process as some acid soluble fractions break down into
polar and non-polar soluble C. As stated in the paper, actual C
disappearance should be tracked, especially when following heat
production from mass loss. Unfortunately as stated in the paper PCA is a
time and labor intensive but it is an approach that may allow better
prediction of decomposition rates, heat of combustion values, and noncompostable fractions. However, future data must be collected with
regard to other limitations to composting such as particle size and
moisture levels.
Disappearance of C and N in the composting of animal manures and
shredded paper were tracked and classified by water soluble, acidhydrolyzable, and non-hydrolyzable constituents in (Pare et al., 1998). In
the 59 days of composting several mixes (passive aeration in plastic 200
liter (l) barrels with mixing and watering), only the acid-hydrolyzable C
fraction was shown to have significant losses. Non-hydrolyzable C barely
changed at all during the composting process, and water soluble C

- 17 -

increased and decreased during the process but had a similar value to its
initial value at day 59. In light of this, mass loss could have been
predicted (approximately) on the basis of initially present hydrolyzable C,
as the other fractions were essentially inert. The same can be said for N
fractions, although greater transformations occurred between fractions.
This study as well presents another approach to classifying compost
constituents and therefore more accurately predicting losses, loss rates,
and subsequently heat production.
There have also been decomposition models on the microscopic
level that take into account bacterial population dynamics and compost
matrix variables (H. Seki, 2002). These models will most likely advance
compost modeling accuracy in the future, but require data input that
most composting operations cannot compile. They are also more
complicated to comprehend and limited to specific composting
operations. Therefore, a model of this type has not been used here but
should be considered for operations where the required compost
parameters are being monitored and recorded.

Greenhouse Heat Loss Models


Modeling the complex interactions that determine how much heat is
lost from a greenhouse structure is a difficult task. A review of multiple
studies of greenhouse heat loss dynamics was conducted (Hanan, 1998).
It was stated that heat loss from: water condensation on coverings,
enthalpy change caused by infiltration, and increased radiation on
- 18 -

cloudless nights were all neglected in simplified models but could account
for large percentages of total heat loss seen in most greenhouses. It was
also stated that the standards presented by ASHRAE and ASAE were not
adequate. Unfortunately, more complex models require data on ambient
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, solar data, cloud cover and
specific greenhouse materials. With these requirements, a general but
accurate model is difficult to establish. A methodology for calculating
heat loss in greenhouses that requires only temperature and wind data
along with greenhouse specifications of size and geometry type (i.e.
Quonset) has been established (Nelson, 1998). This model was chosen
here for its simplicity and relative accuracy in regard to weather and
greenhouse type.

Predicting Compost Emissions


Composting operations can release a multitude of emissions
associated with both aerobic and anaerobic processes. The various
constituents have been studied in peer reviewed experiments to a limited
extent. Unfortunately due to: heterogeneous substrates, varying
feedstocks and types of composting process, differing methodologies for
conducting on-line measurement, and the subjectivity of measuring
nuisance odors, the details behind compost emissions remain relatively
not understood. In general however, several aspects of compost
emissions are understood. It is known that composting process releases
significant amounts of CO2, NH3, and H2O in the form of vapor. Also
- 19 -

detected in past studies have been varying amounts of VOC, NOx, SOx,
molds, fungal spores, and airborne bacteria. Obviously to utilize the CO2,
H2O, and NH3 in compost exhaust as resources, the accompanying
elements need to be handled safely and efficiently. Additionally, to
understand how to utilize and filter compost exhaust, the emissions
dynamics and yields must be understood completely.

Carbon Dioxide Emissions


Numerous researchers have studied the release of CO2 during the
composting process. Unfortunately, ascertaining the quantity and rates
of CO2 release during composting is not a straightforward process. Only
small, lab scale experiments can collect the complete gases released
during composting. Larger, commercial scale experiments have had to
take online gas concentration and air velocity measurements, which can
be problematic as averages must be used and the exhaust air conditions
(i.e. extreme heat and humidity) can interfere with samples.
A static chamber method was employed in which bottomless boxes
were placed on top of sections of a compost windrow and then the
trapped gases were sampled (Hao et al., 2004). A mass balance
conducted showed that the total C loss calculated from the air samples
(in the form of CO2 and CH4) correlated closely with the measured mass
loss. This implied that the online CO2 measurement technique was
relatively reliable, but it also showed that C can be lost in other gaseous

- 20 -

forms besides CO2 during large scale composting due to isolated anoxic
and anaerobic areas in the compost. Therefore, laboratory experiment
data for CO2 yields may not be accurate to predict CO2 emissions from
larger scale operations due to the spatial discrepancies inherent in some
commercial operations. The problem arises when CO2 yields are compared
to oxygen consumption as well due to the production of CH4 and nitrogen
oxides NOx.
CO2 data from multiple composting experiments over a wide array
of materials was summarized in (Keener et al., 1993). The data was
presented in two ways: CO2 released per unit dry mass decomposed and
moles of CO2 released per moles O2 consumed or Respiratory Quotient
(RQ). Averages for CO2 yields (1.85kg/kg) and RQ (.97mol/mol) and
standard deviations (.10), (.03) were established. It was shown that
completely disparate feedstocks had similar CO2 yields when composted.
Respiratory quotient has been analyzed as a tool for measuring
compost activity and subsequent CO2 emissions (Gea et al., 2004). It
was found that RQ varied only slightly across materials and operating
temperatures in the experiments, and also when compared to other
experimental results. It was also stated that low-oxidized materials such
as fats can be expected to reduce RQ.
Experiments published after Keeners study that have found CO2
yields and RQ have been summarized and cited in the revised database
here. Low standard deviation between multiple experiments has been

- 21 -

found and is shown in the database. Based on the literature, it also


seems the prediction can possibly be made more accurate by having
knowledge of the properties of feedstock materials. A general
stoichiometric formula can be established for the compost mix (as seen in
the work of Themelis), and RQ can be predicted based upon the formula.

Water Vapor Emissions


Calculation of the quantity of water vapor that is extracted in
compost exhaust air can be performed in several ways. The most
straightforward process for compost operators is based on scientific
findings and basic physics. The water vapor extracted in exhaust air will
equal the mass flow rate of the air multiplied by the humidity ratio of the
exit air compared to entry air. It was found that for composts with a
moisture level of above 50% the exhaust air was saturated, and for
composts with moisture level of 45-50%, the air was 95-100% saturated
(Bach et al., 1987). Humidity ratios for saturated air at the common
operating temperature range associated with composts was presented in
(Keener et al., 1993). Also presented was data on the amount of
metabolic water generated per DMD for compost materials. While this
coefficient does not completely predict water vapor emissions, it does
help complete the water balance model in a composting operation. Again,
studies conducted after 1993 are presented in the database here.
Compost exhaust air temperature is commonly assumed to be the same
temperature as the compost. If an operator maintains moisture levels in
- 22 -

the compost above 50% (which is common for facilitating optimal


bacterial activity), and knows the average temperature of the compost
pile and the air outflow rate, then the amount of water evaporated from
the compost pile can be quantified with a certain degree of accuracy.
However, the aforementioned findings should be validated with further
experimentation to assure that air is always consistently saturated at
those compost moisture levels. Furthermore, many composting
operations allow the moisture levels to drop below 45% moisture, and
humidity ratios will need to be established for these operating parameters
as well.

Ammonia Emissions
Scientific study has shown that ammonia is a significant compost
by-product. It can be considered the most abundant of nuisance gases
that must be controlled. Researchers have found that emission of NH3
can account for a large quantity of nitrogen (N) loss from composts. It
has been found that 23-32% of initial (N) in compost can be lost as
ammonia (Beck-Friis et al., 2001). During the composting of animal
wastes between 46.8 and 77.4% of the initial total N was lost through
NH3 volatilization (with a .2 to 29.2% difference between
measured/calculated emissions and final mass analysis, see paper for
details) (Martins & Dewes, 1992). An estimated 62% loss of initial N to
NH3 volatilization during the composting of bark and poultry manure with
initial C/N ratio of around 22 and a 46% moisture content was found
- 23 -

(Morand et al., 2005). A 580 ppm concentration of NH3 was observed in


the exhaust gas of the compost. This concentration is above toxicity
thresholds for plants and humans if exposed under proper time.
The causalities of ammonia release during the composting process
are complex, and therefore prediction of emissions is difficult at the
present state of the art. Increasing NH3 emissions were found to have a
strong correlation with increasing temperature change (Martins & Dewes,
1992). Initial C/N ratios and moisture contents were not provided, but
the piles did leach liquids, and were continuously irrigated with leachate. It
has been found that the presence of fatty acids, which subsequently
affected compost pH and microbial activity, affect NH3 emissions (BeckFriis et al., 2001). The effects of high carbon wood ash application in
composting windrows as a means of compost odor control has been
studied (Rosenfeld et al., 2004). It was found that the ash significantly
reduced VOC emission at an application of 25% compost volume, but
unfortunately the amendment increased ammonia emissions over the
control (see paper for details). It was implied that the alkalinity of the
ash was the causality, and materials which raise the pH of compost can
have significant affects on ammonia emissions. A considerable literature
review on NH3 volatilization and modeling of NH3 loss as a function of
microbial population, pH, temperature, aeration rate, and interstitial CO2
concentration was conducted (Liang et al., 2004). The model results
correlated well with data presented in literature. The modeling process

- 24 -

and literature reviewed showed that in general NH3 formation increases


with decreasing C/N ratio, increasing temperature, increasing airflow rate,
increasing pH, and decreasing moisture content (MC).
It has been shown that NH3 emissions can be controlled with
adsorption and precipitation as well (Jeong & Kim, 2001). Ammonia
volatilization was reduced in composts by applying magnesium (Mg) and
phosphate (P) salts that formed struvite through precipitation. Losses of
initial N were reduced by 75% over the control, but higher salinity
occurred in the amended compost. Further study is needed determine
the optimal amount of salts to reduce NH3 but maintain acceptable
salinity. Another reported benefit of the process (besides N retention)
was a higher value fertilizer due to increased P. NH3 may also be
controlled with exhaust vapor condensation and capture due to its high
water solubility (Beck-Friis et al., 2001). It was found that >85% of the
N in the exhaust could be trapped in the exhaust condensate of a closed
composting system. Based on the literature it seems that NH3 can be
controlled on both ends of the composting process. Its control is crucial,
especially if the compost exhaust will be used to condition a greenhouse
environment as commonly seen in past experiments. Concentrations
observed during composting experiments have been found to be
phytotoxic, and therefore must be treated in some form before
greenhouse crops are exposed to exhaust.

- 25 -

Trace emissions from composting


Many other gases are released during typical composting processes
along with CO2, NH3, and H2O. These gases: VOC, bioaerosols, nitrous
oxide (N2O), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides SOx, methane (CH4), and
airborne particles such as spores, molds, bacteria, yeasts and associated
metabolites can be a nuisance and a hazard to compost workers. They
must be considered and in certain circumstances controlled if compost
exhaust is to be utilized in an enclosed structure. Unfortunately, emission
of these substances has been seen to be less consistent and extensive
than CO2 or NH3 and the causal mechanisms are not well understood.
Only VOC, in general, are as common but the types of VOC differ
according to feedstock material and process. Several composting
experiments with different mixes (common organic fractions of MSW)
were conducted and VOC emissions were tracked (D.P. Komilis et al.,
2004). It was found that different types of VOC were released for yard
waste, food waste, seed (stabilized compost as an inoculate), and mixed
paper. The results showed that release of VOC coincided with heating
and decreased over time with decreasing compost rates. It was
concluded that hazardous VOC can be released during the composting of
common MSW materials, and that VOC embedded in the compost matrix
are released during wetting and heating. The results implied that may be
possible to understand VOC emissions and subsequent dangers by
analyzing the feedstock materials before composting. Sulfur and N based
compounds have been found to have a lower odor threshold and have
- 26 -

correlated well with odor detection in composting trials (Krzymien et al.,


1999). Other VOC emitted peaked early in the composting process in
accordance with decomposition rates, but odor detection followed a more
gradual pattern. These results show that specific compounds which are
perceived at lower concentrations can still be the main odor causing
ingredients and therefore should be considered. A wide array of odorous
compounds can be released and are found to be derived from nitrogen,
sulfur, volatile fatty acids (VOA), ketones, and aldehydes (Rosenfeld et
al., 2004). The control compost in the experiment emitted 9 compounds
estimated at several to thousands of times greater than the lowest odor
threshold. Acetaldehyde was estimated to be 14,000 times the lowest
odor threshold in the control, and all odorous compounds were reduced to
undetectable limits with high carbon wood ash amendment (25% by
volume) except acetaldehyde and ammonia. Acetaldehyde was not found
to be the most persistent compound in (D. P. Komilis & Ham, 2000),
although differing feedstocks were used. It should be noted that
activated charcoal and coconut fiber filters were used to filter the VOC
from the compost exhaust air for analysis. It is unclear whether it is
possible or cost effective to filter exhaust in this manner, but it does
seem that VOC can be controlled with additives and filtration based on
the literature. Interested parties should review compost facility research
to understand commercial scale filtration aspects.

- 27 -

The airborne concentrations of bacteria, fungi, and associated


airborne particles have been monitored at a large commercial composting
facility (Maricou et al., 1998). It was stated the measured concentrations
of bacteria, including fecal coliform, were difficult to associate with any
possible health risk. However, significant concentrations of bacteria and
fungi were found in the air of the facility and hygienic precautions such as
filter masks were recommended. Because these particulates could
possibly cause both adverse human and plant risks, concentrations and
subsequent effects should be studied in any system that utilizes compost
exhaust.
Releases of N2O are small in the composting process and have been
found to amount to less than 2% of initial N (Beck-Friis et al., 2001).
Trace emissions such as N2O (.5% initial N), CH4 (1.7% initial C), and
carbon monoxide, CO (.04% initial C) have been detected during the
composting of green waste (yard waste) (Hellebrand, 1998). Peak
emission concentrations were 4000ppm for N2O, and concentrations of
100 ppm CO were detected. N2O concentrations decreased with
increasing airflow (200 ppm at 100 cm3/min compared to 4000 ppm at
20cm3/min), while CO had higher concentrations at higher airflows.
These concentrations observed should be compared to threshold levels
for human and plant toxicity, and should be tested for in future
composting experiments to determine their prevalence with other
compost feedstocks besides yard waste.

- 28 -

Introduction
The concept of utilizing biological sources of heat and nutrients to
incubate food crops may date back to as early as 2000 years ago in the
Roman Empire. However, utilization of manure heat in enclosed crop
cultivation was not popularized and well documented until the height of
the French commercial gardening market in the early 19th century. Since
this time the incorporation of biothermal energy in agriculture has evolved
into integrated enclosed agricultural systems of varying scope and design.
By its very definition, biothermal energy is energy derived from
living organisms. This could be taken to mean direct sources such as
latent and sensible heat released from organisms, or indirect sources such
as methane derived from anaerobic digesters. In this specific study,
direct biothermal energy is focused on. This energy source in past
systems has been either heat produced by bacteria from the
decomposition of matter, or from livestock. The latter source is not
being considered by this research.
In compost-based biothermal structures two methods have been
employed to transport heat from compost to a housing structure.
Hydronic systems achieve heat transfer by circulating a fluid passively
(thermosiphon) or actively (mechanical pumping) in a closed loop system
consisting of a matrix of tubing in a compost pile and a similar heat
exchanger in the greenhouse structure (see figure 3). Forced air systems

- 29 -

transmit saturated hot air with blowers or compressors through compost


to crop housing; using ductwork and a filter to safely transport the air,
CO2, and water vapor (see figures 1, 2, and 3). These systems are quite
similar to many in-vessel, forced aeration compost operations that exist
today. They also have a significant advantage over hydronic systems as
they can capture latent and sensible heat from the compost, as well as
any useful elements in the emissions. Hydronic systems are not
considered in this research of a biothermal greenhouse model due to the
aforementioned reasons.

Fi gure 1: C o nce pt ual d es i gn o f a n i nt e gr ate d fo rc ed ai r bi ot he rm al st r uct ur e

- 30 -

Fi gure 2: C o mp o sti ng gr ee nho use at Ne w A lchem y Instit ute


(Fulfo rd, 198 8)

Fi gure 3: Je an Pai n' s hy dr o nic bi other m al s yste m


(Poulai n, 198 1)

- 31 -

Fi gure 4: Sc hem atic d es i gn o f a for ce d a ir co mm er cia l c o mp o sting o pe r atio n


wit h bi o filt rat io n
(Helilt , 20 03)

Currently, it is unclear how many biothermal greenhouses exist on


farms and homesteads in the world. There are a several structures in the
Northeastern United States that have been operating for several years,
but there is limited operational data available (Fulford, 2005), (Biette,
2004), (Young & Quazi, 2004). There are no large scale commercial
composting greenhouses currently in operation. A pilot scale composting
greenhouse has been recently constructed at Intervale Community Farm
in Burlington, VT. This is the first composting greenhouse designed for
commercial scalability as the system functions with the common
operations of both a commercial composting operation and a greenhouse
operation. Only further operation and monitoring will show if the design
can link the vast energy source in commercial composting facilities with
commercial greenhouse operations. There are many in-vessel or indoor
composting operations that control and filter their emissions. It is unclear
- 32 -

how many of these operations use the heat from compost to regulate
indoor temperatures of the processing facility (through heat exchangers
or other means), or whether any use the post-filtration emissions as a
resource. The required infrastructure for in vessel biofiltration operations
is very similar to what a biothermal structure would need, and data from
these facilities is useful for planning and design of potential biothermal
operations. In turn, further research on biothermal energy production can
also help these facilities plan for temperature control and energy
recovery.

Problem Statement
Biothermal Energy has been researched formally and informally for
the past 35 years in a range of settings and experiment parameters. The
recorded technological history has been precarious, and many questions
remain about efficiency, operational conditions, and performance
consistency (Enoch & Kimball, 1986), (Diver, 2001), (Fulford, 2005),
(Schonbeck, 1989). Multiple types of composting systems have been
used in biothermal heating systems in different climactic settings with
mixed consistency in data recording and publishing. Multiple methods of
extracting and transporting heat/compost cogenerents have also been
employed. Data exists in peer review literature for composting
experimentation that can be used, however the experiment parameters
and standardizations vary greatly and only recently have researchers
begun to eliminate enough variables to produce transferable data.

- 33 -

The knowledge bases for design and engineering have not been
established for biothermal energy. There is no information or operational
data on how these systems function from day to day and how they
respond to different environmental conditions. Interested parties have
little in the way of a guide or reference if they wish to build a system
based on their respective operations. They can only refer to consultants
who have worked with past systems. Furthermore because of the
informality and inconsistency of the research behind biothermal
technologies, and the inherent complexity of a biologically based
technology, a structure has not been successfully scaled to a long-term
commercial setting. This is unfortunate, as the large potential for this
alternative technology exists with the vast amounts of feed stock in the
commercial composting industry.
An open air composting facility, such as Intervale Compost, is
producing significant amounts of heat, CO2, water vapor, and possibly
ammonia and volatile organic compounds. Without aeration capture and
filtration these possible resources are being released into the atmosphere;
sometimes causing concern to adjacent communities.
Open-air composting operations also experience difficulties due to
weather that can often be detrimental. Moisture control can be a
significant problem both from an operational and a product quality
standpoint. Excessive moisture can lead to surface and/or groundwater
run-off, and subsequent water pollution if not contained. These problems

- 34 -

can translate to economic losses, as has been seen with the Intervale
composting operation (Sherman 2004).

Fi gure 5: A c o mm o n wi ndr o w o pe n ai r c o m po sti ng fa cilit y


(Biote ch, 20 03)

Fi gure 6: U nc o ntr oll ed m oi st ur e at a c o mp ost s ite


(Biote ch, 20 03)

In a biothermal composting operation these problems can be


negated as moisture is controlled and compost can be sheltered from the
weather. In turn, emissions can be controlled and CO2, NH3, H2O, and heat
can be utilized as resources. This can be done either with an enclosed, in
vessel compost structure that uses forced aeration or an operation that
- 35 -

uses negative pressure (induced draft) to capture exhaust. However it is


unclear whether the cost of building a biothermal structure is justified by
the possible savings from process control and resource recovery. The
economic benefits from both utilizing the waste emissions and preventing
operational difficulties due to moisture must be researched further. The
feasibility of operating a dynamic system in unison with commercial
compost and greenhouse operations must be tested as well. However,
for in vessel forced air operations that filter exhaust air, the addition of a
biothermal structure or other heat recovery technology would be
minimized. This scenario must be looked at as well.

Fi gure 7: Ind o or wi nd r o w c o mp o sti ng i n a c ove re d c o mp o st ar ea


(Sy ste m s)

- 36 -

Fi gure 8: Sc he mat ic dia gra m s o f i nduce d a nd fo rce d dr a ft a e rati o n


(Ry nk et a l. , 1992)

The economic gains will be relevant to the horticultural


greenhouse industry. Farmers are currently burning fossil fuels such as
natural gas to obtain heat and CO2 for optimal growing environments. The
costs associated with heating for growers in cold climates can be the
dominant expense after labor costs. Energy inputs for heating can be the
majority (>50%) artificial energy input into a greenhouse (Sanford,
2002),(Scales, 2003). In Burlington, VT production of most crops ceases
in the winter, even cold-hardy crops such as mixed greens. The market is
supplied with crops from California, Texas, and other warm climates
(Adams 2005). If the economic gains are significant in biothermal
compared to conventional greenhouses, it may increase the ability of local
farmers to produce crops in the off-season. This could in turn increase
local market strength, local food security, and decrease the use of fossil
fuels associated with transportation and storage of imported produce.

- 37 -

Overall, a biothermal greenhouse has the potential to solve multiple


resource and food system related problems prevalent in society today.
However not enough is known about the performance and long-term
benefits of the technology. Composting greenhouses have been
constructed in the past by both entrepreneurs and researchers. Little
technical information has come from the construction and use of the
systems that can be applied to future design and construction. This can
be attributed mostly to the lack of data collection, standardization of
data, and uniformity of objectives and goals. Research and subsequent
implementation of technology has stagnated. Use of the technology in
appropriate commercial settings has not occurred. Further research must
be conducted to elucidate the possible economic and environmental
benefits of the technology. Standards must be established for the design
and engineering of systems. Implementation in a commercial setting
should be conducted to ensure that a biothermal system can be
reasonably managed and supported without interfering with the needs of
an existing operation.

Objectives
To understand biothermal energy as a viable alternative energy
technology, several steps have been taken. A review of the available data
has been conducted and viewed in the context of future design and
construction. The data (and the lack of it) has been used to form a

- 38 -

knowledge base of the technology to build on. A database of relevant


variables and constants for the design and modeling of a biothermal
system has been established here.
The data has been utilized to establish equations and models which
may provide further information on the subject. A working simulation
model of a biothermal or composting greenhouse has been established
using peer-reviewed data. This is the least expensive, preliminary step to
researching the technology. Findings from the model will ideally: assist
with the design of future structures, provide a useful reference guide for
interested parties, direct the monitoring and research of future
experimentation, and provide answers to preliminary questions that can
be validated with further experimentation. These preliminary questions
are the hypothesis that the model addresses:

How much excess energy can be expected from a specified


compost mass that can be used as heat for an adjacent structure
such as a greenhouse?

How much CO2 can be expected?

Are the ratios of heat and CO2 outputs in the given range of what a
typical greenhouse production needs?

How much of a specific type of compost is needed to heat a


specific size and type greenhouse?

- 39 -

Will the structure have inherent operational conflicts considering


that in general greenhouses need CO2 during peak sun hours, but
need heat during the night; and the supply of these elements are
inseparable without additional technology?

What is the ratio of operational energy input (from air handling


equipment) to energy output? How does this compare to the
energy input from other compost handling methods?

If the composting process is optimized, does it still support the


adjacent structure, or will the composting process have to be
compromised to provide for the greenhouse? If so, to what
degree?

How much per square foot does a biothermal structure cost, and
how does this compare to a conventional operation?

How much of a given fossil fuel (for heating and CO2) can
biothermal energy replace and what is the monetary value that can
be attributed to it?

What is the ideal design for economic optimalization? Since


expense increases with thermal insulation of a structure, what is
the cheapest structure that can be built that can still be heated by
an acceptable amount of compost?

What are the assumptions in the model and to what extent does it
affect its predictions and their accuracy?

- 40 -

Methods
A literature review has been conducted in the subject areas of
compost heat production, compost thermal properties, compost
simulation modeling, compost engineering, compost emissions, compost
heated greenhouse structures (biothermal greenhouses), greenhouse
heating, and CO2 enrichment. A database of variables has been created
that has provided the basis for the simulation model. The database has
been constructed from values observed in relevant past experiments.
The database has also been used to obtain averages and standard
deviations for certain variables. Local weather data has also been
obtained for the simulation model from the Burlington Airport, located in
South Burlington, VT.
To construct the simulation model of a biothermal greenhouse,
STELLA modeling software is used. The model consists of established
equations that have been extracted from various peer reviewed sources.
The most accurate equations and data have be used, given the range of
literature review. Data on the compost mix and feedstock at the Intervale
have been used as well.
Model Development
The main purpose of the model is to meet the aforementioned
objectives. This simulation model has been designed to take established
equations and observed values and run them to analyze their implied
output, such as the quantities of products from the composting process.

- 41 -

The model is a theoretical simulation model of a composting process or


rate. It has not been designed to test a process rate against observed
data for validation and further model development. It assumes that the
equations and models from past research are accurate enough to find
acceptable approximations of products from the composting process.
Values for the auxiliary variables were taken from the database, or from
accepted values used in engineering equations. Its purpose is to allow
interested parties to understand composting resource quantities, and how
certain parameters affect the product output. To achieve this end,
certain auxiliary variables in the model are adjustable within a range of
previously observed values and their affects can be compared to previous
runs. Efforts were taken to utilize already established nomenclature used
in previous composting models.
Overall the model has been developed to predict the resources that
may be obtained from composting. The model attempts to recreate a
situation in which an operator is managing the compost operation to
produce the heating and CO2 needs of an adjacent greenhouse. It does
this by adding compost into the system after a previous pile has
completed its initial heat producing phase and can no longer solely meet
the heat demand of the greenhouse. The compost manager is also
using temperature feedback control to optimize the composting process.
The model maintains a constant 60oC temperature in the compost pile by
forcing the required air through the compost to remove heat. The model

- 42 -

is more responsive and tightly controlling than a typical temperature


feedback control operation in real life, as those tend to allow compost
temperatures to migrate slightly below and above temperature set points.
No attempt has been made to correct this discrepancy as the affects are
assumed to be trivial in regard to the overall results.
The purpose of the model is to determine if there are enough heat
and CO2 resources to supply or supplement a greenhouse operation or
similar structure. For this reason, the simulation was run during the
colder seasons, Oct. 10-May 16 of the years 2003 to 2004, (Julian day
284 to 136) when a greenhouse would most likely be using compost
heat. To facilitate the modeling of this entire time period in the
constraints of Stella software, hourly weather data for the model was
averaged into four hour time units. Gaps in some of the data were
present, and were filled by averaging the preceding and following data
points to obtain values.
The following assumptions were used in the model:

The operation is being run for compost optimalization, not


greenhouse production needs. This defined certain necessary
parameters in the model. It also follows the logic that if biothermal
systems are to move into the commercial realm, they will need to
work with already existing compost operations.

Compost temperature and water content can be closely controlled.

- 43 -

The compost is located on an open air, covered concrete pad (see


figure 7).

Air is forced through the compost windrow with induced draft (see
figure 8).

Due to the simplicity of the model, it was assumed that moisture


gradients, bacterial population dynamics, and other microscopic
scale factors did not affect the decomposition rate or total DMD.

The compost pile will be turned to maintain uniformity and prevent


preferential pathways, but heat is not lost from the turning action
because the induced draft will be operating during turning.

Compost exhaust air is completely saturated if the compost


moisture is kept above 50%.

Compost exhaust air temperature is equal to the temperature of


the compost mass.

Optimal O2 is constantly provided to bacteria because airflow


required for heat removal is orders of magnitude greater than
stoichiometric demand for O2.

The decomposition rate is also not limited by other factors such as


free air space, moisture, etc.

No water is lost through leaching form the compost pile.

Model Structure
The simulation model is a mass and energy balance model that over
time responds to changing atmospheric conditions. Initial mass values for
- 44 -

the compost were determined by sizing the compost piles for the
current needs of the greenhouse. In the time span of the model (scenario
1), of nine compost piles are added in succession and their size increases
according to the increasing heating needs of the greenhouse. Heating
needs for the greenhouse are determined by the methodology presented
by Nelson for double-poly Quonset style greenhouses with a floor area of
118.45 m2. The following equations were derived from the equation and
tables presented (Nelson, 1998):
H = (R*K*CR) + (S*K*CS)
(Eq. 1)
K = -.070620+0.0246068* TG+0.0010219*W+.0004404* TG*W
(Eq. 2)
Where H equals the heat loss of the greenhouse, R is the standard heat
loss for the roof, S is the standard for side walls, K is the adjustment
coefficient for wind and temperature, C is the coefficient for glazing
material, W is wind speed in mph, and T is the temperature difference in
o

F between the inside and outside air, and the subscripts R, S, G are green

house roof, greenhouse side walls, and greenhouse respectively. It should


be noted that Nelsons methodology is a series of adjustments to
observed values from a greenhouse study, and the equation for K was
derived from data tables.
The base (non-plant) CO2 demand of the greenhouse was
determined according to the following equation:

- 45 -

mCO2 = ((.015*GV-.0037*GV)*d)*r
(Eq. 3)
Where mCO2 is the mass of CO2 needed per hour in kg, GV is the
volume of the greenhouse, d (2 kg/m3) is the density of CO2 at around
greenhouse conditions (70oF and sea-level pressure), and r (.5) is the
infiltration coefficient provided in (Nelson, 1998) for Quonset style
double poly greenhouse structures. It is assumed in this equation that
the desired concentration of CO2 in the greenhouse is 1500 ppm and the
atmospheric concentration is 370.
When the simulated compost process begins, the initial dry mass
begins to be degraded according to the composting rate (k). The k value,
in simple terms is the percent of the initial dry matter that disappears per
day. As stated, multiple researchers have attempted to develop accurate
composting rate equations for simulation models. They have utilized
constant k rates as a function of temperature primarily, with other factors
such as oxygen availability, compost moisture, bacterial population, and
free air space. However, many operators cannot measure these compost
characteristics easily and the affects of the factors are not uniform
throughout compost materials and process types. It may be more
practical for an operator to measure mass loss per day and moisture
content of several compost trials and obtain average mass loss rates for
their operation. No compost degradation rates have been recorded for
the compost mix and operation that was used as the basis for this model.

- 46 -

In light of this, the composting rate in this model is a hypothetical rate


created in respect to observed rates of past experiments. The following
graph depicts the rate of dry matter disappearance per 4 hour time
period:

875

805

840

735

770

700

665

630

595

560

525

455

490

385

420

315

350

280

245

210

175

105

140

70

35

0.00900
0.00800
0.00700
0.00600
0.00500
0.00400
0.00300
0.00200
0.00100
0.00000

k rate

k value

Hours

Fi gure 9: Per ce nt dr y matt er di s ap pe ar ance (pe r 4 hr s) ov er ti me

As can be seen from the graph, the maximum rate of dry matter
disappearance per four hours is .8% of the current dry mass of the
compost, or 4.8% per day. Simply put, if the initial dry mass of the
compost is 1000 kg, then 48 kg will disappear or be completely
oxidized in a day at a rate of 4.8% per day. The next day at the same
rate, the mass at the end of the day will be 906.3 (952 (.048 * 952) =
906.3). Mass loss then, occurs according to the following equation:
mc = mc

-1

(k*mc

-1

(Eq. 4)

- 47 -

Where mc equals the dry compost mass at time, mc

-1

is the dry compost

mass of the previous time step, and k is the percent mass disappeared
during the time step. This equation is a deviation from the equation
presented in past studies because it multiplies the k rate by the mass of
the compost at time and not the initial mass. However, this equation fits
the observed values of the composting study more closely than the
latter.
Water balance in the compost pile occurs according to the following
equation:
d(mcw)/dt = mcwo+bcw+maw+mw-mevp
(Eq. 5)
Where mcw is the mass of water in the compost, mcwo is the initial mass of
water, bcw is the water generated by the decomposition of organic matter
(.58 kg water/kg dry matter disappeared), maw is the mass of water in the
entering air (varies with changing humidity), mw is the intentional wetting
of the compost pile for moisture control (to bring the pile back to 50%
after each time step), and mevp is the water lost through evaporation
(varies with humidity, temperature, and required airflow to remove heat).
No leaching is assumed to have occurred.
Energy in the compost pile behaves according to the following
equation:
d(hm)/dt = hmo+(hf*-m)+hsr-hr-he-hc-hd-ha
(Eq. 6)

- 48 -

Rewriting to find the useful heat removed through forced aeration:


ha = hf+hsr-hm-hr-he-hc-hd
(Eq. 7)
and
hm = Tccm+Tcwmw
(Eq. 8)
Where hm is the energy in the compost which equals the energy required
to raise the temperature of both the dry compost mass (m) and all the
compost water (mw) including the added water which is assumed to be
well water added at 10oC. The initial compost wet mass (mo) is assumed
to be at an initial temperature equal to the outside at time zero (13oC).
Mass lost in the time step is represented by (-m). The T then is the
difference between the initial temperatures and the process temperature
of 60oC. The specific heats of the compost mass (cc) and water (cw) are
1.48 and 4.186 kj/kg respectively. hmo is the initial energy in the
compost at time zero, hf is the heat of formation of decomposition (an
adjustable value of 19 MJ/kg compost disappeared), hsr is the heat gained
from solar radiation, hr is the heat lost from radiation, he is the heat lost
from passive evaporation, hc is the heat lost through passive convection,
hd is the heat lost through conduction, and ha is the heat lost through
forced aeration (convection and evaporation).
Complex equations are required to precisely calculate the energy
gained from solar radiation, energy lost by radiation, conduction, and free

- 49 -

convection. For simplicity, general values are used here. (Robinzon et al.,
2000) in a passively aerated windrow composting trial with a similar pile
turning schedule, found that radiation accounted for 20% of the total
heat lost. (Themelis & Kim, 2002) also found in an in-vessel cell that the
combined heat loss to the surroundings was about one fourth of the total
generated heat. This study involved an indoor environment with elevated
temperatures (40oC), and a concrete bin cell that minimized the exposed
surface area of the compost. The values however are still useful for a
general understanding. The piles in this model are being subjected to
negative pressure aeration. There will inevitably be a dry, insulative layer
on top of the pile that will reduce heat loss through radiation, surface
evaporation, convection, and conduction when the aeration is in the OFF
cycle. An adjustable value of 20% heat loss from these combined factors
has been used, but further research needs to be conducted to obtain a
more proven value. The equation used for the model then is:
ha = hf-hm-((hf*-m)*.2)
(Eq. 9)
Note that the heat lost through the aforementioned combined factors is
calculated for every time step, and any surge in heat loss due to turning
is not calculated, as it is assumed that the air system will be on during
turning periods. Simply put, the only heat that is unavailable for
utilization in the model is the heat lost through the combined factors and
the heat needed to raise the temperature of the total compost mass.

- 50 -

Heat lost or more correctly heat captured from forced aeration (ha)
per mass unit of air will equal the enthalpy difference between the
incoming air and the exhaust air from the compost. Enthalpy is a factor
of air temperature, density, and humidity ratio in the two air masses.
Because the exhaust air from the compost for the majority of the trial is
at a constant temperature (60oC) and is saturated, the real difference in
enthalpy will be caused by changing ambient temperature. During colder,
dryer periods more energy will be removed per kg of air and therefore less
fan power will be needed to remove heat from the compost. In turn,
incoming air that is warmer and humid will remove less heat energy per kg
of air and therefore more air and more power will be required to remove
compost heat. (Keener et al., 1993) used the term (HAO-HAI) to
describe the difference in enthalpy between incoming and outgoing
compost air. More specifically, this represented the equation:

d(H)/dt = (cpa+cvwak)T+LvWa
(Eq. 10)
Where H is the enthalpy difference between the incoming and outgoing
compost air, cpa is the specific heat of air, cv is the specific heat of water
vapor, T is the difference in air temperature between the incoming and
outgoing air, Lv is the latent heat of vaporization, and Wa is the
difference in humidity ratios between the two air masses.

- 51 -

The energy removed from each kg of moist air that passes through
the compost mass will equal the energy required to raise the temperature
of the dry air and the water in the air, plus the energy required to
vaporize the added water to the incoming air mass. It can be seen that
because the exhaust air composition is constant, the amount of heat and
water that is removed per kilogram of air is completely dependant on the
composition of the incoming air. In previous studies, modelers have used
a constant temperature and humidity for incoming air (Keener et al.,
1993), (Keener et al., 1997b), (Themelis & Kim, 2002). This may be
relevant to an indoor, controlled environment composting operation, but
for outdoor and unconditioned air composting operations this assumption
could miscalculate required air and energy needs. It is for this reason that
weather data has been incorporated into the model.
The CO2 created during the decomposition of the compost
feedstock evolves in direct accordance with the mass disappearance. An
adjustable figure of 1.85 kg of CO2 per kg of dry compost disappeared
has been used for the model, based on observed and calculated values
from previous studies. Some CO2 will be lost to the atmosphere when the
pile is not being aerated. For simplicity, a general figure of 5% of the
generated CO2 lost per time step is used here. A more exact process
would be to measure CO2 concentration in the passive exhaust air and
multiply it by the passive airflow rate. This should be done where possible
in future studies.

- 52 -

Airflow (Q) in the model is dictated by enthalpy differences in the


incoming and outgoing air masses, as well as the changing air density. It
is determined by the following equation:
Q = ((hf * -m)/H)*ad
(Eq. 13)
Where ad is the density of the exhaust air leaving the compost pile.

Results
Compost Property Database
The database of composting parameters found through an
extensive literature review is provided in the appendix. The review
focused on heat, water, and CO2 production and attempted to
standardize data where possible. This work is largely an expansion of the
table published in (Keener et al., 1993). The following graph is the range
of heat values of common compost feedstocks. The values were
obtained from the literature review and are part of the larger database
provided in the appendix.

- 53 -

Material

Fi gure 10: He at v al ue s o f c o mp o st fe ed st o cks

When the measured and/or calculated heat values of many common


compost feedstocks are analyzed, it is seen that the average value is
19.44 MJ/kg with a standard deviation of 6.21. Feedstocks ranged from
a low of 4.65 MJ/kg for general food waste, to a high of 39.16 MJ/kg for
pure fats. Average CO2 released upon oxidation of the materials is 1.87
kg CO2/kg, with a standard deviation of .32. The average water
produced is .67 kg/kg with a deviation of .21. The following database is
largely an updated amendment of the previous work in (Keener, et. al.
1993). Significant work on RQ has been conducted since 1993. It is
found here that the average RQ is .94mol CO2 / mol O2, and the standard
deviation is .13. Average 02 consumed per DMD is 1.62 kg/kg and the
standard deviation is.39. These results are used as parameters in the
modeling process.

- 54 -

Fungi

n-Buteric

Acet. Acid

Propyl. Alc.

Tyrosine

Methyl Alc.

Carbs.

Fat/Oil

Food

Straw/Manure

MSW

Rice Hulls

Sludge

MSW/Straw

MSW/Straw

MSW/Wood

Wood

Wood

Paper (wax)

Meat

Paper

Food

Food

Rice

Leaves

Wood

Wood

Brush

Wood

Corn

Straw

Manure

45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Sludge

MJ / kg (dry)

Heat Energy Values for Compost Feedstocks

Dry air
Heat
Heat convers C/N B
release CO2 Water k rate RQ Oxygen Release ion Ratio factor ASH C
H O N S Cl Specific Heat
mol
mol
CO2/
kj/mol
(ash
mj/kg kg/kg kg/kg
molO2 kg/kg (O2) kg/kg kg/kg % % free)
kj/kg

Material

Reference Year

Sludge, Primary

Haug
Haug
Keener, SEC

1980
1980
1991

Haug
Schnieder

1980
1947

2.03

Haug
Haug
Haug

1980
1980
1980

1.92
1.91
1.73

0.64
0.58
0.58

0.9
0.93
0.96

1.56
1.49
1.31

0.361
0.416
0.416

55
85
20

Ebeling
Schonauer
Ebeling

1985
1984
1985

19.80
19.00
19.00

1.83
1.76
1.74

0.54
0.67
0.54

0.97
0.89
0.99

1.37
1.43
1.28

0.459
0.329
0.459

37
29
99

18
3.3
17.6

Ebeling
Ebeling
Ebeling

1985
1985
1985

19.70
20.10
19.90

1.8
1.85
1.85

0.51
0.54
0.53

0.99
0.97
0.98

1.32
1.39
1.38

0.485
0.459
0.47

71
28
226

34.5
54.4

Ebeling
Ebeling
Ebeling

1985
1985
1985

19.80
19.50
19.80

1.8
1.81
1.89

0.54
0.54
0.52

0.98
0.98
0.97

1.34
1.35
1.41

0.461
0.462
0.477

61
103
89

Ebeling
Ebeling

1985
1985

20.70
19.90

1.87
1.8

0.54
0.54

0.96
0.98

1.41
1.34

0.459
0.46

1013
980

Ebeling
Ebeling
Ebeling

1985
1985
1985

19.70
22.20
19.70

1.85
2.17
1.85

0.49
0.6
0.48

1
0.89
1.01

1.35
1.77
1.33

0.06
0.402
0.522

Keener, SEC
Keener, SEC
Keener, SEC

1993
1993
1993

22.10
22.10
20.10

2.05
2.05
1.85

0.58
0.58
0.47

0.91
0.91
1.02

1.63
1.63
1.32

0.424
0.424
0.532

Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous

1993
1993

Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous

Digested Sludge
CageLayer Manure
Garbage
Garbage
Refuse (OM)

23.00
24.60
19.10

2.07
2.15
1.88

0.75 0.025
0.87 0.025
0.56 0.048

1.84
2.05
1.46

0.238
0.104
0.44

19
9
7

0.85

1.73

0.3

14

45 29.1
86.5 55
29.4 27.7

22 39
11 21
8 12

1 0.08 0.07
1 0.12 0.03
1 0.05
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

64 104
99 148
23 38

37
59
17

1
1
1

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

8.7
1.6
1.4

43 62
34 64
116 175

28
24
85

1 0.03 0.04 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg


1 0.03
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1 0.01 0.18 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

8.9
5.9
0.8

83 115 57
33 47 21
264 370 172

1 0.08 0.18 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg


1 0.03
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1 0.02 0.09 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

2.3
1.3
0.8

72 105
120 174
104 140

49
81
64

1 0.01 0.04 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg


1 0.01 0.08 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1 0.01 0.06 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

0.4
0.3

1182 1674 750


1143 674 783

1 0.26 0.16 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg


1 0.09 0.08 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

141
28
102

36 1.5
31.2 9.5
63 17.9

165 215 108


33 45 14
119 151 78

1 0.01 0.05 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg


1 0.01 0.01 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1 0.02 0.12 1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

36
36
249

35.7
11.7
66.2

7
5.9
1.3

42 58 21
42 58 21
290 358 191

1 0.1
1 0.1
1 0.2

4.65
39.16

0.2

73 11.5 14.8

0.4

0.1 n/a

1993
1993
1993

16.70
19.27
30.52

5
4.2
4.9

48 6.4 37.6
48.5 6.2 9.5
59.6 9.4 24.7

2.6
1.4
1.2

0.4 n/a
0.2 n/a
0.2 n/a

Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous

1993
1993

18.74
18.24

6
5

43.4 5.8 44.3


43 5.9 44.8

0.3
0.3

0.2 n/a
0.2 n/a

Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous

1993
1993
1993

20.03
27.61
15.32

1.5
1.2
6.3

49.1 6.1 43 <0.1


59.2 9.3 30.1 0.1
46 6 38 3.4

0.2 n/a
0.1 n/a
0.3 n/a

Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous
Tchobanoglous

1993
1993
1993

9.85
19.54
19.50

1
0.9
1.5

50.1
49.6
49.5

6.4 42.3
6.1 43.2
6 42.7

0.1 0.1 n/a


0.1 <.1 n/a
0.2 <.1 n/a

Tchobanoglous
Weppen
Weppen

1993
2001
2001

17.45
18.53
22.40

10

60

8 11.6

10 0.4 n/a

1.92
2.03

0.946
0.87

402
423

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

basis)
MSW / Straw (25%)

Weppen
Weppen

2001
2001

19.90
19.60

1.73
1.66

0.96
0.957

485
498

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

MSW / Straw (42%)


sew. Sludge/woodchip

Weppen
Miller

2001
1984

14.70
15.20

1.49

0.955

416

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

Corn Grain
Corn Cobs
Wheat Straw
Peanut Hulls
Black Walnut
Vineyard, Thompson
Brush (poplar)
Black Locust
Redwood
White Fir
White Oak
Grape Pomace
Rice Hulls
Leaves (oak)
Leaves (ash)
Sawdust
Food waste (in general)
Fats
Mixed food wastes
Fruit Wastes
Meat Wastes
Paper (mixed)
Cardboard
Newsprint
Waxed Cartons
Yard Wastes
Wood (green timber)
Hardwood
Wood (mixed)
Leather
MSW/wood chips
w/pig fat
MSW / 17%Straw (fresh

16

10
4
5

27

Refuse (OM)
Grass
Grass (sudan)

0.7

0.82
0.76
0.94

12.3

29.9

9.8

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

21.80
rice hulls/rice flour
substrate

Hogan

1989

14.20

Das, Keener

1993

16.70
23.00

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

- 55 -

MSW
food waste, paper,

Robinzon (fro unpub. exp.2000


In 1986) 17.00

sawdust

Koenig (estimated)

2000

12.00
15.00

wheat, chick,cottonseed

Harper

1992

15.40
22.00

MSW, paper

Themelis
Themelis
Themelis

2002
2002
2002

17.54
15.58
9.14

6
6
2

10
10
5

4
5
2

Themelis

2002

38.99

16

32

Glucose (Carbohydrate)

CRC

1986

15.50

1.47

0.6

1.07

0.4

12

Tyrosine (protein)
Glyceryl Tributyrate
Methyl Alchohol

CRC
CRC

1986
1986

9.00
26.80

2.37
2.19

0.59
0.77

0.88
0.81

1.96
1.96

0.407
0.225

9
15

11
26

3
6

CRC
CRC
CRC

1986
1986
1986

22.50
29.50
33.60

1.38
1.91
2.2

1.13
1.17
1.2

0.67
0.67
0.67

1.5
2.09
2.4

-0.125
-0.174
-0.2

1
2
3

4
6
8

1
1
1

CRC
CRC
CRC

1986
1986
1986

36.00
14.50
20.50

2.38
1.47
1.78

1.22
0.6
0.73

0.67
1
0.86

2.59
1.07
1.51

-0.216
0.4
0.27

4
2
3

10
4
6

1
2
2

Bacteria
Fungi

CRC
Haug
Haug

1986
1980
1980

24.60
24.70
20.40

1.96
2.59
2.01

1
0.74
0.7

0.73
0.87
0.89

1.96
2.59
2.01

0
0.424
0.365

4
5
10

10
7
17

2
2
6

msw

Smars
Gea

2001
2004

1.02
1.33
1.15

ads

Gea

2004

1.17
1.01

rs

Gea

2004

ps

Gea

2004

1.08
0.92
1.26

Carbohyrates
Protien
Fat and Oil

Ethyl Alchohol
Propyl Alchohol
n-Butyl
Acetic Acid
Propionic Acid
n-Buteric Acid

0.0095

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

314

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg

4
9

1.45+/-.03 kj/kg
1

1
1

1.08
chick waste/yard waste

Gea

2004

0.9
0.88

chic,yard wastes,
(potato,gelatin,bakery
amend.)
""
Dewat sludge cake,post
comp. remix
Oak Leaves
Maple Leaves
Straw

Elwell, Keener

1996

0.54

0.87

Elwell, Keener
Seki

1996
2002

0.54

0.9

Bach et al,
Finstein
Finstein

1987 na
1986
1986

0.009
0.015

Finstein

1986

0.069

Maruagg

1992

0.19

Maruagg
Maruagg
Birou

1992
1992
1987

0.167
0.179

Birou
Birou

1987
1987

Beck et al.

1992

0.5

Hao

2004

2.01

Hao

2004

18.84
443

1.21336 kj/kg/C Possibly not dry compost)

yard wastes (20/51/29


grass/brush/leaves)
47/42/11
50/38/12
various substrates

Straw, brush, plant


material
Straw, bedding manure
Wood chip and BM
AVG
STDDEV

440
473
407

2.01
19.44
6.21

1.87
0.32

0.67
0.21

0.07
0.07

0.94
0.13

1.62
0.39

430.10
52.47

0.32
0.22

32%

17%

31%

102%

14%

24%

12%

68%

* All compost mass expressed as dry weight unless otherwise noted


* Heat release values consist of observed, calculated, and estimated figures from past experiments.
Fi gure 11: D at aba se o f c o mp o st c har acte ri stic s

- 56 -

Weather
Ambient temperature has a significant effect on greenhouse heat loss and air
enthalpy. The variation of temperature over the modeling period (4 hr avg) is shown
in figure 12. Wind had less of an affect on the greenhouse heat loss than
temperature. For this reason, wind data has not been displayed here.

16
0

15
3

14
6

13
9

13
2

12
5

11
8

11
1

10
4

97

90

83

76

69

62

55

48

41

34

27

20

13

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
6

Temp in F

Seasonal Temperature Variation

Da ys

Fi gure 12: Wi nte r t em pe rat ure v a riat io n (4 hr av g)


Greenhouse heat loss
60

50

30
20
10

Fi gure 13: G re e nho use heat l os s pe r ho ur o ver t im e (MJ / hr )

- 57 -

Days

15

15

14

13

13

12

11

11

10

96

89

82

75

68

61

54

47

40

26

33

19

12

MJ / hr

40

Mass and Heat


The heat loss of the modeled greenhouse structure is shown in
figure 10. Based on this heat loss pattern, the following decomposition
rate in figure 14 would be needed to meet the heating needs of the
greenhouse. It can be seen that the greenhouse rarely needs more than 3
kilograms decomposed per hour (at 19MJ / kg and 75% heat recovery) to
have adequate heating.
Rate of Decompostition Needed to Heat The Greenhouse

Kg / hr 0

4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50

96
10
3
11
0
11
7
12
4
13
1
13
8
14
5
15
2
15
9

89

82

75

68

61

54

47

40

33

26

19

12

1.00
0.50
0.00
Days

Fi gure 14: M as s de co m po siti o n nee de d ( kg/hr) to heat t he gre e nho use

Cumulative Decomposition Needed for Greenhouse Heating

5000.00
4000.00
3000.00
2000.00
1000.00

Days

- 58 -

15
9

15
2

14
5

13
8

13
1

12
4

11
7

11
0

10
3

96

89

82

75

68

61

54

47

40

33

26

19

12

0.00
5

Kilograms

6000.00

Fi gure 15: C um ul ative m as s d eco m po sit io n ne ed ed fo r gr ee nhous e he ati ng

When compared to cumulative heat loss, it is seen that around


5,621 kilograms of compost need to be oxidized overall to provide the
heating needs of the greenhouse for the time period. At 50%
decomposition, this would mean that a pile with 11.2 metric tons of dry
compost would be needed. At 50% moisture, this would be a 22.4 metric
ton pile. Which at .7 MT/m3 density is a triangular windrow 1.75 meters
tall, by 3 meters wide, by 6 meters long.
In actuality the required compost mass for adequate greenhouse
heating is much greater because the compost heat production rate does
not match the greenhouse heat loss rate, as will be seen later. Firstly
however, the results from the first pile in scenario 1 can provide a general
understanding of some standard requirements and products of the
composting process.
Mass change of pile 1
2,400.00
2,000.00
1,800.00
1,600.00
1,400.00
1,200.00

Hours

Compost dry mass


Compost water

- 59 -

675

648

621

594

540

567

513

486

459

432

405

378

351

324

297

270

243

216

189

162

135

81

108

54

27

1,000.00
0

Kilograms 0

2,200.00

Fi gure 16: C o mp o st ma s s o f p ile 1 ov er tim e

Compost mass loss rate


5.00

Kg / hr

4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00

780

750

720

690

660

630

600

540

570

510

480

450

420

390

360

330

300

240

270

210

180

150

90

120

30

60

0.00

Hours

Fi gure 17: M a ss l os s r ate o f pil e 1 ( kg d is ap pe ar ed / hr)

The mass disappearance of the first compost pile at the


aforementioned decomposition rate is shown in figure 17. At 720 hours
(30 days), the dry mass of the compost has been reduced by 1,225 kg or
53%. Cumulatively, this produced 23,281 MJ of total heat energy but
only 17,486 MJ (75%) of useable heat energy removed through aeration.
The unusable heat at this time consisted of the heat lost to: the
atmosphere through the combined affect of radiation, conduction, and
passive convection/evaporation (4,656 MJ or 20%), pile warming (289
MJ or 1%), and warming the irrigation water to process temperature (850

- 60 -

MJ or 4%).
Heat production rate of pile 1
350.00

MJ / 4 hr

300.00
250.00
200.00
150.00
100.00
50.00

Compost heat production

799

831

767

735

703

671

639

607

575

543

511

479

447

415

383

351

319

287

255

223

191

159

127

95

31

63

0.00

Hours

Compost heat removal

Fi gure 18: He at re m ova l rate of pi le 1 (MJ /4 hr s)

Water
As stated above, watering was required to maintain the designated
moisture levels (50%) in the compost pile. Initially, compost moisture
increased above its initial value of 50% due to metabolic generation of
water and lack of aeration for heat control. This increase was short lived
however, and within 43 hours wetting was required to stabilize the
moisture level at 50% due to the aeration process and subsequent water
vapor removal (see figure 16). By stabilization (1000 hours or 42 days),
cumulative evaporation significantly exceeded metabolic generation in the
composting process (see figure 19).

The water evaporation required for

heat removal was 1.37 kg/kg of initial compost or 137% of the initial
composting mass. More specifically, for every metric ton of dry compost
decomposed at 19 MJ/kg, 5 metric tons of water is evaporated to
complete the heat balance. Evaporated water is supplied at a ratio of

- 61 -

around 1 kg for every 2.8 MJ. For the cumulative heat demand of the
greenhouse (roughly 80,000 MJ), 28.6 MT of water will be supplied.
Cumulative metabolic generation of water
7000

Kilograms 0

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000

975

897

936

858

819

780

741

702

663

624

585

546

468

507

429

390

351

312

273

234

195

156

117

78

39

Hours

Metabolic water generated


Evaporated Water

Fi gure 19: C um ul ativ e wat er ev ap o rati o n v s. gener ati o n i n pil e 1

Watering rate

Kg / 4 hr

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10

971

935

899

863

827

791

755

719

647

683

611

575

539

503

467

431

395

359

323

287

251

215

179

143

107

71

35

Hours

Fi gure 20: W ate ri ng r ate r eq ui re d for p ile 1 ( kg/4 hr)

The difference between the evaporation and metabolic generation


in the first pile created a need for pile watering at the rate shown in figure
20. The operator must have the ability to irrigate the compost at the

- 62 -

peak rate of around 70 kg/4hrs or around 70 liters (l)/4 hrs. As can be


seen in figure 21, the total water needed for the first pile at compost
stabilization is 4,154 kg or 90% of the initial mass in the compost. At
the stated thermal value of the compost, a facility manager would have
to be able to provide 1.8 MT of water per MT of initial dry mass.

Hours

Fi gure 21: C um ul ative wate ri ng o f pil e 1

Carbon Dioxide
Caron dioxide was created in significant amounts during the
composting process and followed a rate directly related to the
decomposition rate. It can be seen in figure 22 that CO2 production
never exceeded 19 kg per hour and the minimum production of most of
the piles did not fall below 2.5 kg per hour. More importantly for
greenhouse operators, the simple ratio of heat to CO2 is 19 MJ:1.85 kg
using the aforementioned coefficients based on previous studies. The
more accurate ratio however is the actual CO2 that will be supplied with
the air demand for the greenhouse.

- 63 -

984

943

902

861

820

779

738

697

656

615

574

533

492

451

410

369

328

246

287

205

164

123

82

41

4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

Kilograms 0

Cumulative watering

CO2 production rate

15

Kg / hr

20

10
5

3874

3725

3576

3427

3278

2980

3129

2831

2682

2533

2384

2235

2086

1937

1788

1639

1490

1341

1192

894

1043

596

745

447

149

298

Hours

Fi gure 22: C O2 pr o duct io n o f all p ile s in s c enar io 1 ( kg/hr)


Cumulative CO2 production of the compost piles

Kilograms

30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
1

243

485

727

969 1211 1453 1695 1937 2179 2421 2663 2905 3147 3389 3631 3873
Hours

Fi gure 23: C um ul ativ e CO2 pr o ductio n o f a ll p ile s in sce nari o 1

This figure is determined by the heat removal to CO2 removal ratio seen in
figures 24 and 25. The ratio, after compost activation, varies in a range
between 7.5 to 10.5 MJ per kg CO2 removed. The most common ratio
over time is 8 MJ per kg of CO2. However, the CO2 supplied to the
greenhouse equals the heat actually supplied to the greenhouse times the
ratio at the time according to the model. For example at hour 229, the
greenhouse heating demand is 12.93 MJ (see figure 10), and the average
air enthalpy difference is 435 kj/kg of air. At the same time, 51 MJ of
- 64 -

energy and 4.7 kg of CO2 (see figure 23) are produced and must be
removed from the compost in 117.2 kg of air. The greenhouse will only
use 25.4% of the heat produced, and therefore according to the model
will only take in the same percentage of CO2 or 1.2 kg. The results
produced by the model are limited by this logic and in reality this may not
be the result (discussed in the conclusion).

3843

3683

3523

3203

3363

3043

2883

2723

2563

2403

2243

2083

1923

1603

1763

1443

1283

1123

803

963

643

483

323

163

600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

kg / 2 hr: Mj / 2 hr

CO2 production vs. heat removal

Hours

CO2 rate
Heat rate

Fi gure 24: C O2 v s. heat (p ro d ucti o n rate s) for the e ntir e ti m e p er io d ( kg


and MJ p er 2 hr pe ri od)
Heat removal to CO2 production ratio

12
10
8
6
4
2

Hours

- 65 -

1926

1852

1778

1704

1630

1556

1482

1408

1334

1260

1186

1112

1038

964

890

816

742

668

594

520

446

372

298

224

150

76

Ratio (Mj:kg) 0

14

Fi gure 25: He at re m ova l rate to C O2 pr o ductio n rat e rati o fo r t he e nti re


time p er io d

The total CO2 demand of the greenhouse was not modeled here.
However the base demand, or the amount needed to compensate for
fresh air infiltration was calculated. This demand, added to plant
consumption equals the total CO2 need of the greenhouse. It was found
that 3.77 m3 or 7.54 kg of CO2 are needed every two hours. The base
demand to account for greenhouse infiltration is around 3.8 kg per hour
at the stated infiltration rate. The intake rate of CO2 to the greenhouse
based on the aforementioned logic and CO2 production rate is shown in
figure 23 as kg taken in per 4 hrs. It can be seen that the intake rate
does not always exceed the base need (15 kg per four hr period) based
on the model logic. Another approximation is to use a greenhouse
demand average of 5 to 10 g CO2/m2/hr (Enoch & Kimball, 1986; Fulford,
2005). At a greenhouse size of 118.45 m3, this equates to an average
demand of 592.25 to 1184.5g per hour. In this estimation, 2.4 to 4.74
kg per four hours are needed. Based on this rule of thumb, the CO2 taken
in by the greenhouse is in excess the majority of the time.

- 66 -

CO2 intake of greenhouse


50

kg / 4 hr 0

40
30
20
10

3939

3775

3611

3447

3283

3119

2955

2791

2627

2463

2299

2135

1971

1807

1643

1479

1315

1151

987

823

659

495

331

167

Hours

Fi gure 26: CO 2 i nt ake o f t he gr ee nho use bas ed o n heat nee d ( kg/4 hr)

Airflow and Power


The airflow and subsequent power needed to control compost
temperature was directly related to the enthalpy difference between the
incoming air and the heat removal rate required. The enthalpy of the air
changed in accordance with the weather, but remained in a range of 350550 kj / kg of air (see figure 27).

- 67 -

Entalpy difference of air over time

kj / kg of air 0

600
550

Pile 1

500
450
400

955

910

864

819

773

728

682

637

591

546

500

455

409

364

318

273

182

227

136

91

45.

350

Pile 2
Pile 3
Pile 4
Pile 5
Pile 6
Pile 7
Pile 8

Hours

Fi gure 27: Ent hal py di ffer e nce o f all p ile s i n sc enar io 1

Airflow rate required for heat removal


600

Kilograms 0

500
400
300
200
100
0
1

13

25

37

49

61

73

85

97 109 121 133 145 157 169 181 193 205 217 229
Hours

Fi gure 28: Ai rflo w r ate r eq ui re d for pi le 1 (kg/4 hrs)

- 68 -

Cumulative airflow required for heat removal


40000

Kilograms 0

35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000

960

880

920

840

800

760

720

640

680

600

560

480

520

440

400

360

320

280

240

200

160

120

80

40

0
Hours

Fi gure 29: C um ul ative ai r re q uir e me nt o f p i le 1

The cumulative amount of air required for pile one at stabilization is


36,683 kg. For 4,608 initial compost, 2,304 kg of initial dry matter and
54% initial dry matter disappeared in that time period, this corresponds
to 8 kg air/kg initial compost, 16 kg air/kg initial dry mass, and 29.3 kg
air/kg dry matter disappeared. The volume of air needed in this time for
pile one is 30,220 m3, and the subsequent average velocity of air is 30.2
m3/hr (.008 m3/s). It can be seen in figure 28 that the peak airflow
requirement for pile one is 550 m3 in a four hour period (.04 m3/s
average). More importantly for compost operators, 13 m3 per kg initial
dry mass and 24 m3 per kg dry matter disappeared was needed.

System Sizing
Due to the discrepancy between the compost heat removal rate
and the heating needs of the greenhouse structure, the actual total
compost needed greatly exceeded 16.8 metric tons as mentioned
- 69 -

previously. Two scenarios were modeled to understand the actual


compost that is needed and the actual heat that is produced in a
biothermal system. In the first scenario compost is brought to a
greenhouse specifically for heating. The compost operator brings a new
pile online every time the maximum heat output of the current compost
pile could not meet the heating needs of the greenhouse. It can be seen
in figure 30 that at 575 hours or around 24 days the pile ceases to
produce enough heat to meet the needs of the greenhouse. This is when
the compost operator brings another pile online to heat the greenhouse.
This scenario was modeled with the assumptions that the operator would
be managing for compost optimalization (i.e. temperature feedback
control at 60oC) but that the number of piles brought in would be
minimized and the least amount of compost would be supplied to meet
the heating needs of the greenhouse. The process over the time period
evolves by adding compost as needed and increasing initial mass size as
needed (as shown in figure 30).

- 70 -

Heat removal vs. heat need

MJ (per 4 hrs)

700.00
600.00
500.00
400.00
300.00
200.00
100.00

Hours

Fi gure 30: C om po st heat r em ov al v s. gre e nho use heat ing nee d ove r t im e
(MJ/4 hr s)
Heat removed vs.heat needed (cumulative)

Megajoules 0

250000
200000
150000
100000
50000

3725

3874

3576

3427

3278

3129

2980

2831

2682

2533

2384

2235

2086

1937

1788

1639

1490

1341

1192

1043

894

745

596

447

149

298

Hours

Compost heat removal


Greenhouse heat need

Fi gure 31: C um ul ative heat r em ov al v s. cumulativ e heati ng nee d

Therefore, the minimum wet mass needed when operating for


compost optimalization under the stated conditions is 58.2 MT. More
precisely 15.1 metric tons of DMD (at 19 MJ/kg) were needed to provide
the adequate heat. The rate at which the compost decomposes using
temperature feedback control causes there to be a need for more
compost than is actually needed to heat the greenhouse. As seen in
figure 31 the cumulative heat removed from the compost is more than
- 71 -

3843

3715

3587

3331

3459

3203

2947

3075

2819

2691

2563

2435

2307

2179

2051

1923

1795

1667

1539

1411

1283

1155

899

Compost heat removal


Greenhouse heating need

1027

771

643

387

515

259

131

0.00

double the heat needed for the greenhouse, which is only 37% of the
heat removed.
When this mass size is compared to the greenhouse size, a rough
area ratio is obtained. Assuming that the compost operator is striving for
700 kg/cubic meter (.7 MT/m3) and the windrows are of a triangular
shape 1.75 meters tall by 3 meters wide (vertical area of 2.625 m2). The
windrow length of all the compost would need to be around 37 m, or 110
m2 of total floor area needed. However, not all of the compost is needed
at once as some cured compost can be moved and new piles brought in,
so the area required is significantly smaller. Two piles at most are
needed, working in tandem, to meet the heating needs of the greenhouse
at any given time and the two largest piles are 10,800 and 8,928 kg.
These piles would require an area of 32.2 m2. This result equals a direct
compost floor area to greenhouse floor area ratio of 32.2:118.45 m2, or
1:3.7. Simply put, the compost area needed is 27% of the greenhouse
floor size based on these results. An operator may require more space
for storage and mobility. If a conservative figure of 60m2 is used, the
ratio of compost area needed to greenhouse space heated (25.5x50 ft) is
60:118.45 m2. Roughly a 1:2 ratio is needed, or about half of the
greenhouse space is needed for compost handling. Compost pile density
and geometry will affect the ratio results.
When the results are compared with a commercial operation, the
mass needed (58.2 MT) is .3% of the total compost mass (20,000 MT

- 72 -

yearly average) processed by Intervale Compost. Roughly 60% of the


total yearly mass is processed over the winter season. Therefore the
mass needed for the greenhouse is .5% of the mass processed during the
simulated time period.
According to these simple initial figures, 206 greenhouses of this
size and type, or a few large greenhouses with 206 times the heating
demand could be supported by the compost mass processed (considering
no other factors such as power, cost, and available land). This figure is
ignoring the possibility of utilizing the surplus heat produced in excess.
Also, operations at commercial composting facility are completely
different than the minimum pile operation in scenario 1.
For this reason, The Intervale Compost mass was modeled using the
same decomposition rates and operational conditions as the previous
model scenario. Intervale Compost receives roughly 66 MT of compost
feedstock per day in the winter at 55% moisture and they build a 131 MT
windrow every two days. A heat of decomposition of 17 MJ/kg was used
based on a preliminary analysis of feedstock materials. The mass
decomposition pattern and heat removal rates are shown in figures 32
and 33 respectively.

- 73 -

Compost mass change over time


80,000.00
75,000.00

Kilograms 0

70,000.00
65,000.00
60,000.00
55,000.00
50,000.00
45,000.00
40,000.00
35,000.00

798

760

722

684

646

608

570

532

494

456

418

380

342

304

266

228

190

152

114

76

38

30,000.00
Hours

Fi gure 32: M a ss d ec om p os iti on p atte rn of the fir st si x c o mp o st p ile s (m as s


in re d, wate r in bl ue)

Heat removal rate

MJ / 4 hr

36000
34000
32000
30000
28000
26000
24000
22000

2103

2019

1935

1851

1767

1683

1599

1515

1431

1347

1263

1179

1095

1011

927

843

759

675

591

507

423

339

255

171

87

20000

Hours

Fi gure 33: He at re m ova l rate of Inte rv ale s cena ri o (MJ / 4 hr s)

As compost piles are constructed at regular intervals and brought


on line as seen in figure 32, the heat removal rate is steady after an initial
build up period (figure 33). The four hour heat removal rate varies
mostly by 2,000 MJ between 28,000 and 32,000 MJ, as seen in figure
33. At this rate, an average of 180,000 MJ of energy is produced daily
- 74 -

during the winter season. The maximum heat loss of the greenhouse in
four hours is just below 200 MJ. If the conservative figure of 23,000 MJ
per four hours is used, this results in a minimum heat removal of 140
times the peak heat needed in the greenhouse. The total yearly useful
heat output of the Intervale Composting mass, at 58% initial moisture,
50% mass disappearance, 75% heat removal, and 17 MJ/kg thermal
value, is 53,550,000 MJ. This is equivalent to $506,723 in current
Natural Gas prices (NYMEX, August 28) (Administration, 2005).

Discussion
Overview
This study is the first documented attempt to approximate the
resources that are produced and used in a biothermal system. Data from
peer-reviewed compost optimization studies has proven invaluable in this
effort. This is also the most recent review and critical analysis of
biothermal technology. The data from past biothermal experiments and
research has not proven to be as useful. However, this does not discount
the empirical information from past experiments that has undoubtedly
improved the understanding of the technology. In short, the failures of
past systems have increased the general understanding of functioning
experimental designs, but have not contributed greatly to transferable
knowledge that has evolved the field of study.

- 75 -

The simulation model developed here has been successful at


approximating the resources required and created by the composting
processes of an open air, covered, forced air composting operation. It
was not successful at approximating the energy demanded by a
biothermal operation due to the complex variables required. The model
requires basic composting parameters that a commercial composting
operation should be able to provide such as feedstock composition, initial
moisture content, feeding rate, and decomposition rate (dry mass
disappearance rate), and general weather conditions. These parameters,
along with the database of research findings from past studies, enables
the creation of a mass and energy balance of the composting system.
The equations and concepts presented in (Keener et al., 1993), (Huag,
1993), and (Themelis & Kim, 2002) on compost optimalization are
directly relevant to biothermal energy modeling and crucial to the
calculation of the resources therein. The simulation is also able to
approximate the general heating needs of a greenhouse structure and
compare them to the resources produced by compost. Temperature and
wind data is required. The methodology presented in (Nelson, 1998) is
used for the modeling of green house heat loss and infiltration.
There are several aspects of the model that can be refined with
further research and testing. The greenhouse sub-model is at best an
approximation of heating needs. A more complex, accurate model
considers other significant factors for greenhouse loss such as: interior

- 76 -

humidity and pressure gradients which affect infiltration, clear sky


radiation, and humidity condensation and subsequent heat loss (Hanan,
1998). A comprehensive model incorporating all of these elements which
still allows user flexibility for inputs of size, shape, and type has not been
found in this literature review and will remain a challenge for future
research.
Multiple aspects of the composting process have been simplified for
this model. The compost sub-model makes assumptions about the heat
and CO2 loss due to passive convection during fan off times,
conduction, and radiation. Pile geometry, temperature, exterior weather
conditions, and many other factors affect the actual heat lost to the
surrounding environment in an open air composting facility. Limited data
is available for this scenario specifically and the calculation of the multiple
factors is complex. The work of (Robinzon et al., 2000) and (Themelis &
Kim, 2002) are considered and used as a basis for some assumptions.
Further research on this topic will refine the assumptions made here and
is needed.
Assumptions are also made about the heat production of compost
materials. Two basic methodologies currently exist to approximate heat
of combustion: a weighted average of past observed (and calculated)
heats, and a stoichiometric equation based on elemental analysis. The
weighted average requires the knowledge of the dry weight mix of the
compost feedstock and existing data on the materials in the mix. A

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stoichiometric generalization requires a compost sample analysis and a


subsequent assumption that the sample is representative of the entire
compost mix. Multiple samples are used to increase representative
accuracy. Compost operators may not have this information readily
available or at all, and preference of one methodology will vary. If a
compost operation is familiar with sample collection and testing, and has
a well mixed compost, then the sample approach may work. However if
an operation has feedstock dry weight information from its tipping
records, then a weighted average could be the fastest approximation.
The database presented here is an effort to increase the quantity and
quality of observed data, and make it readily available to operators.
Either methodology requires mass decomposition amounts to
approximate the heat produced, and this may not be well known by
compost operations either. Initial and final moisture contents as well as
total weight must be measured. This is not always possible. Many
operations also use volume measurements for compost sales without
measuring density (as seen at Intervale Compost). These measurements
are required for mass and energy balances and will be crucial to
biothermal research in the future.
Carbon dioxide production coefficients vary with compost materials
as well, and a weighted average or stoichiometric sample should be
established. As is seen in the database, some materials have been
observed to release over double their weight in CO2 when decomposed

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because the higher oxygen requirements and initial C content. The heat
and CO2 coefficients are most crucial in approximating the resources
released during composting. Care should be taken to ensure their
accuracy as best as possible.
The heat loss of necessary infrastructure of a biothermal system
has not been modeled. The current design requires piping to run
underground from the windrows to the greenhouse floor. The distance,
friction, and therefore heat loss will vary with system design. Spatial
separation between the greenhouse and compost areas will be needed for
ease of operation, and therefore piping for air delivery will be required.
Compost could be housed next to a greenhouse structure, but this setup
would cause significant friction due to 90o angles in the piping. Efficient
design may include insulated pipes and condensate tanks. However this
cost may outweigh the cost of adding the additional compost mass to
compensate for this heat loss. Further study should be conducted on this
subject.
Model Scenari os
Two scenarios have been modeled: one in which a greenhouse
operator provides the minimum amount of compost needed to heat a
greenhouse, and a commercial composting operation with a regular
feedstock rate.
In the first scenario, multiple questions were answered about the
synergy of a possible biothermal structure. The heat removed from a

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compost mass that is being regulated with temperature feedback forced


aeration is significant. If a biothermal system is being run according to
the parameters of the first scenario, heat will be produced in excess. This
is due to the differences of the compost heat production rate and the
greenhouse heating demand. It has been suggested and attempted by
researchers in the past to slow the composting process to make it more
compatible with heating demands. This has been done by manipulation of
compost feedstocks, such as using slow or recalcitrant materials (wood
for example). It can also be achieved by limiting oxygen to bacterial
populations, and this is seen in many non-aerated operations that have
longer stabilization periods than forced air operations. The slowing of the
composting process was not considered here for two reasons: there is
little data available to model such a process as the majority of study in
the past has centered around compost optimization and the composting
industry, where the potential for greatest resource recovery exists, does
not undertake such processes. However, this manipulation would prove
very useful to the greenhouse operator of the first scenario presented
here (i.e. sizing composting mass specifically for a greenhouse). For this
reason, it will prove useful to research this potential in future study.
Compost Resources
The actual amount of heat removed depends on the decomposition
rate and thermal value of compost disappearance. From a review of past
research studies, the range of values for common compost feedstock

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ranges from a low of 4.65 MJ/kg for general food waste, to a high of
39.16 MJ/kg for pure fats. The average value was 19.44 MJ/kg. It is
interesting to note that the average heat value of combusted dry wood is
around 18.6 MJ/kg. For a general, simplified understanding, the
disappearance of compost mass is analogous to burning a similar weight
of wood.
The useful heat created by the compost pile is directly related to
the mass loss, but is not simply the heat of combustion multiplied by the
mass lost. Heat is lost to the environment surrounding the compost and
heat is only removed as needed to control the temperature. Considering
the literature, a value of 20% heat loss from pile conduction, radiation,
and passive convection/evaporation is used here. Another five percent of
the heat is needed to raise the temperature of the compost mass and
added water. This leaves around 75% of the heat available for removal
and use in an external system. It seems that this figure may be able to
be used as a rule of thumb for general understanding. The percentage
will be higher with enclosed in-vessel systems, and will also increase
slightly with decreasing operating temperatures.
Resource Requirements
The model found that based on the heat output of the composting
mass, the ratio of compost to greenhouse area may be acceptable from a
space and operational standpoint. This was only a concern in the first
scenario where a greenhouse operator would be bringing on compost

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specifically to heat the greenhouse and would be concerned about space


consumption. The area needed specifically for compost windrows was
found to be 27% of the greenhouse floor space heated based on the
aforementioned pile geometry. A conservative figure of 50% may be
used to size a pad for compost and space for machinery mobility and
storage.
Significant resources are required and produced by the composting
process. The model shows that the process, under the aforementioned
parameters, required approximately 1.8 MT of water per MT of dry matter
disappeared. It also requires 29.3 MT of air for every MT of dry matter
disappeared. The amount of water required will vary with initial moisture
content and operating compost temperature. In-vessel systems will need
to supply the total amount of that water to the compost, and outdoor
systems will need to monitor the amount supplied by rainfall. The amount
of air is largely determined by the enthalpy change between the incoming
and exhaust air masses. In the model enthalpy change is dominantly
affected by temperature and humidity ratio of the incoming air. It was
assumed that the exhaust air was saturated and at the same operational
temperature as the compost (as long as the compost moisture is above
45%). This is an assumption observed in limited past experimentation
and should be validated with further study and ongoing monitoring. Air
mass and therefore power required by the forced aeration will therefore
be determined by incoming air and the process temperature of the

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compost. The colder and drier the incoming air, the less air is needed to
remove heat from the compost system. Past models using static
incoming air values may overestimate or significantly miscalculate airflow
needed for winter composting operations.
The power required for forced aeration in the compost operation
varies depending on the quantity of compost being processed, as well as
some compost properties such as density, moisture content, pile
geometry, positive or negative aeration, and uniformity of porosity. In
general there are some principles that will reduce power and make air
supply more effective. Less dense piles of limited depth will reduce the
power consumption. Minimizing the obstruction and friction in piping
infrastructure will reduce pressure and therefore power consumption.
Occasional pile turning will distribute dry, inactive compost and eliminate
preferential air pathways which short circuit aeration efforts. In past
biothermal systems, soil beds have been used as biofilters without
respect to proper sizing (as the information for sizing was not and is not
currently understood). Forcing air through large soil beds significantly
increases the overall pressure of the system, possibly even doubling it
depending on soil depth, moisture, and density. An increase in system
pressure is a direct increase in energy, and this is important for system
designers to understand. Proper biofilter sizing will reduce the energy use
of a biothermal system.

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The current design of biothermal systems requires an initial induced


draft (negative pressure) to draw air through the pile followed by a forced
draft (positive pressure) to push the exhaust through the soil biofilter and
into a greenhouse. The power requirements for this design are difficult to
approximate due to the complexity of the design. Induced draft in
general requires more energy use due to decreased density of air under
lower pressure and higher humidity. The optimal piping design for these
systems requires a complex iterative calculation procedure for both ends
(positive and negative) of the system. The power consumption could
vary significantly depending on the infrastructure. Methods presented by
(Huag, 1993), and more recently (Tollner & Governo, 2005) can be used
to aid in precise calculation of system pressures and power consumption.
The mixed draft system is not uncommon in commercial compost facilities
that use biofilters for odor control. A survey of systems, with focus on
power consumption per weight dry matter disappeared, system pressure,
and piping infrastructure is warranted.
(Themelis, 2005) estimated 120 kWh per ton of feed material for
an in-vessel forced draft aeration system (without biofiltration) controlled
at 50oC, with a heat of combustion of 17.8 MJ/kg, 76.4% useful heat
removal, a static inlet air value of 20oC and 50% relative humidity, 36%
initial dry matter and 50% dry matter disappearance. More specifically a
432 MJ electrical energy input versus a 2448 MJ heat output, or a 5.6
positive energy return simple ratio was found. At current costs in New

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England for commercial electricity (3.4 cents/MJ) compared to August 8th


NYMEX natural gas costs (1 cent/MJ), this is a positive cost ratio of 1.6.
These ratios will be lower for a system with biofiltration due to increased
power and therefore electricity use. If upstream energy to create the
electricity is considered, the actual energy return will be less as well.
However if the electricity is produced with renewable energy this ratio
would be better. If fluctuating and winter NG costs are considered, the
cost ratio could be significantly greater in favor of electricity. Projected
renewable energy versus NG costs should be considered. A life cycle
analysis (LCA) of a system should be conducted in the future to answer
questions of true energy costs and savings. It can be argued that this
energy is used to provide aeration for compost in commercial forced air
operations and will be used regardless of energy recovery systems.
Therefore, any heat recovery is a positive gain as the heat would just be
wasted to the atmosphere.
Resource Supply
The resources produced by the composting process are water
(initially in the form of vapor), heat, CO2, ammonia, other trace gases, and
of course the compost. The model shows that for every MT of compost
disappeared, 5 MT of water are evaporated to remove the heat. Water is
supplied for the greenhouse at a ratio of 1 kg for every 2.8 MJ of heat
needed in the first scenario. Most of the heat exists in the water vapor
and is released upon condensation. Carbon dioxide is produced at an

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average ratio of one kg per 8 MJ removed from the compost system


based on the model logic. However, the model was not advanced enough
to ascertain the complete picture in regards to CO production and need.
It is assumed in the model that 5% of the CO2 is released to the
atmosphere through passive convection. This assumption needs to be
validated in future studies. The model logic removes CO2 as it is
produced by decomposition (based on the CO2 coefficient derived from
past research), but interstitial buildup and preferential pathways in the
compost may cause non-uniform removal. Also the model assumes that
whatever percentage of heat removed is actually used by the greenhouse,
the same percentage of CO2 will be taken. This assumes uniformity in air
concentrations. These aspects need to be refined and studied further.
The model could also only determine the CO2 demand caused by
infiltration in the greenhouse. This base load was determined by
assuming that 1500 ppm CO2 is desired in the greenhouse, 370 ppm is
contained in fresh air, and that the volume in the greenhouse is
exchanged every 2 hours. In reality the infiltration rate will vary with
weather conditions, and this aspect should be refined as well. With this in
mind, it was found that the base demand of 15 kg of CO2 per four hours
was not always met with the supplied CO2. Considering that the base
demand and the crop demand will equal the total demand, it seems that
the CO2 to heat ratio is not sufficient. Separating the CO2 and heat
source, possibly through water condensation and insulated storage, may

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be a way to overcome this discrepancy. This may also solve the


discrepancy between the majority of heat being needed at night when
little to no CO2 is needed.
When the composting mass of Intervale Compost is modeled under
the aforementioned parameters, it is found that a significant amount of
heat and CO2 is currently being released into the atmosphere. If the
coefficients of 17 MJ/kg and 1.58 kg CO2/kg dry matter disappeared are
used, then the 50% mass decomposition of the Intervale mass (42%
initial dry mass) produces 71,400,000 MJ of heat and 13,272,000 kg of
CO2. At 75% heat removal, 53,550,000 MJ of useful heat may be
recovered from the mass if it all were put into forced aeration
composting. This is equivalent to $506,723 per year in current Natural
Gas prices. Natural Gas is the most common fuel used for greenhouse
heating and CO2 enrichment. These amounts are considerable, especially
in the context that an estimated 55 million MT of compost that is
processed each year in the United States and the resources from all of
these operations are not recovered (Kauffman 2004). It is not suggested
here that all outdoor, turned windrow operations be converted to aerated
operations for the purpose of resource recovery. The Intervale mass is
used as an example of the potential in large scale composting operations.
In vessel operations with biofiltration infrastructure do exist at a scale
similar to or larger than Intervale Compost, and they have the greatest
potential for application and study.

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Composting produces many gases that in some aspects can be


considered resources but mostly are considered nuisances. Compost
exhaust cannot be safely utilized to directly heat a space that will be
occupied by plants and human beings. VOC, NH3, and several other
chemical groups including sulfides are produced in significant enough
amounts to be a nuisance and possibly toxic to plants and humans.
Biofiltration or some type of treatment of the exhaust will be required in
the utilization of compost exhaust. This text is not meant to be a guide
to biofiltration aspects, and concerned parties are referred to (Huag,
1993) to understand the multiple technologies and basic concerns with
biofiltration.
Ammonia is the constituent of main concern in regards to plant
toxicity. The modeling process did not model ammonia due to its
complexity and the current state of knowledge regarding ammonia
production in compost. However, the literature review did provide figures
of observed ammonia production. The highest figures seem to be around
75% of initial N lost through NH3 volatilization. It has also been observed
that a significant amount of NH3 can be recovered through condensation
(85%). This suggests again that a simple condensation system treating
the exhaust gas may be helpful for controlling and utilizing compost
resources in a biothermal system. The trapped water may be rich in N
and could possibly be used as irrigation and fertilizer. However, a better
understanding of NH3 emission and recovery rates is needed before ratios

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and water fertilizer concentrations can be established. Based on the


literature review, VOC seems to be reduced with high carbon wood as
amendments to the composting mass. However, the amounts that
showed significant VOC reduction also increased the pH of the compost
mixture and increased NH3 emission. A biofilter with high carbon wood
ash amendment may be effective at removing VOC, and this should be
considered in future studies. Activated carbon is a very common
ingredient for biofiltration because of its adsorption capabilities.
Currently not enough is known about NH3 and VOC emissions from
various composting mixtures and operations to standardize exhaust
treatment for a biofilter system. Industry experience will be the best
guide, and past experience should be considered in the design of any new
system. What can be said now is that vapor condensation seems to be
an important first step which partially occurs anyway in biothermal
structures (as observed in past experiments). Systems should be
designed with drain traps and pumps to handle condensate. N
concentrations should be tested before any water used considered for
irrigation. Secondly, most biothermal system designs use the greenhouse
floor as a biofilter. The delivery of hot air and CO2 to the soil bed and
therefore directly to plants is a unique benefit of the current design.
However, soil is generally considered less biologically active than other
common biofilter media, and has been phased out largely in the industry.
Also, the depth of soil needed for odor control has deemed most

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biothermal systems so far ineffective at delivering sufficient heat to the


soil surface and plant root zones. This has been observed at the
biothermal greenhouse constructed at the Intervale. CO2 is relatively
inert and soil bed depth has not affected its presence in the greenhouse
air however. Currently this system, like the ones in the past, seems to be
sufficient for CO2 fertilization only.
It may be that a planted soil bed rich in organic matter, amended
with activated carbon and a thick mulch layer, with sufficient moisture
levels will be found as a more effective biofilter and therefore its depth
can be reduced. This may be an area of significant study as biothermal
structures are studied further. The direct air delivery, combined with
irrigation of the condensate at night, seems currently to be the most
intelligent biothermal system design. It should be noted however, that
even the most advanced industrial biofilters are not 100% effective.
Excess gases are temporarily released to the ambient atmosphere.
However in a biothermal greenhouse, any gasses that pass through will be
temporarily trapped in the greenhouse structure. This leaves little margin
for error in terms of biofilter efficiency. Biofilters are biological systems
and do not have the precision and reliability of some chemical treatments.
They can be enhanced by human management, but not completely
controlled. This should be a fact accepted by advocates of the
technology. It may be found that the CO2 resource does not justify the
gas treatment investment, and a system focused on heat removal and

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transfer will become the most feasible system. A system based around a
corrosive resistant enthalpy wheel or a similar technology maybe the
most feasible for commercial operators of compost facilities and
greenhouses. The additional energy requirement and also the possible
lack of CO2 recovery must be weighed with the improved convenience.
Only future experimentation will elucidate these subjects. Overall,
treatment of gas will be an important step to overcome in the
development of a functioning commercial biothermal system.
Future Study
Experimentation with bitothermal structures or compost heated
greenhouses has been occurring for the past thirty years with little to no
standardization or transfer of information. Entrepreneurs and farmers
interested in minimizing fossil fuel use and closing waste loops on their
farms have gravitated towards the concept in significant numbers. Over
a dozen facilities have been built and at least partially documented. It is
uncertain how many more have been tried or that exist in operation
today. The response from industry and the scientific community has
been small and has not significantly helped the technology evolve.
Compost science in itself is relatively young and standardization for peer
reviewed research and industry is still being established.

However as

shown here it is possible to use information from compost optimalization


studies, compost engineering, and the limited biothermal structure
studies to establish transferable information, rules of thumb, and

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standards for future research and design. Future study should report
results with respect to SI units and standards such as quantity of
resources produced per dry matter disappeared from the compost
system. The focus of future work should cover current grey areas of the
technology including: validation of current common assumptions,
production of nuisance emissions and their treatment, and most
importantly managerial issues surrounding the control of two integrated
biological systems.
It seems rational to move forward with the belief that compost
optimalization will always be a focus of operations which are run as a
business. If biothermal systems are to move beyond the realm of small
scale systems, they will have to be designed with respect to the behavior
of a compost operation that is concerned mainly with optimizing the
process time and quality of compost. This usually means some type of
forced aeration system with temperature or other in-situ sensor feedback.
The modeling of this behavior has been attempted here and can be
refined to become more accurate. A crucial future step however will be
to construct a field scale system with adequate monitoring of mass and
energy balances. This will build upon the standard research, but will also
provide information on management conflicts and issues that cannot be
foreseen with lab scale systems and simulation modeling. A scalable
system of this type has not been constructed in the past thirty-five years
of experimentation. The proposed system should be constructed at an

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already existing forced aeration/ biofiltration operation to negate capital


costs and ongoing electricity costs. The system could function as an
extra biofilter so as to not impact the functioning of the operation if it is
off-line for research purposes. This will allow more research money for
monitoring and analysis. Part of the failure of past systems to provide
data has been attributed to limited funds. Most have been constructed
with money to do little more than build and run the systems. This has set
back the field of study and should not be perpetuated.
Overall, this technology is mainly concerned with resource
conservation and intelligent, efficient design. Many commercial
composting operations have the infrastructure to run an integrated
system including monitoring and mass handling equipment. To become
integrated some facilities may simply need to place a greenhouse shell
over their biofiltration pads and increase their monitoring infrastructure.
If greenhouse space is not desired, an enthalpy wheel or other heat
recovery system may just be added to the exhaust system to recover
heat energy. This simplification is noted only to point in a direction in
which to start integration research. These facilities seem like the most
logical place where research can be conducted without large capital
investment.
The current state of fossil fuel dependency in the global food
system seems to be justifying any resource conserving technology that
can minimize or eliminate fossil fuel use and recapture some carbon

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dioxide. Composting operations are not completely free of fossil fuel, but
integrated biothermal systems have the ability to meet some of the
aforementioned objectives. It will be seen in the future how relevant or
useful this technology becomes in the food production system.

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Appendix A
Simulation model (in text form)
- 100 -

air_needed[compost_pile](t) = air_needed[compost_pile](t - dt) +


(Noname_3[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT air_needed[compost_pile] = 0
Noname_3[compost_pile] = kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile]
CO2(t) = CO2(t - dt) + (Total_CO2_Flow - Co2_loss) * dt
INIT CO2 = 0
Total_CO2_Flow = ARRAYSUM(CO2_Prod[*])
Co2_loss = .05*Total_CO2_Flow
compost_energy[compost_pile](t) = compost_energy[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(C_heat_prod[compost_pile] - heat__removal[compost_pile] - HL_W[compost_pile] Rad_con__loss?[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT compost_energy[compost_pile] = 0
C_heat_prod[1] = decomp_loss[1]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
C_heat_prod[2] = decomp_loss[2]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
C_heat_prod[3] = decomp_loss[3]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
C_heat_prod[4] = decomp_loss[4]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
C_heat_prod[5] = decomp_loss[5]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
C_heat_prod[6] = decomp_loss[6]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
C_heat_prod[7] = decomp_loss[7]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
C_heat_prod[8] = decomp_loss[8]*Therm_Val__for_decomp
heat__removal[1] =
IF(compost_energy[1]>(Cp_of_C[1]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[1])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[2] =
IF(compost_energy[2]>(Cp_of_C[2]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[2])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[3] =
IF(compost_energy[3]>(Cp_of_C[3]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[3])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[4] =
IF(compost_energy[4]>(Cp_of_C[4]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[4])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[5] =
IF(compost_energy[5]>(Cp_of_C[5]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[5])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[6] =
IF(compost_energy[6]>(Cp_of_C[6]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[6])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[7] =
IF(compost_energy[7]>(Cp_of_C[7]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[7])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[8] =
IF(compost_energy[8]>(Cp_of_C[8]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[8])ELSE(0)
HL_W[1] = Wetting[1]*4.186*50
HL_W[2] = Wetting[2]*4.186*50
HL_W[3] = Wetting[3]*4.186*50
HL_W[4] = Wetting[4]*4.186*50
HL_W[5] = Wetting[5]*4.186*50
HL_W[6] = Wetting[6]*4.186*50
HL_W[7] = Wetting[7]*4.186*50
HL_W[8] = Wetting[8]*4.186*50
Rad_con__loss?[1] = C_heat_prod[1]*rad_con_loss__percentage
Rad_con__loss?[2] = C_heat_prod[2]*rad_con_loss__percentage
Rad_con__loss?[3] = C_heat_prod[3]*rad_con_loss__percentage
Rad_con__loss?[4] = C_heat_prod[4]*rad_con_loss__percentage
Rad_con__loss?[5] = C_heat_prod[5]*rad_con_loss__percentage
Rad_con__loss?[6] = C_heat_prod[6]*rad_con_loss__percentage
Rad_con__loss?[7] = C_heat_prod[7]*rad_con_loss__percentage
Rad_con__loss?[8] = C_heat_prod[8]*rad_con_loss__percentage
compost_evap[compost_pile](t) = compost_evap[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(evaped_wat[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT compost_evap[compost_pile] = 0

- 101 -

evaped_wat[compost_pile] = evap_from_C[compost_pile]
Cum_air_needed(t) = Cum_air_needed(t - dt) + (Noname_5) * dt
INIT Cum_air_needed = 0
Noname_5 = ARRAYSUM(kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[*])
cum_volume(t) = cum_volume(t - dt) + (cum_vol_flow) * dt
INIT cum_volume = 0
cum_vol_flow = ARRAYSUM(Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[*])
C_water[compost_pile](t) = C_water[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(metabolic__generation[compost_pile] + Wetting[compost_pile] evap_from_C[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT C_water[compost_pile] = initial_water__content[compost_pile]
metabolic__generation[compost_pile] = decomp_loss[compost_pile]*wat_gen_coef
Wetting[compost_pile] = IF moist__ratio[compost_pile] <.5 THEN
evap_from_C[compost_pile] ELSE(0)
evap_from_C[compost_pile] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile]*delta_w[compost_pile]
Dry_Compost_mass[compost_pile](t) = Dry_Compost_mass[compost_pile](t - dt) + (decomp_loss[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT Dry_Compost_mass[compost_pile] = initial_dry__mass[compost_pile]
decomp_loss[compost_pile] = IF Dry_Compost_mass[compost_pile]>
Min_mass[compost_pile] THEN
k_rate__decomp[compost_pile]*k_adjust*Dry_Compost_mass[compost_pile] ELSE 0
Dry_Matter_Needed__For_Greenhouse(t) = Dry_Matter_Needed__For_Greenhouse(t dt) + (dry_matter__needed) * dt
INIT Dry_Matter_Needed__For_Greenhouse = 0
dry_matter__needed = heat_loss__flow/(Therm_Val__for_decomp/1000)
g_house_total__heat_loss(t) = g_house_total__heat_loss(t - dt) + (heat_loss__flow)
* dt
INIT g_house_total__heat_loss = 0
heat_loss__flow = Heat_loss_MJ_
Met_Gen_Wat[compost_pile](t) = Met_Gen_Wat[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(Metabolic_generation_of_water[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT Met_Gen_Wat[compost_pile] = 0
Metabolic_generation_of_water[compost_pile] = metabolic__generation[compost_pile]
pile_heat_loss_radiate[compost_pile](t) = pile_heat_loss_radiate[compost_pile](t - dt)
+ (pile_rad_heat[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT pile_heat_loss_radiate[compost_pile] = 0
pile_rad_heat[compost_pile] = Rad_con__loss?[compost_pile]
pile_heat_loss_wetting[compost_pile](t) = pile_heat_loss_wetting[compost_pile](t dt) + (pile_heat_wett[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT pile_heat_loss_wetting[compost_pile] = 0
pile_heat_wett[compost_pile] = HL_W[compost_pile]
Pile_heat_production[compost_pile](t) = Pile_heat_production[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(pile_heat_prod_flow[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT Pile_heat_production[compost_pile] = 0
pile_heat_prod_flow[compost_pile] = C_heat_prod[compost_pile]
PIle_heat_removal[compost_pile](t) = PIle_heat_removal[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(Pile_heat__removal_flow[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT PIle_heat_removal[compost_pile] = 0
Pile_heat__removal_flow[compost_pile] = heat_removal__in_MJ[compost_pile]
pile_volumes[compost_pile](t) = pile_volumes[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(pile_vol_flow[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT pile_volumes[compost_pile] = 0
pile_vol_flow[compost_pile] = Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile]
Power(t) = Power(t - dt) + (Power_flow) * dt
INIT Power = 0

- 102 -

Power_flow = Total_Power
total_actual__DM_needed(t) = total_actual__DM_needed(t - dt) +
(actual_dry__matter_needed) * dt
INIT total_actual__DM_needed = 0
actual_dry__matter_needed = ARRAYSUM(initial_dry__mass[*])
Total_CO2[compost_pile](t) = Total_CO2[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(CO2_Prod[compost_pile] - CO2_loss_to_air[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT Total_CO2[compost_pile] = 0
CO2_Prod[compost_pile] = decomp_loss[compost_pile]*CO2_coef
CO2_loss_to_air[compost_pile] = .05*CO2_Prod[compost_pile]
Total_decomp(t) = Total_decomp(t - dt) + (Total_decomp_flow) * dt
INIT Total_decomp = 0
Total_decomp_flow = ARRAYSUM(decomp_loss[*])
Total_water_evaped[compost_pile](t) = Total_water_evaped[compost_pile](t - dt) +
(Total_evap[compost_pile]) * dt
INIT Total_water_evaped[compost_pile] = 0
Total_evap[compost_pile] =
Hum_rat__exit_air[compost_pile]*kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile]
total_yearly_heat(t) = total_yearly_heat(t - dt) + (Total_heat__removal) * dt
INIT total_yearly_heat = 0
Total_heat__removal = ARRAYSUM(heat_removal__in_MJ[*])
useful_energy(t) = useful_energy(t - dt) + (heat__removal[compost_pile] +
heat__removal[1] + heat__removal[2] + heat__removal[3] + heat__removal[4] +
heat__removal[5] + heat__removal[6] + heat__removal[7] + heat__removal[8]) * dt
INIT useful_energy = 0
heat__removal[1] =
IF(compost_energy[1]>(Cp_of_C[1]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[1])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[2] =
IF(compost_energy[2]>(Cp_of_C[2]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[2])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[3] =
IF(compost_energy[3]>(Cp_of_C[3]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[3])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[4] =
IF(compost_energy[4]>(Cp_of_C[4]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[4])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[5] =
IF(compost_energy[5]>(Cp_of_C[5]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[5])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[6] =
IF(compost_energy[6]>(Cp_of_C[6]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[6])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[7] =
IF(compost_energy[7]>(Cp_of_C[7]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[7])ELSE(0)
heat__removal[8] =
IF(compost_energy[8]>(Cp_of_C[8]*47))THEN(C_heat_prod[8])ELSE(0)
Water_needed__for_wetting[compost_pile](t) =
Water_needed__for_wetting[compost_pile](t - dt) + (Wetting_flow[compost_pile]) *
dt
INIT Water_needed__for_wetting[compost_pile] = 0
Wetting_flow[compost_pile] = Wetting[compost_pile]
Air_density_2 =
Atmospheric__Pressure_2/(constfor_air_2*air_temp_K_2)+WatVapPress_2/(const_va
p_press_2*air_temp_K_2)
air_temp_c = ext_temp-273.15
air_temp_K_2 = ext_temp
CO2_coef = 1.85
co2_need = 3.8
compost_mass[1] = 4608
compost_mass[2] = 5040
compost_mass[3] = 8928

- 103 -

compost_mass[4] = 5760
compost_mass[5] = 10800
compost_mass[6] = 8928
compost_mass[7] = 6624
compost_mass[8] = 7488
Com_Temp[1] = compost_energy[1]/Cp_of_C[1]+13
Com_Temp[2] = compost_energy[2]/Cp_of_C[2]+13
Com_Temp[3] = compost_energy[3]/Cp_of_C[3]+13
Com_Temp[4] = compost_energy[4]/Cp_of_C[4]+13
Com_Temp[5] = compost_energy[5]/Cp_of_C[5]+13
Com_Temp[6] = compost_energy[6]/Cp_of_C[6]+13
Com_Temp[7] = compost_energy[7]/Cp_of_C[7]+13
Com_Temp[8] = compost_energy[8]/Cp_of_C[8]+13
constant_press = 127102
constfor_air = 287.055
constfor_air_2 = 287.05
const_vap_press_2 = 461.495
Cp_of_C[1] = (Dry_Compost_mass[1]*1.48)+(C_water[1]*4.186)
Cp_of_C[2] = (Dry_Compost_mass[2]*1.48)+(C_water[2]*4.186)
Cp_of_C[3] = (Dry_Compost_mass[3]*1.48)+(C_water[3]*4.186)
Cp_of_C[4] = (Dry_Compost_mass[4]*1.48)+(C_water[4]*4.186)
Cp_of_C[5] = (Dry_Compost_mass[5]*1.48)+(C_water[5]*4.186)
Cp_of_C[6] = (Dry_Compost_mass[6]*1.48)+(C_water[6]*4.186)
Cp_of_C[7] = (Dry_Compost_mass[7]*1.48)+(C_water[7]*4.186)
Cp_of_C[8] = (Dry_Compost_mass[8]*1.48)+(C_water[8]*4.186)
C_val_dble_poly = .8
delta_T = int_temp-Temp_C_avg
Delta_T_2[1] = Com_Temp[1]-air_temp_c
Delta_T_2[2] = Com_Temp[2]-air_temp_c
Delta_T_2[3] = Com_Temp[3]-air_temp_c
Delta_T_2[4] = Com_Temp[4]-air_temp_c
Delta_T_2[5] = Com_Temp[5]-air_temp_c
Delta_T_2[6] = Com_Temp[6]-air_temp_c
Delta_T_2[7] = Com_Temp[7]-air_temp_c
Delta_T_2[8] = Com_Temp[8]-air_temp_c
delta_w[compost_pile] = Hum_rat__exit_air[compost_pile]-Hum_Rat_Iinfil_air
density[1] = Specific__Volume[1]^-1
density[2] = Specific__Volume[2]^-1
density[3] = Specific__Volume[3]^-1
density[4] = Specific__Volume[4]^-1
density[5] = Specific__Volume[5]^-1
density[6] = Specific__Volume[6]^-1
density[7] = Specific__Volume[7]^-1
density[8] = Specific__Volume[8]^-1
dry_matter_decomp__needed_for_g_house =
Heat_loss_MJ_/(Therm_Val__for_decomp/1000)
Enthalpy_of__exit_air_rel__to_entry_air[compost_pile] =
(Spec_Heat__ext_air[compost_pile]*Delta_T_2[compost_pile])+(delta_w[compost_pil
e]*(Heat_of__vap_of_wat+(spec_heat__of_wat_vap*Delta_T_2[compost_pile])))
fan_efficiency = .5
fan_power[compost_pile] =
(volume_per__second[compost_pile]*pressure)/fan_efficiency
greenhouse__volume = ((.5*3.14*12.25^2)*50)*.0283
g_house__dimensions = 30
heat_for__warming[1] = 47*Cp_of_C[1]
heat_for__warming[2] = 47*Cp_of_C[2]

- 104 -

heat_for__warming[3] = 47*Cp_of_C[3]
heat_for__warming[4] = 47*Cp_of_C[4]
heat_for__warming[5] = 47*Cp_of_C[5]
heat_for__warming[6] = 47*Cp_of_C[6]
heat_for__warming[7] = 47*Cp_of_C[7]
heat_for__warming[8] = 47*Cp_of_C[8]
heat_loss =
(stand_heat__loss_end*k_factor*C_val_dble_poly)+(stand_heat__loss_roof*k_factor*
C_val_dble_poly)*1055.0559
Heat_loss_MJ_ = heat_loss/1000
Heat_of__vap_of_wat = 2501-(2.42*air_temp_c)
heat_removal__in_MJ[1] = heat__removal[1]/1000
heat_removal__in_MJ[2] = heat__removal[2]/1000
heat_removal__in_MJ[3] = heat__removal[3]/1000
heat_removal__in_MJ[4] = heat__removal[4]/1000
heat_removal__in_MJ[5] = heat__removal[5]/1000
heat_removal__in_MJ[6] = heat__removal[6]/1000
heat_removal__in_MJ[7] = heat__removal[7]/1000
heat_removal__in_MJ[8] = heat__removal[8]/1000
Hum_Rat_Iinfil_air = 0.62198*pp_of__wat_vap/(Atmospheric__Pressure_2pp_of__wat_vap)
initial_dry__mass[compost_pile] = compost_mass[compost_pile]*(1moist_percent[compost_pile])
initial_water__content[compost_pile] =
compost_mass[compost_pile]*moist_percent[compost_pile]
int_temp = 22
Int_temp_F = (int_temp*(9/5))+32
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile] =
heat__removal[compost_pile]/Enthalpy_of__exit_air_rel__to_entry_air[compost_pile]
kg_air_per__kg_dry_matter[compost_pile] = IF decomp_loss[compost_pile] = 0 Then
0 ELSE kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile]/decomp_loss[compost_pile]
k_adjust = 1
k_factor = .070620+0.0246068*delta_T+0.0010219*Wind_spd_mps_avg+.0004404*delta_T*Wi
nd_spd_mps_avg
k_rate_static = .04
Min_mass[compost_pile] = min_mass__percentage*initial_dry__mass[compost_pile]
min_mass__percentage = .4
moist_percent[compost_pile] = .5
moist__ratio[compost_pile] =
C_water[compost_pile]/((Dry_Compost_mass[compost_pile]+C_water[compost_pile]))
Noname_1 = EXP(6.6)
pp_of__wat_vap = EXP(((-5.8002206*10^3)/DEW_Temp_K)+(1.3914993)((48.640239*10^-3)*DEW_Temp_K)+((41.764768*10^-6)*DEW_Temp_K^2)((14.452093*10^-9)*DEW_Temp_K^3)+(6.5459673*LOGN(DEW_Temp_K)))
pressure = 996
rad_con_loss__percentage = .2
rel__hum = pp_of__wat_vap/WatVapPress_2
Specific__Volume[compost_pile] =
((1/constant_press)*constfor_air*(Com_Temp[compost_pile]+273.15)*(1+1.6078*Hu
m_rat__exit_air[compost_pile])/(1+Hum_rat__exit_air[compost_pile]))
stand_heat__loss_end = 40
stand_heat__loss_roof = 158
Temp_F = (Temp_C_avg*(9/5))+32
temp_in_C = air_temp_K_2-273.15
Therm_Val__for_decomp = 19000

- 105 -

Total_Power = ARRAYSUM(fan_power[*])
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[1] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[1]/density[1]
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[2] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[2]/density[2]
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[3] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[3]/density[3]
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[4] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[4]/density[4]
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[5] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[5]/density[5]
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[6] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[6]/density[6]
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[7] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[7]/density[7]
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[8] =
kg_air_needed__for_heat_removal[8]/density[8]
volume_per__second[compost_pile] =
Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile]/(240*60)
v_per_day__per_kg[compost_pile] =
(Volume_needed__for_heat_removal[compost_pile]*6)/initial_dry__mass[compost_pil
e]
WatVapPress_2 = EXP(((-5.8002206*10^3)/air_temp_K_2)+(1.3914993)((48.640239*10^-3)*air_temp_K_2)+((41.764768*10^-6)*air_temp_K_2^2)((14.452093*10^-9)*air_temp_K_2^3)+(6.5459673*LOGN(air_temp_K_2)))
wat_gen_coef = .58
Wat_Vap__Press_web = (6.1078*(0.99999683+temp_in_C*(-0.90826951*10^2+temp_in_C*(0.78736169*10^-4+temp_in_C*(-0.61117958*10^6+temp_in_C*(0.43884187*10^-8+temp_in_C*(-0.29883885*10^10+temp_in_C*(0.21874425*10^-12+temp_in_C*(-0.17892321*10^14+temp_in_C*(0.11112018*10^-16*temp_in_C*(-0.30994571*10^-19))))))))))^8)*100
Wind_speed__in_mph = Wind_spd_mps_avg*2.2369363
Atmospheric__Pressure_2 = GRAPH(time)
(1.00, 99030), (2.00, 98950), (3.00, 98880), (4.00, 98750), (5.00, 98710), (6.00,
98540), (7.00, 98350), (8.00, 98180), (9.00, 97810), (10.0, 97450), (11.0, 97140),
(12.0, 96770), (13.0, 96600), (14.0, 96530), (15.0, 96440), (16.0, 96530), (17.0,
96570), (18.0, 96630), (19.0, 96730), (20.0, 96940), (21.0, 97170), (22.0, 97470),
(23.0, 97740), (24.0, 98050), (25.0, 98320), (26.0, 98480), (27.0, 98710), (28.0,
98880), (29.0, 98980), (30.0, 99120), (31.0, 99250), (32.0, 99360), (33.0, 99420),
(34.0, 99520), (35.0, 99580), (36.0, 99620), (37.0, 99650), (38.0, 99650), (39.0,
99680), (40.0, 99680), (41.0, 99650), (42.0, 99680), (43.0, 99720), (44.0, 99820),
(45.0, 99890), (46.0, 99990), (47.0, 100090), (48.0, 100120), (49.0, 100230),
(50.0, 100260), (51.0, 100330), (52.0, 100330), (53.0, 100360), (54.0, 100460),
(55.0, 100490), (56.0, 100490), (57.0, 100490), (58.0, 100520), (59.0, 100560),
(60.0, 100620), (61.0, 100690), (62.0, 100720), (63.0, 100760), (64.0, 100760),
(65.0, 100720), (66.0, 100720), (67.0, 100660), (68.0, 100660), (69.0, 100660),
(70.0, 100660), (71.0, 100690), (72.0, 100720), (73.0, 100790), (74.0, 100790),
(75.0, 100760), (76.0, 100760), (77.0, 100720), (78.0, 100720), (79.0, 100690),
(80.0, 100620), (81.0, 100590), (82.0, 100590), (83.0, 100590), (84.0, 100560),
(85.0, 100560), (86.0, 100520), (87.0, 100520), (88.0, 100490), (89.0, 100430),
(90.0, 100360), (91.0, 100360), (92.0, 100330), (93.0, 100360), (94.0, 100330),
(95.0, 100360), (96.0, 100360), (97.0, 100360), (98.0, 100360), (99.0, 100360),
(100, 100330), (101, 100330), (102, 100290), (103, 100245), (104, 100190),
(105, 100160), (106, 100190), (107, 100230), (108, 100230), (109, 100260),
(110, 100330), (111, 100360), (112, 100360), (113, 100360), (114, 100360),

- 106 -

(115, 100360), (116, 100400), (117, 100430), (118, 100520), (119, 100560),
(120, 100660), (121, 100660), (122, 100690), (123, 100720), (124, 100760),
(125, 100760), (126, 100790), (127, 100790), (128, 100790), (129, 100830),
(130, 100790), (131, 100830), (132, 100890), (133, 100890), (134, 100890),
(135, 100860), (136, 100790), (137, 100760), (138, 100660), (139, 100560),
(140, 100460), (141, 100400), (142, 100360), (143, 100260), (144, 100260),
(145, 100160), (146, 100060), (147, 99790), (148, 99680), (149, 99480), (150,
99360), (151, 99360), (152, 99090), (153, 98920), (154, 98850), (155, 98640),
(156, 98510), (157, 98380), (158, 98350), (159, 98210), (160, 98080), (161,
97980), (162, 98250), (163, 98450), (164, 98610), (165, 98710), (166, 98850),
(167, 98950), (168, 99050), (169, 99120), (170, 99150), (171, 99190), (172,
99190), (173, 99150), (174, 99120), (175, 99090), (176, 99150), (177, 99190),
(178, 99150), (179, 99220), (180, 99220), (181, 99220), (182, 99190), (183,
99190), (184, 99120), (185, 99090), (186, 99090), (187, 99120), (188, 99150),
(189, 99190), (190, 99220), (191, 99220), (192, 99190), (193, 99190), (194,
99120), (195, 99090), (196, 99090), (197, 99020), (198, 98980), (199, 98920),
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98920), (206, 98880), (207, 98850), (208, 98810), (209, 98810), (210, 98850),
(211, 98880), (212, 98950), (213, 99020), (214, 99120), (215, 99150), (216,
99190), (217, 99250), (218, 99290), (219, 99320), (220, 99420), (221, 99480),
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100120), (228, 100260), (229, 100360), (230, 100430), (231, 100520), (232,
100590), (233, 100660), (234, 100690), (235, 100790), (236, 100860), (237,
101000), (238, 101130), (239, 101200), (240, 101270), (241, 101330), (242,
101400), (243, 101440), (244, 101530), (245, 101560), (246, 101590), (247,
101630), (248, 101590), (249, 101630), (250, 101590), (251, 101630), (252,
101660), (253, 101660), (254, 101590), (255, 101490), (256, 101400), (257,
101270), (258, 101230), (259, 101230), (260, 101160), (261, 101160), (262,
101200), (263, 101270), (264, 101230), (265, 101230), (266, 101230), (267,
101200), (268, 101160), (269, 101130), (270, 101130), (271, 101060), (272,
100960), (273, 100930), (274, 100930), (275, 100830), (276, 100720), (277,
100620), (278, 100490), (279, 100400), (280, 100290), (281, 100190), (282,
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99990), (298, 99920), (299, 99960), (300, 99890), (301, 99820), (302, 99750),
(303, 99620), (304, 99550), (305, 99460), (306, 99320), (307, 99250), (308,
99120), (309, 99050), (310, 98980), (311, 98950), (312, 98850), (313, 98920),
(314, 99090), (315, 99190), (316, 99290), (317, 99420), (318, 99480), (319,
99520), (320, 99580), (321, 99620), (322, 99750), (323, 99890), (324, 100020),
(325, 100060), (326, 100090), (327, 100190), (328, 100120), (329, 100120),
(330, 100090), (331, 100090), (332, 100090), (333, 100060), (334, 100090),
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(340, 99990), (341, 99890), (342, 99790), (343, 99720), (344, 99720), (345,
99650), (346, 99580), (347, 99460), (348, 99420), (349, 99320), (350, 99090),
(351, 98920), (352, 98780), (353, 98710), (354, 98780), (355, 98850), (356,
98950), (357, 99220), (358, 99320), (359, 99320), (360, 99390), (361, 99460),
(362, 99550), (363, 99650), (364, 99790), (365, 99920), (366, 99990), (367,
100090), (368, 100190), (369, 100260), (370, 100400), (371, 100460), (372,
100590), (373, 100690), (374, 100720), (375, 100760), (376, 100830), (377,
100890), (378, 100960), (379, 101030), (380, 101100), (381, 101100), (382,
101130), (383, 101230), (384, 101230), (385, 101270), (386, 101270), (387,
101300), (388, 101270), (389, 101200), (390, 101100), (391, 101060), (392,
101000), (393, 100960), (394, 100960), (395, 100930), (396, 100890), (397,
100830), (398, 100720), (399, 100620), (400, 100620), (401, 100590), (402,
100590), (403, 100590), (404, 100620), (405, 100660), (406, 100590), (407,

- 107 -

100560), (408, 100560), (409, 100560), (410, 100520), (411, 100520), (412,
100490), (413, 100460), (414, 100460), (415, 100460), (416, 100460), (417,
100490), (418, 100520), (419, 100560), (420, 100590), (421, 100620), (422,
100620), (423, 100620), (424, 100660), (425, 100830), (426, 100860), (427,
100960), (428, 101060), (429, 101130), (430, 101130), (431, 101160), (432,
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101200), (438, 101200), (439, 101160), (440, 101200), (441, 101270), (442,
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100830), (468, 100860), (469, 100860), (470, 100845), (471, 100845), (472,
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101130), (483, 101130), (484, 101200), (485, 101230), (486, 101300), (487,
101370), (488, 101400), (489, 101490), (490, 101490), (491, 101530), (492,
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101730), (638, 101630), (639, 101560), (640, 101490), (641, 101470), (642,
101470), (643, 101490), (644, 101530), (645, 101530), (646, 101490), (647,
101440), (648, 101400), (649, 101400), (650, 101370), (651, 101370), (652,
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101000), (658, 101000), (659, 100930), (660, 100860), (661, 100790), (662,
100490), (663, 100360), (664, 100230), (665, 100230), (666, 100090), (667,
99990), (668, 99960), (669, 99920), (670, 99890), (671, 99890), (672, 99890),
(673, 99920), (674, 99890), (675, 99890), (676, 99890), (677, 99850), (678,
99850), (679, 99820), (680, 99890), (681, 99920), (682, 99920), (683, 99890),
(684, 99850), (685, 99790), (686, 99720), (687, 99680), (688, 99680), (689,

- 108 -

99620), (690, 99580), (691, 99550), (692, 99420), (693, 99290), (694, 99120),
(695, 98920), (696, 98610), (697, 98480), (698, 98150), (699, 97840), (700,
97540), (701, 97610), (702, 97670), (703, 97640), (704, 97570), (705, 97450),
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96940), (712, 96900), (713, 96970), (714, 97040), (715, 97140), (716, 97240),
(717, 97410), (718, 97610), (719, 97810), (720, 97980), (721, 98150), (722,
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98980), (734, 98950), (735, 98980), (736, 99050), (737, 99120), (738, 99150),
(739, 99250), (740, 99320), (741, 99390), (742, 99460), (743, 99480), (744,
99550), (745, 99620), (746, 99650), (747, 99750), (748, 99820), (749, 99890),
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100260), (756, 100230), (757, 100260), (758, 100260), (759, 100260), (760,
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101300), (831, 101160), (832, 101060), (833, 101030), (834, 101030), (835,
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100720), (951, 100720), (952, 100660), (953, 100590), (954, 100560), (955,
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100190), (966, 100175), (967, 100160), (968, 100020), (969, 99850), (970,
99680), (971, 99680), (972, 99550), (973, 99360), (974, 99360), (975, 99290),

- 109 -

(976, 99220), (977, 99390), (978, 99480), (979, 99680), (980, 99750), (981,
99820), (982, 99820), (983, 99920), (984, 99960), (985, 100020), (986, 100090),
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101530), (1210, 101560), (1211, 101590), (1212, 101630), (1213, 101660),
(1214, 101660), (1215, 101660), (1216, 101660), (1217, 101660), (1218,
101660), (1219, 101630), (1220, 101660), (1221, 101630), (1222, 101630),
(1223, 101590), (1224, 101630), (1225, 101630), (1226, 101660), (1227,
101660), (1228, 101700), (1229, 101630), (1230, 101530), (1231, 101490),
(1232, 101470), (1233, 101470), (1234, 101440), (1235, 101440), (1236,
101440), (1237, 101400), (1238, 101330), (1239, 101400), (1240, 101370),

- 110 -

(1241, 101370), (1242, 101330), (1243, 101300), (1244, 101270), (1245,


101200), (1246, 101200), (1247, 101130), (1248, 101160), (1249, 101160),
(1250, 101200), (1251, 101270), (1252, 101270), (1253, 101160), (1254,
101010), (1255, 101010), (1256, 100860), (1257, 100725), (1258, 100725),
(1259, 100725), (1260, 100725), (1261, 100725), (1262, 100725), (1263,
100725), (1264, 100590), (1265, 100490), (1266, 100460), (1267, 100375),
(1268, 100310), (1269, 100290), (1270, 100260), (1271, 100230), (1272,
100230), (1273, 100230), (1274, 100230), (1275, 100230), (1276, 100260),
(1277, 100190), (1278, 100090), (1279, 100090), (1280, 100060), (1281,
100120), (1282, 100160), (1283, 100230), (1284, 100260), (1285, 100330),
(1286, 100330), (1287, 100330), (1288, 100360), (1289, 100400), (1290,
100400), (1291, 100400), (1292, 100460), (1293, 100520), (1294, 100560),
(1295, 100590), (1296, 100690), (1297, 100760), (1298, 100830), (1299,
100890), (1300, 100930), (1301, 100890), (1302, 100860), (1303, 100830),
(1304, 100790), (1305, 100830), (1306, 100860), (1307, 100890), (1308,
100930), (1309, 101000), (1310, 101030), (1311, 101100), (1312, 101130),
(1313, 101130), (1314, 101160), (1315, 101160), (1316, 101200), (1317,
101200), (1318, 101200), (1319, 101230), (1320, 101270), (1321, 101330),
(1322, 101330), (1323, 101330), (1324, 101370), (1325, 101330), (1326,
101270), (1327, 101200), (1328, 101160), (1329, 101160), (1330, 101200),
(1331, 101160), (1332, 101200), (1333, 101200), (1334, 101160), (1335,
101200), (1336, 101200), (1337, 101160), (1338, 101130), (1339, 101100),
(1340, 101030), (1341, 100960), (1342, 100930), (1343, 100890), (1344,
100860), (1345, 100860), (1346, 100860), (1347, 100860), (1348, 100860),
(1349, 100790), (1350, 100660), (1351, 100590), (1352, 100490), (1353,
100460), (1354, 100400), (1355, 100290), (1356, 100290), (1357, 100230),
(1358, 100160), (1359, 100020), (1360, 99920), (1361, 99790), (1362, 99720),
(1363, 99680), (1364, 99520), (1365, 99460), (1366, 99360), (1367, 99250),
(1368, 99190), (1369, 99090), (1370, 98950), (1371, 98810), (1372, 98640),
(1373, 98480), (1374, 98380), (1375, 98210), (1376, 98010), (1377, 98025),
(1378, 98038), (1379, 98050), (1380, 98010), (1381, 98080), (1382, 98080),
(1383, 98150), (1384, 98320), (1385, 98380), (1386, 98480), (1387, 98610),
(1388, 98850), (1389, 98950), (1390, 99090), (1391, 99250), (1392, 99420),
(1393, 99550), (1394, 99680), (1395, 99820), (1396, 99920), (1397, 99960),
(1398, 99960), (1399, 100020), (1400, 100060), (1401, 100160), (1402, 100290),
(1403, 100360), (1404, 100400), (1405, 100430), (1406, 100520), (1407,
100590), (1408, 100660), (1409, 100720), (1410, 100760), (1411, 100860),
(1412, 100930), (1413, 101030), (1414, 101130), (1415, 101230), (1416,
101330), (1417, 101470), (1418, 101530), (1419, 101630), (1420, 101700),
(1421, 101700), (1422, 101730), (1423, 101660), (1424, 101660), (1425,
101760), (1426, 101830), (1427, 101870), (1428, 101900), (1429, 102000),
(1430, 102070), (1431, 102100), (1432, 102140), (1433, 102100), (1434,
102070), (1435, 102040), (1436, 102100), (1437, 102070), (1438, 102000),
(1439, 101900), (1440, 101800), (1441, 101760), (1442, 101760), (1443,
101760), (1444, 101730), (1445, 101590), (1446, 101490), (1447, 101370),
(1448, 101200), (1449, 101200), (1450, 101100), (1451, 101000), (1452,
100560), (1453, 100560), (1454, 100560), (1455, 100560), (1456, 100560),
(1457, 100120), (1458, 100060), (1459, 99955), (1460, 99850), (1461, 99800),
(1462, 99700), (1463, 99600), (1464, 99500), (1465, 99400), (1466, 99320),
(1467, 99360), (1468, 99390), (1469, 99320), (1470, 99370), (1471, 99370),
(1472, 99420), (1473, 99520), (1474, 99650), (1475, 99790), (1476, 99890),
(1477, 99990), (1478, 100090), (1479, 100190), (1480, 100290), (1481, 100360),
(1482, 100400), (1483, 100490), (1484, 100590), (1485, 100720), (1486,
100720), (1487, 100690), (1488, 100720), (1489, 100860), (1490, 100960),
(1491, 100890), (1492, 100930), (1493, 100860), (1494, 100830), (1495,

- 111 -

100690), (1496, 100590), (1497, 100520), (1498, 100460), (1499, 100330),


(1500, 100230)
DEW_Temp_K = GRAPH(time)
(1.00, 278), (2.00, 278), (3.00, 278), (4.00, 279), (5.00, 279), (6.00, 280), (7.00,
281), (8.00, 283), (9.00, 283), (10.0, 283), (11.0, 284), (12.0, 284), (13.0, 284),
(14.0, 285), (15.0, 285), (16.0, 284), (17.0, 283), (18.0, 282), (19.0, 281), (20.0,
279), (21.0, 278), (22.0, 278), (23.0, 276), (24.0, 276), (25.0, 276), (26.0, 276),
(27.0, 275), (28.0, 275), (29.0, 274), (30.0, 271), (31.0, 272), (32.0, 273), (33.0,
272), (34.0, 272), (35.0, 271), (36.0, 272), (37.0, 272), (38.0, 273), (39.0, 275),
(40.0, 276), (41.0, 275), (42.0, 276), (43.0, 274), (44.0, 277), (45.0, 273), (46.0,
272), (47.0, 273), (48.0, 274), (49.0, 276), (50.0, 277), (51.0, 275), (52.0, 274),
(53.0, 274), (54.0, 275), (55.0, 275), (56.0, 274), (57.0, 274), (58.0, 274), (59.0,
274), (60.0, 274), (61.0, 275), (62.0, 275), (63.0, 275), (64.0, 275), (65.0, 273),
(66.0, 274), (67.0, 273), (68.0, 274), (69.0, 273), (70.0, 273), (71.0, 275), (72.0,
276), (73.0, 276), (74.0, 275), (75.0, 275), (76.0, 274), (77.0, 275), (78.0, 274),
(79.0, 275), (80.0, 275), (81.0, 275), (82.0, 276), (83.0, 275), (84.0, 275), (85.0,
275), (86.0, 275), (87.0, 275), (88.0, 275), (89.0, 274), (90.0, 274), (91.0, 274),
(92.0, 274), (93.0, 275), (94.0, 275), (95.0, 274), (96.0, 275), (97.0, 275), (98.0,
274), (99.0, 274), (100, 273), (101, 273), (102, 272), (103, 272), (104, 271), (105,
271), (106, 271), (107, 270), (108, 271), (109, 271), (110, 273), (111, 274), (112,
275), (113, 273), (114, 274), (115, 274), (116, 273), (117, 271), (118, 271), (119,
273), (120, 273), (121, 273), (122, 274), (123, 274), (124, 273), (125, 273), (126,
271), (127, 271), (128, 270), (129, 270), (130, 270), (131, 269), (132, 269), (133,
270), (134, 271), (135, 271), (136, 271), (137, 271), (138, 271), (139, 272), (140,
273), (141, 273), (142, 273), (143, 273), (144, 273), (145, 275), (146, 276), (147,
277), (148, 277), (149, 278), (150, 277), (151, 277), (152, 279), (153, 279), (154,
280), (155, 280), (156, 281), (157, 281), (158, 281), (159, 281), (160, 282), (161,
283), (162, 279), (163, 276), (164, 275), (165, 276), (166, 275), (167, 275), (168,
275), (169, 275), (170, 274), (171, 274), (172, 274), (173, 272), (174, 272), (175,
273), (176, 272), (177, 272), (178, 272), (179, 272), (180, 272), (181, 272), (182,
272), (183, 271), (184, 271), (185, 271), (186, 270), (187, 270), (188, 269), (189,
269), (190, 269), (191, 269), (192, 269), (193, 269), (194, 270), (195, 270), (196,
270), (197, 270), (198, 270), (199, 270), (200, 270), (201, 270), (202, 270), (203,
270), (204, 271), (205, 272), (206, 273), (207, 273), (208, 272), (209, 271), (210,
270), (211, 269), (212, 269), (213, 269), (214, 269), (215, 269), (216, 268), (217,
268), (218, 269), (219, 269), (220, 269), (221, 269), (222, 270), (223, 270), (224,
270), (225, 270), (226, 270), (227, 270), (228, 270), (229, 270), (230, 269), (231,
269), (232, 269), (233, 269), (234, 269), (235, 268), (236, 268), (237, 268), (238,
268), (239, 269), (240, 269), (241, 269), (242, 269), (243, 269), (244, 269), (245,
270), (246, 270), (247, 271), (248, 269), (249, 269), (250, 269), (251, 269), (252,
269), (253, 268), (254, 269), (255, 269), (256, 269), (257, 270), (258, 271), (259,
274), (260, 275), (261, 275), (262, 275), (263, 275), (264, 275), (265, 276), (266,
276), (267, 276), (268, 277), (269, 277), (270, 278), (271, 278), (272, 278), (273,
278), (274, 278), (275, 278), (276, 278), (277, 279), (278, 280), (279, 284), (280,
285), (281, 285), (282, 285), (283, 286), (284, 285), (285, 285), (286, 285), (287,
286), (288, 287), (289, 285), (290, 284), (291, 284), (292, 284), (293, 282), (294,
283), (295, 283), (296, 282), (297, 282), (298, 281), (299, 281), (300, 280), (301,
280), (302, 280), (303, 280), (304, 280), (305, 280), (306, 280), (307, 280), (308,
280), (309, 279), (310, 280), (311, 280), (312, 280), (313, 279), (314, 279), (315,
279), (316, 279), (317, 279), (318, 279), (319, 279), (320, 278), (321, 277), (322,
278), (323, 277), (324, 278), (325, 278), (326, 278), (327, 276), (328, 276), (329,
275), (330, 275), (331, 275), (332, 275), (333, 275), (334, 276), (335, 275), (336,
276), (337, 276), (338, 276), (339, 276), (340, 276), (341, 275), (342, 276), (343,
276), (344, 277), (345, 278), (346, 279), (347, 279), (348, 279), (349, 280), (350,
280), (351, 280), (352, 281), (353, 281), (354, 280), (355, 280), (356, 280), (357,
280), (358, 279), (359, 278), (360, 279), (361, 280), (362, 276), (363, 276), (364,

- 112 -

276),
275),
274),
275),
276),
278),
280),
282),
284),
280),
276),
275),
279),
280),
280),
281),
279),
277),
272),
274),
276),
277),
280),
284),
279),
275),
274),
274),
272),
273),
268),
266),
259),
259),
262),
260),
260),
261),
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268),
266),
267),
266),
273),
276),
278),
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279),
281),
273),
272),
269),
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261),

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275),
275),
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274),
274),
273),
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266),
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260),
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259),
261),
264),
265),
267),
266),
267),
266),
273),
277),
278),
280),
278),
281),
272),
272),
269),
261),
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261),
261),

(366,
(373,
(380,
(387,
(394,
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(415,
(422,
(429,
(436,
(443,
(450,
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(471,
(478,
(485,
(492,
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(506,
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(688,
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(730,
(737,
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275),
274),
275),
274),
276),
279),
281),
283),
285),
280),
276),
276),
279),
280),
280),
281),
278),
276),
271),
274),
276),
277),
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275),
275),
274),
274),
273),
270),
266),
266),
259),
260),
263),
259),
263),
264),
265),
268),
266),
267),
265),
274),
277),
278),
280),
279),
279),
271),
272),
268),
261),
260),
261),
261),

(367,
(374,
(381,
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(738,
(745,
(752,

275),
275),
275),
274),
276),
279),
281),
283),
284),
278),
276),
276),
279),
280),
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271),
275),
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275),
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274),
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269),
259),
259),
260),
260),
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263),
264),
267),
268),
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268),
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280),
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270),
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261),
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(368,
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(634,
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(669,
(676,
(683,
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(697,
(704,
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(718,
(725,
(732,
(739,
(746,
(753,

- 113 -

275),
274),
275),
276),
277),
280),
281),
283),
283),
279),
275),
276),
280),
280),
280),
281),
278),
273),
272),
274),
276),
279),
283),
281),
275),
275),
274),
274),
274),
265),
267),
259),
260),
262),
259),
258),
261),
264),
268),
268),
265),
267),
273),
275),
278),
279),
280),
279),
276),
270),
271),
264),
261),
260),
261),
262),

(369,
(376,
(383,
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(418,
(425,
(432,
(439,
(446,
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(474,
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275),
274),
275),
275),
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276),
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259),
259),
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259),
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265),
268),
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(370,
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274),
274),
275),
275),
278),
280),
282),
284),
281),
278),
275),
278),
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280),
281),
279),
278),
272),
274),
275),
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280),
283),
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275),
274),
274),
273),
273),
267),
265),
259),
259),
262),
259),
260),
261),
265),
268),
267),
267),
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279),
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273),
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(371,
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(623,
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(665,
(672,
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(686,
(693,
(700,
(707,
(714,
(721,
(728,
(735,
(742,
(749,
(756,

262), (757, 263), (758, 264), (759, 264), (760, 264), (761, 264), (762, 263), (763,
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- 118 -

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(1360,
(1366,
(1372,
(1378,
(1384,
(1390,
(1396,
(1402,
(1408,
(1414,
(1420,
(1426,
(1432,

276),
275),
275),
276),
278),
278),
274),
271),
269),
268),
265),
263),
263),
265),
269),
266),
265),
267),
269),
263),
259),
263),
265),
261),
261),
263),
264),
264),
265),
265),
267),
268),
267),
268),
269),
261),
258),
261),
269),
262),
263),
272),
277),
277),
278),
280),
278),
276),
274),
270),
271),
269),
264),
263),
264),
259),

(1433, 259), (1434, 258), (1435, 257), (1436, 257), (1437, 257), (1438, 258),
(1439, 259), (1440, 259), (1441, 259), (1442, 260), (1443, 261), (1444, 262),
(1445, 264), (1446, 264), (1447, 266), (1448, 266), (1449, 267), (1450, 267),
(1451, 266), (1452, 267), (1453, 267), (1454, 267), (1455, 267), (1456, 267),
(1457, 268), (1458, 269), (1459, 268), (1460, 268), (1461, 267), (1462, 267),
(1463, 267), (1464, 267), (1465, 267), (1466, 267), (1467, 267), (1468, 267),
(1469, 267), (1470, 268), (1471, 268), (1472, 268), (1473, 268), (1474, 268),
(1475, 268), (1476, 269), (1477, 269), (1478, 269), (1479, 269), (1480, 269),
(1481, 269), (1482, 268), (1483, 267), (1484, 266), (1485, 265), (1486, 264),
(1487, 264), (1488, 263), (1489, 262), (1490, 261), (1491, 261), (1492, 266),
(1493, 266), (1494, 268), (1495, 270), (1496, 271), (1497, 271), (1498, 273),
(1499, 271), (1500, 272)
Hum_rat__exit_air[compost_pile] = GRAPH(Com_Temp[compost_pile])
(0.00, 0.004), (5.00, 0.005), (10.0, 0.008), (15.0, 0.011), (20.0, 0.015), (25.0,
0.02), (30.0, 0.027), (35.0, 0.037), (40.0, 0.049), (45.0, 0.065), (50.0, 0.087),
(55.0, 0.115), (60.0, 0.153), (65.0, 0.206), (70.0, 0.279), (75.0, 0.386)
k_rate__decomp[compost_pile] = time
Spec_Heat__ext_air[compost_pile] = GRAPH(Com_Temp[compost_pile])
(-50.0, 1.00), (0.00, 1.01), (50.0, 1.01), (100, 1.01)
spec_heat__of_wat_vap = GRAPH(air_temp_c)
(0.00, 1.85), (5.00, 1.86), (10.0, 1.86), (15.0, 1.86), (20.0, 1.86), (25.0, 1.86),
(30.0, 1.87), (35.0, 1.87), (40.0, 1.87), (45.0, 1.87), (50.0, 1.87), (55.0, 1.87),
(60.0, 1.88), (65.0, 1.88), (70.0, 1.88), (75.0, 1.88)
Temp_C_avg = GRAPH(time)
(0.00, 13.0), (1.00, 10.0), (2.00, 11.0), (3.00, 16.0), (4.00, 24.0), (5.01, 20.0),
(6.01, 14.0), (7.01, 11.0), (8.01, 9.00), (9.01, 18.0), (10.0, 24.0), (11.0, 20.0),
(12.0, 13.0), (13.0, 10.0), (14.0, 9.00), (15.0, 17.0), (16.0, 22.0), (17.0, 19.0),
(18.0, 14.0), (19.0, 10.0), (20.0, 12.0), (21.0, 18.0), (22.0, 16.0), (23.0, 9.00),
(24.0, 6.00), (25.0, 5.00), (26.0, 11.0), (27.0, 19.0), (28.0, 17.0), (29.0, 14.0),
(30.0, 13.0), (31.0, 13.0), (32.0, 14.0), (33.0, 12.0), (34.0, 11.0), (35.0, 8.00),
(36.0, 8.00), (37.0, 7.00), (38.0, 7.00), (39.0, 10.0), (40.0, 10.0), (41.0, 8.00),
(42.0, 6.00), (43.0, 3.00), (44.0, 5.00), (45.0, 10.0), (46.0, 9.00), (47.0, 7.00),
(48.0, 5.00), (49.0, 4.00), (50.1, 5.00), (51.1, 7.00), (52.1, 5.00), (53.1, 2.00),
(54.1, -1.00), (55.1, -1.00), (56.1, 2.00), (57.1, 7.00), (58.1, 6.00), (59.1, 4.00),
(60.1, -1.00), (61.1, -2.00), (62.1, 3.00), (63.1, 7.00), (64.1, 7.00), (65.1, 6.00),
(66.1, 7.00), (67.1, 9.00), (68.1, 9.00), (69.1, 6.00), (70.1, 3.00), (71.1, 2.00),
(72.1, 2.00), (73.1, 1.00), (74.1, 3.00), (75.1, 4.00), (76.1, 3.00), (77.1, 2.00),
(78.1, 2.00), (79.1, 2.00), (80.1, 2.00), (81.1, 3.00), (82.1, 3.00), (83.1, 3.00),
(84.1, 3.00), (85.1, 3.00), (86.1, 4.00), (87.1, 6.00), (88.1, 2.00), (89.1, -2.00),
(90.1, 0.00), (91.1, 4.00), (92.1, 7.00), (93.1, 8.00), (94.1, 10.0), (95.1, 11.0),
(96.1, 11.0), (97.1, 11.0), (98.1, 14.0), (99.1, 17.0), (100, 17.0), (101, 12.0), (102,
10.0), (103, 8.00), (104, 8.00), (105, 7.00), (106, 7.00), (107, 7.00), (108, 6.00),
(109, 6.00), (110, 10.0), (111, 11.0), (112, 6.00), (113, 4.00), (114, 4.00), (115,
6.00), (116, 8.00), (117, 8.00), (118, 8.00), (119, 9.00), (120, 8.00), (121, 9.00),
(122, 12.0), (123, 11.0), (124, 5.00), (125, 3.00), (126, 5.00), (127, 12.0), (128,
17.0), (129, 18.0), (130, 18.0), (131, 17.0), (132, 16.0), (133, 16.0), (134, 17.0),
(135, 14.0), (136, 12.0), (137, 8.00), (138, 8.00), (139, 7.00), (140, 7.00), (141,
8.00), (142, 7.00), (143, 8.00), (144, 8.00), (145, 8.00), (146, 9.00), (147, 8.00),
(148, 7.00), (149, 5.00), (150, 3.00), (151, 3.00), (152, 2.00), (153, 2.00), (154,
4.00), (155, 7.00), (156, 8.00), (157, 8.00), (158, 10.0), (159, 12.0), (160, 12.0),
(161, 9.00), (162, 6.00), (163, 6.00), (164, 8.00), (165, 6.00), (166, 5.00), (167,
4.00), (168, 2.00), (169, 4.00), (170, 9.00), (171, 9.00), (172, 7.00), (173, 2.00),
(174, -2.00), (175, -3.00), (176, -2.00), (177, -3.00), (178, -5.00), (179, -8.00),
(180, -5.00), (181, -3.00), (182, 2.00), (183, 0.00), (184, -3.00), (185, -4.00), (186,
-6.00), (187, 1.00), (188, 6.00), (189, 3.00), (190, 2.00), (191, -1.00), (192, -3.00),
(193, 2.00), (194, 3.00), (195, 3.00), (196, 5.00), (197, 7.00), (198, 7.00), (199,

- 120 -

8.00), (200, 12.0), (201, 9.00), (202, 7.00), (203, 10.0), (204, 9.00), (205, 8.00),
(206, 6.00), (207, 3.00), (208, 1.00), (209, -2.00), (210, -4.00), (211, -4.00), (212,
-1.00), (213, -1.00), (214, -3.00), (215, -4.00), (216, -5.00), (217, -3.00), (218,
0.00), (219, -1.00), (220, -5.00), (221, -7.00), (222, -8.00), (223, -3.00), (224,
3.00), (225, 2.00), (226, 0.00), (227, -2.00), (228, -2.00), (229, 1.00), (230, 5.00),
(231, 3.00), (232, 2.00), (233, 2.00), (234, 3.00), (235, 6.00), (236, 9.00), (237,
10.0), (238, 11.0), (239, 12.0), (240, 12.0), (241, 12.0), (242, 13.0), (243, 15.0),
(244, 15.0), (245, 8.00), (246, 6.00), (247, 6.00), (248, 6.00), (249, 6.00), (250,
5.00), (251, 2.00), (252, -1.00), (253, 4.00), (254, 10.0), (255, 6.00), (256, 4.00),
(257, 3.00), (258, 2.00), (259, 3.00), (260, 7.00), (261, 3.00), (262, -1.00), (263, 2.00), (264, -1.00), (265, 11.0), (266, 10.0), (267, 9.00), (268, 9.00), (269, 9.00),
(270, 10.0), (271, 14.0), (272, 12.0), (273, 9.00), (274, 1.00), (275, 2.00), (276,
2.00), (277, 2.00), (278, 0.00), (279, -2.00), (280, -1.00), (281, 0.00), (282, 2.00),
(283, 4.00), (284, 3.00), (285, 0.00), (286, -1.00), (287, -1.00), (288, 7.00), (289,
8.00), (290, 6.00), (291, 6.00), (292, 7.00), (293, 7.00), (294, 7.00), (295, 8.00),
(296, 8.00), (297, 10.0), (298, 10.0), (299, 5.00), (300, 3.00), (301, -1.00), (302,
0.00), (303, 1.00), (304, 3.00), (305, 2.00), (306, 2.00), (307, 2.00), (308, 3.00),
(309, 4.00), (310, 5.00), (311, 4.00), (312, 3.00), (313, 0.00), (314, -1.00), (315, 3.00), (316, -5.00), (317, -6.00), (318, -8.00), (319, -9.00), (320, -10.0), (321, 10.0), (322, -10.0), (323, -9.00), (324, -7.00), (325, -5.00), (326, -7.00), (327, 8.00), (328, -8.00), (329, -7.00), (330, -5.00), (331, -6.00), (332, -8.00), (333, 11.0), (334, -14.0), (335, -13.0), (336, -7.00), (337, -8.00), (338, -12.0), (339, 13.0), (340, -11.0), (341, -11.0), (342, -9.00), (343, -9.00), (344, -9.00), (345, 8.00), (346, -8.00), (347, -8.00), (348, -7.00), (349, -6.00), (350, -6.00), (351, 5.00), (352, -6.00), (353, -8.00), (354, -4.00), (355, -5.00), (356, -11.0), (357, 14.0), (358, -16.0), (359, -15.0), (360, -6.00), (361, -5.00), (362, -11.0), (363, 12.0), (364, -9.00), (365, -3.00), (366, 2.00), (367, 3.00), (368, 3.00), (369, 4.00),
(370, 6.00), (371, 6.00), (372, 6.00), (373, 5.00), (374, 4.00), (375, 2.00), (376, 1.00), (377, -3.00), (378, -2.00), (379, -3.00), (380, -4.00), (381, -8.00), (382, 10.0), (383, -11.0), (384, -8.00), (385, -11.0), (386, -13.0), (387, -16.0), (388, 14.0), (389, -12.0), (390, -7.00), (391, -7.00), (392, -6.00), (393, -5.00), (394, 6.00), (395, -6.00), (396, -5.00), (397, -5.00), (398, -4.00), (399, -7.00), (400, 10.0), (401, -9.00), (402, -3.00), (403, -1.00), (404, 1.00), (405, 3.00), (406, 3.00),
(407, 4.00), (408, 3.00), (409, 1.00), (410, 0.00), (411, -1.00), (412, -1.00), (413, 1.00), (414, -3.00), (415, -3.00), (416, -4.00), (417, -9.00), (418, -8.00), (419, 4.00), (420, -4.00), (421, -4.00), (422, -6.00), (423, -6.00), (424, -7.00), (425, 6.00), (426, -8.00), (427, -10.0), (428, -15.0), (429, -15.0), (430, -7.00), (431, 4.00), (432, -3.00), (433, -2.00), (434, -1.00), (435, -1.00), (436, 0.00), (437,
1.00), (438, 2.00), (439, 3.00), (440, 4.00), (441, 4.00), (442, 3.00), (443, 6.00),
(444, 5.00), (445, 7.00), (446, 6.00), (447, 4.00), (448, 5.00), (449, 7.00), (450,
8.00), (451, 8.00), (452, 5.00), (453, 3.00), (454, 3.00), (455, 1.00), (456, 1.00),
(457, 1.00), (458, 0.00), (459, -1.00), (460, -2.00), (461, -6.00), (462, -8.00), (463,
-8.00), (464, -6.00), (465, -1.00), (466, -4.00), (467, -7.00), (468, -10.0), (469, 11.0), (470, -8.00), (471, 0.00), (472, -3.00), (473, 2.00), (474, 3.00), (475, -1.00),
(476, 3.00), (477, 7.00), (478, 7.00), (479, 8.00), (480, 8.00), (481, 7.00), (482,
5.00), (483, 5.00), (484, 3.00), (485, 2.00), (486, 3.00), (487, 1.00), (488, 1.00),
(489, 3.00), (490, 3.00), (491, 3.00), (492, 2.00), (493, 2.00), (494, 1.00), (496, 1.00), (497, -3.00), (498, -5.00), (499, -6.00), (500, -4.00), (501, -3.00), (502, 1.00), (503, -1.00), (504, 1.00), (505, 2.00), (506, 3.00), (507, 5.00), (508, 7.00),
(509, 7.00), (510, 6.00), (511, 7.00), (512, 4.00), (513, 2.00), (514, -1.00), (515, 2.00), (516, -3.00), (517, -4.00), (518, -6.00), (519, -6.00), (520, -7.00), (521, 7.00), (522, -6.00), (523, -6.00), (524, -6.00), (525, -3.00), (526, -4.00), (527, 8.00), (528, -8.00), (529, -10.0), (530, -9.00), (531, -8.00), (532, -10.0), (533, 14.0), (534, -18.0), (535, -20.0), (536, -20.0), (537, -18.0), (538, -18.0), (539, 21.0), (540, -22.0), (541, -23.0), (542, -23.0), (543, -22.0), (544, -21.0), (545, 21.0), (546, -21.0), (547, -22.0), (548, -22.0), (549, -18.0), (550, -19.0), (551, -

- 121 -

22.0), (552, -23.0), (553, -20.0), (554, -15.0), (555, -11.0), (556, -9.00), (557, 8.00), (558, -7.00), (559, -7.00), (560, -8.00), (561, -11.0), (562, -12.0), (563, 13.0), (564, -13.0), (565, -8.00), (566, -6.00), (567, -12.0), (568, -18.0), (569, 22.0), (570, -24.0), (571, -26.0), (572, -23.0), (573, -22.0), (574, -23.0), (575, 24.0), (576, -26.0), (577, -26.0), (578, -23.0), (579, -22.0), (580, -23.0), (581, 23.0), (582, -22.0), (583, -19.0), (584, -17.0), (585, -15.0), (586, -14.0), (587, 13.0), (588, -16.0), (589, -15.0), (590, -12.0), (591, -12.0), (592, -12.0), (593, 9.00), (594, -7.00), (595, -3.00), (596, -2.00), (597, -2.00), (598, -4.00), (599, 8.00), (600, -11.0), (601, -12.0), (602, -10.0), (603, -11.0), (604, -11.0), (605, 11.0), (606, -12.0), (607, -13.0), (608, -12.0), (609, -11.0), (610, -12.0), (611, 13.0), (612, -14.0), (613, -12.0), (614, -9.00), (615, -13.0), (616, -13.0), (617, 6.00), (618, -10.0), (619, -13.0), (620, -15.0), (621, -16.0), (622, -16.0), (623, 17.0), (624, -17.0), (625, -21.0), (626, -24.0), (627, -21.0), (628, -18.0), (629, 18.0), (630, -19.0), (631, -21.0), (632, -23.0), (633, -19.0), (634, -17.0), (635, 19.0), (636, -23.0), (637, -24.0), (638, -25.0), (639, -19.0), (640, -18.0), (641, 21.0), (642, -21.0), (643, -21.0), (644, -21.0), (645, -18.0), (646, -16.0), (647, 16.0), (648, -14.0), (649, -14.0), (650, -13.0), (651, -13.0), (652, -12.0), (653, 12.0), (654, -11.0), (655, -10.0), (656, -11.0), (657, -9.00), (658, -8.00), (659, 10.0), (660, -12.0), (661, -13.0), (662, -13.0), (663, -12.0), (664, -12.0), (665, 13.0), (666, -16.0), (667, -16.0), (668, -13.0), (669, -11.0), (670, -12.0), (671, 12.0), (672, -15.0), (673, -14.0), (674, -10.0), (675, -6.00), (676, -7.00), (677, 11.0), (678, -9.00), (679, -10.0), (680, -4.00), (681, -4.00), (682, -9.00), (683, 12.0), (684, -6.00), (685, -2.00), (686, 0.00), (687, -1.00), (688, -2.00), (689, 2.00), (690, -1.00), (691, 0.00), (692, -2.00), (693, -3.00), (694, -5.00), (695, 6.00), (696, -7.00), (697, -7.00), (698, -5.00), (699, -6.00), (700, -8.00), (701, 8.00), (702, -8.00), (703, -6.00), (704, -4.00), (705, -2.00), (706, 0.00), (707, 1.00), (708, -1.00), (709, -1.00), (710, -2.00), (711, -7.00), (712, -13.0), (713, 16.0), (714, -15.0), (715, -10.0), (716, -8.00), (717, -8.00), (718, -7.00), (719, 7.00), (720, -4.00), (721, 0.00), (722, 2.00), (723, 1.00), (724, 2.00), (725, 2.00),
(726, 1.00), (727, 1.00), (728, -2.00), (729, -1.00), (730, -2.00), (731, -2.00), (732,
-6.00), (733, -7.00), (734, -9.00), (735, -13.0), (736, -17.0), (737, -13.0), (738, 8.00), (739, -6.00), (740, -7.00), (741, -7.00), (742, -6.00), (743, -3.00), (744,
0.00), (745, 2.00), (746, -1.00), (747, -2.00), (748, -1.00), (749, -1.00), (750,
0.00), (751, -7.00), (752, -12.0), (753, -17.0), (754, -20.0), (755, -19.0), (756, 15.0), (757, -15.0), (758, -18.0), (759, -21.0), (760, -23.0), (761, -17.0), (762, 9.00), (763, -11.0), (764, -15.0), (765, -18.0), (766, -20.0), (767, -14.0), (768, 5.00), (769, -4.00), (770, -5.00), (771, -6.00), (772, -12.0), (773, -8.00), (774, 1.00), (775, -5.00), (776, -11.0), (777, -11.0), (778, -8.00), (779, -4.00), (780, 4.00), (781, -9.00), (782, -11.0), (783, -8.00), (784, -6.00), (785, -1.00), (786, 1.00), (787, -2.00), (788, -1.00), (789, 0.00), (790, -1.00), (791, 1.00), (792, 1.00),
(793, 1.00), (794, 1.00), (795, 1.00), (796, 0.00), (797, -1.00), (798, -2.00), (799, 3.00), (800, -3.00), (801, -7.00), (802, -6.00), (803, -2.00), (804, -3.00), (805, 7.00), (806, -11.0), (807, -14.0), (808, -9.00), (809, -4.00), (810, -7.00), (811, 13.0), (812, -16.0), (813, -16.0), (814, -6.00), (815, -3.00), (816, -6.00), (817, 11.0), (818, -12.0), (819, -12.0), (820, -6.00), (821, -5.00), (822, -8.00), (823, 12.0), (824, -16.0), (825, -16.0), (826, -5.00), (827, -2.00), (828, -5.00), (829, 9.00), (830, -12.0), (831, -11.0), (832, 0.00), (833, 3.00), (834, -1.00), (835, 5.00), (836, -5.00), (837, -4.00), (838, 4.00), (839, 6.00), (840, 5.00), (841, 2.00),
(842, 0.00), (843, -1.00), (844, 5.00), (845, 9.00), (846, 6.00), (847, 8.00), (848,
7.00), (849, 7.00), (850, 7.00), (851, 8.00), (852, 8.00), (853, 6.00), (854, 4.00),
(855, 3.00), (856, 3.00), (857, 3.00), (858, 2.00), (859, 1.00), (860, 1.00), (861,
2.00), (862, 4.00), (863, 6.00), (864, 4.00), (865, 3.00), (866, 2.00), (867, 3.00),
(868, 4.00), (869, 6.00), (870, 7.00), (871, 8.00), (872, 9.00), (873, 10.0), (874,
9.00), (875, 6.00), (876, 2.00), (877, -1.00), (878, -2.00), (879, -2.00), (880, 1.00),
(881, 3.00), (882, 1.00), (883, -1.00), (884, -2.00), (885, -2.00), (886, 1.00), (887,
2.00), (888, 0.00), (889, -2.00), (890, -3.00), (891, -3.00), (892, -1.00), (893,

- 122 -

2.00), (894, -1.00), (895, -2.00), (896, -3.00), (897, -2.00), (898, 4.00), (899,
6.00), (900, 2.00), (901, -2.00), (902, -3.00), (903, -3.00), (904, 5.00), (905, 7.00),
(906, 2.00), (907, -1.00), (908, 1.00), (909, 2.00), (910, 3.00), (911, 2.00), (912,
1.00), (913, -2.00), (914, -4.00), (915, -5.00), (916, -3.00), (917, -2.00), (918, 5.00), (919, -8.00), (920, -10.0), (921, -3.00), (922, 2.00), (923, 3.00), (924, 3.00),
(925, 2.00), (926, 3.00), (927, 3.00), (928, 3.00), (929, 3.00), (930, 1.00), (931, 3.00), (932, -6.00), (933, -5.00), (934, -5.00), (935, -6.00), (936, -7.00), (937, 7.00), (938, -8.00), (939, -6.00), (940, -2.00), (941, -2.00), (942, -3.00), (943, 6.00), (944, -6.00), (945, -3.00), (946, 0.00), (947, 1.00), (948, -2.00), (949, 3.00), (950, -4.00), (951, -2.00), (952, 1.00), (953, 0.00), (954, -3.00), (955, 6.00), (956, -7.00), (957, -1.00), (958, 0.00), (959, 1.00), (960, 2.00), (961, 2.00),
(962, 2.00), (963, 2.00), (964, 0.00), (965, -5.00), (966, -7.00), (967, -9.00), (968,
-13.0), (969, -12.0), (970, -8.00), (971, -7.00), (972, -10.0), (973, -12.0), (974, 9.00), (975, -5.00), (976, 1.00), (977, 1.00), (978, -2.00), (979, -5.00), (980, 8.00), (981, -2.00), (982, 4.00), (983, 7.00), (984, 6.00), (985, 7.00), (986, 8.00),
(987, 9.00), (988, 7.00), (989, 7.00)
Wind_spd_mps_avg = GRAPH(time)
(0.00, 0.75), (1.00, 0.00), (2.00, 0.00), (3.00, 2.25), (4.00, 2.75), (5.01, 0.75),
(6.01, 0.00), (7.01, 0.00), (8.01, 0.00), (9.01, 0.75), (10.0, 4.25), (11.0, 0.75),
(12.0, 0.00), (13.0, 0.00), (14.0, 0.00), (15.0, 4.00), (16.0, 10.0), (17.0, 6.75),
(18.0, 7.50), (19.0, 1.25), (20.0, 4.50), (21.0, 10.5), (22.0, 7.00), (23.0, 0.75),
(24.0, 0.75), (25.0, 0.75), (26.0, 5.50), (27.0, 13.0), (28.0, 13.8), (29.0, 12.5),
(30.0, 13.8), (31.0, 18.0), (32.0, 17.3), (33.0, 18.3), (34.0, 15.5), (35.0, 18.8),
(36.0, 16.3), (37.0, 8.75), (38.0, 10.5), (39.0, 12.8), (40.0, 10.5), (41.0, 8.50),
(42.0, 7.50), (43.0, 0.75), (44.0, 3.25), (45.0, 7.00), (46.0, 2.75), (47.0, 2.00),
(48.0, 1.50), (49.0, 0.00), (50.1, 0.75), (51.1, 3.25), (52.1, 5.50), (53.1, 3.25),
(54.1, 0.75), (55.1, 0.00), (56.1, 0.00), (57.1, 11.3), (58.1, 4.00), (59.1, 0.00),
(60.1, 1.50), (61.1, 0.00), (62.1, 9.25), (63.1, 14.0), (64.1, 10.0), (65.1, 6.00),
(66.1, 7.50), (67.1, 10.8), (68.1, 8.25), (69.1, 16.5), (70.1, 11.3), (71.1, 9.50),
(72.1, 8.50), (73.1, 8.25), (74.1, 10.5), (75.1, 14.3), (76.1, 8.75), (77.1, 7.00),
(78.1, 9.25), (79.1, 7.00), (80.1, 13.0), (81.1, 16.3), (82.1, 12.5), (83.1, 11.3),
(84.1, 9.50), (85.1, 11.8), (86.1, 13.5), (87.1, 10.5), (88.1, 2.75), (89.1, 1.50),
(90.1, 0.00), (91.1, 8.75), (92.1, 12.3), (93.1, 8.75), (94.1, 7.25), (95.1, 11.8),
(96.1, 10.0), (97.1, 6.75), (98.1, 14.8), (99.1, 16.5), (100, 13.0), (101, 3.75), (102,
4.00), (103, 8.75), (104, 8.25), (105, 5.75), (106, 0.00), (107, 7.50), (108, 1.50),
(109, 1.75), (110, 5.00), (111, 8.25), (112, 2.50), (113, 1.25), (114, 1.50), (115,
1.50), (116, 5.75), (117, 6.75), (118, 2.00), (119, 8.75), (120, 5.25), (121, 11.0),
(122, 9.50), (123, 8.25), (124, 2.00), (125, 0.00), (126, 4.25), (127, 12.8), (128,
20.5), (129, 14.5), (130, 13.5), (131, 13.8), (132, 10.8), (133, 10.3), (134, 8.00),
(135, 10.5), (136, 8.25), (137, 3.75), (138, 3.75), (139, 0.00), (140, 0.00), (141,
0.75), (142, 1.25), (143, 0.00), (144, 2.50), (145, 0.75), (146, 2.50), (147, 5.00),
(148, 6.75), (149, 8.00), (150, 8.25), (151, 7.25), (152, 3.00), (153, 6.25), (154,
12.0), (155, 17.0), (156, 16.0), (157, 15.0), (158, 17.5), (159, 10.3), (160, 9.50),
(161, 7.50), (162, 5.75), (163, 7.00), (164, 5.50), (165, 6.00), (166, 3.50), (167,
2.00), (168, 2.00), (169, 3.75), (170, 9.25), (171, 12.8), (172, 12.8), (173, 14.0),
(174, 17.0), (175, 14.5), (176, 17.5), (177, 14.3), (178, 3.25), (179, 0.00), (180,
6.75), (181, 3.75), (182, 10.8), (183, 8.00), (184, 3.50), (185, 0.00), (186, 0.00),
(187, 9.00), (188, 10.0), (189, 6.00), (190, 3.50), (191, 0.75), (192, 0.00), (193,
7.75), (194, 11.0), (195, 18.8), (196, 17.0), (197, 12.0), (198, 8.00), (199, 5.50),
(200, 6.00), (201, 3.25), (202, 6.75), (203, 7.50), (204, 11.3), (205, 16.3), (206,
18.8), (207, 18.3), (208, 19.8), (209, 20.0), (210, 18.3), (211, 23.8), (212, 21.0),
(213, 18.3), (214, 15.5), (215, 12.8), (216, 11.0), (217, 11.3), (218, 9.75), (219,
4.50), (220, 0.00), (221, 0.75), (222, 1.50), (223, 0.75), (224, 1.50), (225, 1.50),
(226, 0.00), (227, 0.75), (228, 0.00), (229, 2.00), (230, 0.75), (231, 0.75), (232,
0.75), (233, 0.75), (234, 1.50), (235, 8.75), (236, 12.5), (237, 11.5), (238, 14.0),
(239, 12.3), (240, 15.3), (241, 11.8), (242, 8.75), (243, 14.5), (244, 15.3), (245,

- 123 -

7.50), (246,
(252, 2.25),
3.00), (259,
(265, 9.50),
15.5), (272,
(278, 2.75),
7.25), (285,
(291, 5.00),
1.50), (298,
(304, 7.00),
17.0), (311,
(317, 13.3),
6.00), (324,
(330, 6.75),
5.00), (337,
(343, 12.5),
16.3), (350,
(356, 1.50),
0.00), (363,
(369, 8.00),
16.3), (376,
(382, 9.25),
4.00), (389,
(395, 17.0),
2.50), (402,
(408, 4.75),
10.5), (415,
(421, 5.00),
5.50), (428,
(434, 12.5),
8.25), (441,
(447, 2.75),
2.50), (454,
(460, 2.25),
0.75), (467,
(473, 7.75),
5.00), (480,
(486, 14.5),
12.3), (493,
(500, 4.50),
12.5), (507,
(513, 12.0),
8.00), (520,
(526, 10.8),
16.8), (533,
(539, 5.75),
8.00), (546,
(552, 0.75),
11.5), (559,
(565, 13.3),
7.75), (572,
(578, 10.5),
12.8), (585,
(591, 2.00),
5.50), (598,
(604, 12.3),

7.00), (247,
(253, 5.75),
3.50), (260,
(266, 5.25),
8.75), (273,
(279, 0.00),
0.00), (286,
(292, 11.0),
9.25), (299,
(305, 14.5),
15.5), (312,
(318, 20.5),
8.25), (325,
(331, 8.00),
6.50), (338,
(344, 17.0),
12.5), (351,
(357, 2.75),
0.00), (364,
(370, 17.5),
17.8), (377,
(383, 15.8),
2.50), (390,
(396, 20.0),
9.25), (403,
(409, 10.0),
12.3), (416,
(422, 3.50),
2.00), (429,
(435, 14.5),
8.75), (442,
(448, 5.50),
1.75), (455,
(461, 0.00),
2.25), (468,
(474, 9.25),
8.50), (481,
(487, 10.8),
13.3), (494,
(501, 6.25),
20.3), (508,
(514, 11.3),
6.25), (521,
(527, 10.8),
18.3), (534,
(540, 6.75),
7.25), (547,
(553, 7.00),
6.50), (560,
(566, 15.5),
6.50), (573,
(579, 15.8),
12.0), (586,
(592, 1.25),
8.25), (599,
(605, 14.0),

8.00), (248,
(254, 0.00),
7.75), (261,
(267, 10.5),
11.3), (274,
(280, 2.00),
0.00), (287,
(293, 5.50),
20.5), (300,
(306, 13.0),
20.8), (313,
(319, 17.0),
13.8), (326,
(332, 1.50),
3.75), (339,
(345, 16.3),
9.75), (352,
(358, 1.50),
2.00), (365,
(371, 11.8),
17.5), (378,
(384, 9.75),
4.00), (391,
(397, 20.0),
8.00), (404,
(410, 6.50),
12.0), (417,
(423, 2.75),
4.50), (430,
(436, 13.0),
4.75), (443,
(449, 5.50),
7.25), (456,
(462, 0.00),
1.50), (469,
(475, 5.25),
10.5), (482,
(488, 1.50),
9.00), (496,
(502, 1.50),
12.0), (509,
(515, 9.25),
2.00), (522,
(528, 8.75),
18.0), (535,
(541, 9.25),
8.00), (548,
(554, 16.0),
6.75), (561,
(567, 21.8),
3.75), (574,
(580, 19.0),
9.00), (587,
(593, 4.00),
10.5), (600,
(606, 12.0),

10.0), (249,
(255, 2.50),
3.75), (262,
(268, 14.8),
4.00), (275,
(281, 8.25),
0.00), (288,
(294, 9.25),
18.3), (301,
(307, 12.3),
15.0), (314,
(320, 16.8),
8.75), (327,
(333, 2.50),
2.25), (340,
(346, 16.5),
6.00), (353,
(359, 1.50),
6.75), (366,
(372, 4.75),
14.0), (379,
(385, 6.00),
7.00), (392,
(398, 18.5),
12.3), (405,
(411, 4.75),
3.75), (418,
(424, 6.25),
15.5), (431,
(437, 14.5),
9.50), (444,
(450, 7.25),
11.8), (457,
(463, 2.00),
1.50), (470,
(476, 6.00),
16.5), (483,
(489, 10.8),
6.50), (497,
(503, 2.25),
9.00), (510,
(516, 6.75),
0.00), (523,
(529, 11.3),
8.25), (536,
(542, 12.0),
6.25), (549,
(555, 19.8),
8.75), (562,
(568, 20.3),
5.50), (575,
(581, 20.3),
7.75), (588,
(594, 6.00),
14.5), (601,
(607, 14.0),

- 124 -

14.5), (250,
(256, 0.75),
0.00), (263,
(269, 13.8),
9.50), (276,
(282, 11.3),
3.75), (289,
(295, 6.00),
16.8), (302,
(308, 9.50),
10.5), (315,
(321, 14.5),
3.25), (328,
(334, 1.25),
3.25), (341,
(347, 16.3),
4.00), (354,
(360, 0.00),
8.75), (367,
(373, 7.00),
11.3), (380,
(386, 5.75),
6.00), (393,
(399, 5.75),
17.8), (406,
(412, 7.25),
4.00), (419,
(425, 7.25),
15.3), (432,
(438, 9.25),
9.50), (445,
(451, 5.50),
9.25), (458,
(464, 5.25),
1.25), (471,
(477, 9.25),
14.8), (484,
(490, 16.5),
4.50), (498,
(504, 5.75),
7.00), (511,
(517, 7.00),
7.50), (524,
(530, 11.0),
7.25), (537,
(543, 7.50),
4.75), (550,
(556, 18.0),
7.75), (563,
(569, 15.8),
6.25), (576,
(582, 15.5),
6.50), (589,
(595, 13.8),
13.5), (602,
(608, 13.0),

9.00), (251,
(257, 2.50),
0.00), (264,
(270, 15.0),
12.3), (277,
(283, 10.3),
4.50), (290,
(296, 0.00),
18.3), (303,
(309, 14.3),
9.50), (316,
(322, 8.50),
4.50), (329,
(335, 0.75),
6.50), (342,
(348, 15.8),
5.00), (355,
(361, 1.50),
9.75), (368,
(374, 12.5),
15.0), (381,
(387, 3.75),
4.50), (394,
(400, 2.00),
12.8), (407,
(413, 14.3),
5.75), (420,
(426, 4.75),
12.5), (433,
(439, 6.50),
12.0), (446,
(452, 4.25),
11.3), (459,
(465, 3.25),
6.25), (472,
(478, 9.00),
10.5), (485,
(491, 15.3),
2.75), (499,
(505, 8.25),
7.25), (512,
(518, 9.50),
7.25), (525,
(531, 13.5),
8.50), (538,
(544, 7.50),
4.75), (551,
(557, 12.0),
3.75), (564,
(570, 14.8),
4.00), (577,
(583, 11.8),
3.25), (590,
(596, 12.3),
16.0), (603,
(609, 11.0),

2.50),
(258,
0.00),
(271,
11.3),
(284,
3.50),
(297,
10.8),
(310,
10.3),
(323,
3.50),
(336,
9.50),
(349,
2.75),
(362,
9.50),
(375,
10.8),
(388,
10.3),
(401,
9.75),
(414,
5.25),
(427,
12.0),
(440,
10.8),
(453,
9.75),
(466,
1.50),
(479,
7.25),
(492,
1.50),
(506,
11.3),
(519,
10.5),
(532,
7.50),
(545,
4.25),
(558,
4.50),
(571,
4.25),
(584,
2.00),
(597,
9.75),
(610,

7.00), (611,
(617, 11.3),
9.00), (624,
(630, 14.0),
1.50), (637,
(643, 5.25),
0.75), (650,
(656, 7.25),
7.00), (663,
(669, 6.00),
3.50), (676,
(682, 0.75),
4.50), (689,
(695, 12.8),
1.25), (702,
(708, 1.25),
9.75), (715,
(721, 12.8),
4.25), (728,
(734, 6.75),
0.75), (741,
(747, 7.00),
9.00), (754,
(760, 0.00),
0.75), (767,
(773, 0.75),
6.50), (780,
(786, 2.50),
3.75), (793,
(799, 8.00),
1.50), (806,
(812, 0.00),
0.00), (819,
(825, 0.00),
0.75), (832,
(838, 8.75),
5.25), (845,
(851, 9.25),
6.25), (858,
(864, 2.75),
21.0), (871,
(877, 16.5),
6.00), (884,
(890, 5.25),
0.00), (897,
(903, 2.25),
0.00), (910,
(916, 16.0),
13.5), (923,
(929, 9.75),
11.0), (936,
(942, 5.25),
2.25), (949,
(955, 2.75),
10.8), (962,
(968, 12.0),

1.50), (612,
(618, 19.3),
9.50), (625,
(631, 11.8),
0.75), (638,
(644, 2.25),
0.75), (651,
(657, 13.8),
9.00), (664,
(670, 6.00),
0.00), (677,
(683, 0.75),
2.25), (690,
(696, 14.8),
2.00), (703,
(709, 5.25),
9.00), (716,
(722, 16.0),
3.00), (729,
(735, 3.75),
1.50), (742,
(748, 8.50),
4.00), (755,
(761, 4.25),
3.00), (768,
(774, 5.25),
5.00), (781,
(787, 4.50),
1.25), (794,
(800, 12.0),
0.00), (807,
(813, 0.00),
2.00), (820,
(826, 10.0),
3.00), (833,
(839, 10.5),
4.50), (846,
(852, 11.0),
0.75), (859,
(865, 0.75),
20.3), (872,
(878, 13.8),
2.50), (885,
(891, 7.00),
2.00), (898,
(904, 6.25),
7.75), (911,
(917, 14.0),
13.5), (924,
(930, 11.3),
8.50), (937,
(943, 0.00),
2.50), (950,
(956, 1.25),
3.75), (963,
(969, 12.5),

0.75), (613,
(619, 12.8),
2.75), (626,
(632, 5.25),
0.00), (639,
(645, 0.75),
6.00), (652,
(658, 16.3),
6.75), (665,
(671, 4.25),
0.00), (678,
(684, 5.50),
8.00), (691,
(697, 8.25),
4.00), (704,
(710, 12.3),
5.00), (717,
(723, 9.25),
3.50), (730,
(736, 0.75),
3.00), (743,
(749, 7.50),
5.50), (756,
(762, 6.50),
13.5), (769,
(775, 8.00),
0.75), (782,
(788, 10.5),
0.00), (795,
(801, 6.00),
0.75), (808,
(814, 7.50),
11.5), (821,
(827, 8.50),
4.25), (834,
(840, 4.50),
4.00), (847,
(853, 10.3),
0.00), (860,
(866, 0.75),
17.5), (873,
(879, 8.00),
1.50), (886,
(892, 7.00),
3.50), (899,
(905, 8.25),
11.8), (912,
(918, 3.75),
20.3), (925,
(931, 10.0),
9.00), (938,
(944, 0.00),
6.25), (951,
(957, 14.5),
5.25), (964,
(970, 13.5),

2.50), (614,
(620, 13.8),
1.25), (627,
(633, 3.50),
8.50), (640,
(646, 4.50),
3.25), (653,
(659, 15.0),
5.50), (666,
(672, 1.50),
0.00), (679,
(685, 12.0),
12.0), (692,
(698, 6.75),
6.00), (705,
(711, 18.0),
12.3), (718,
(724, 9.00),
6.00), (731,
(737, 0.00),
6.50), (744,
(750, 12.3),
1.25), (757,
(763, 9.50),
13.3), (770,
(776, 1.50),
0.00), (783,
(789, 7.00),
5.00), (796,
(802, 2.75),
3.50), (809,
(815, 8.25),
9.25), (822,
(828, 2.25),
1.50), (835,
(841, 0.00),
9.75), (848,
(854, 9.25),
2.25), (861,
(867, 5.75),
10.3), (874,
(880, 6.25),
4.50), (887,
(893, 8.50),
2.50), (900,
(906, 1.50),
10.0), (913,
(919, 1.50),
18.3), (926,
(932, 8.00),
7.75), (939,
(945, 6.00),
8.50), (952,
(958, 11.8),
13.0), (965,
(971, 11.0),

- 125 -

1.50), (615,
(621, 14.3),
4.00), (628,
(634, 4.50),
11.0), (641,
(647, 0.75),
2.00), (654,
(660, 15.3),
1.50), (667,
(673, 0.00),
0.00), (680,
(686, 13.5),
14.8), (693,
(699, 7.25),
6.50), (706,
(712, 13.8),
10.0), (719,
(725, 9.00),
8.50), (732,
(738, 2.75),
10.3), (745,
(751, 15.8),
5.75), (758,
(764, 4.75),
9.50), (771,
(777, 0.00),
0.00), (784,
(790, 6.75),
8.25), (797,
(803, 4.50),
7.75), (810,
(816, 0.00),
4.25), (823,
(829, 3.75),
0.00), (836,
(842, 0.00),
11.8), (849,
(855, 6.75),
4.00), (862,
(868, 8.75),
10.5), (875,
(881, 3.25),
7.75), (888,
(894, 4.50),
1.50), (901,
(907, 0.75),
13.0), (914,
(920, 1.25),
11.8), (927,
(933, 9.00),
8.25), (940,
(946, 7.25),
8.75), (953,
(959, 10.0),
12.8), (966,
(972, 4.75),

0.00), (616,
(622, 12.3),
7.75), (629,
(635, 2.75),
8.00), (642,
(648, 5.00),
5.25), (655,
(661, 11.8),
2.25), (668,
(674, 0.75),
4.75), (681,
(687, 7.50),
11.8), (694,
(700, 2.75),
7.00), (707,
(713, 8.50),
9.50), (720,
(726, 7.50),
15.5), (733,
(739, 3.25),
11.0), (746,
(752, 14.5),
3.50), (759,
(765, 1.50),
3.75), (772,
(778, 1.25),
0.00), (785,
(791, 5.75),
10.5), (798,
(804, 7.00),
5.25), (811,
(817, 0.00),
1.25), (824,
(830, 0.75),
1.25), (837,
(843, 0.00),
13.3), (850,
(856, 7.50),
5.25), (863,
(869, 15.3),
16.8), (876,
(882, 4.25),
6.50), (889,
(895, 0.75),
1.50), (902,
(908, 2.50),
11.5), (915,
(921, 7.50),
9.75), (928,
(934, 13.8),
8.00), (941,
(947, 5.75),
6.50), (954,
(960, 17.3),
17.0), (967,
(973, 2.50),

4.50),
(623,
13.3),
(636,
1.50),
(649,
4.25),
(662,
7.50),
(675,
3.50),
(688,
9.50),
(701,
2.75),
(714,
15.8),
(727,
14.3),
(740,
3.00),
(753,
0.00),
(766,
0.00),
(779,
1.75),
(792,
12.8),
(805,
0.00),
(818,
0.00),
(831,
2.00),
(844,
14.3),
(857,
4.25),
(870,
14.5),
(883,
5.75),
(896,
0.00),
(909,
13.0),
(922,
14.8),
(935,
9.00),
(948,
0.75),
(961,
17.3),
(974,

12.0), (975, 17.5), (976, 19.0), (977, 14.0), (978, 5.25), (979, 0.75), (980, 0.75),
(981, 3.50), (982, 9.25), (983, 6.75), (984, 2.50), (985, 9.25), (986, 13.3), (987,
16.8), (988, 11.0), (989, 11.3)

- 126 -

Simulation Model Diagram


k rate
decomp

k adjust

k rate static

min mass
percentage
Min mass

Dry Compost mass

Therm Val
for decomp
Com Temp

decomp loss

initial dry
mass

compost energy
useful energy
C heat prod

compost mass

moist percent

moist
ratio

Cp of C

heat
removal

HL W

initial water
content

heat removal
in MJ

rad con loss


percentage
Rad con
loss?

heat for
warming

C water

heat removal
in MJ

Wetting
kg air per
kg dry matter

Com Temp

evap from C

~
Hum rat
exit air

metabolic
generation

heat
removal

Wetting

wat gen coef

Spec Heat
ext air

kg air needed
for heat removal

dry matter decomp


needed for g house

Enthalpy of
exit air rel
to entry air

outside air

Specific
Volume

density

Heat of
vap of wat

constant press

Delta T 2

pp of
wat vap

v per day
per kg
volume per
second

WatVapPress 2

temp in C

Wat Vap
Press web

Volume needed
for heat removal

DEW Temp K

air temp K 2

Air density 2

initial dry
mass

kg air needed
for heat removal

constfor air

ext temp

decomp loss

Cp of C

pressure

spec heat
of wat vap

rel
hum

Power

delta w

air temp c
Power flow

const vap press 2

greenhouse heat loss


k factor

delta T
int temp

Hum Rat Iinfil air


stand heat
loss roof

stand heat
loss end

Int temp F
C val dble poly
heat loss

Noname 1

co2 need

Therm Val
Heat loss
dry matter decomp
for decomp
MJ
needed for g house

- 127 -

~
~
Wind spd
Temp C avg
mps avg

Wind speed
in mph

greenhouse
volume

fan efficiency

Total Power

constfor air 2
~
Atmospheric
Pressure 2

fan power

Temp F

g house
dimensions

g house total
heat loss

dry matter
needed

CO2
Co2 loss

Metabolic generation of water


CO2 Prod

Met Gen Wat

initial dry
mass
pile heat loss wetting

Therm Val
for decomp

Total CO2

Wetting flow

Water needed
for wetting

pile heat wett


HL W

metabolic
generation

decomp loss
CO2 loss to air

total actual
DM needed

heat loss
flow

Heat loss
MJ

Total CO2 Flow

actual dry
matter needed

Dry Matter Needed


For Greenhouse

Wetting

compost evap

evaped wat

Total water evaped

~
Hum rat
exit air

pile rad heat

Rad con
loss?

Total evap

evap from C

pile heat loss radiate

Cum air needed

pile heat prod flow Pile heat production


Noname 5

kg air needed
for heat removal
air needed
C heat prod
Total heat
removal

total yearly heat

PIle heat removal

Noname 3

kg air needed
for heat removal

Pile heat
removal flow

cum volume

heat removal
in MJ
heat removal
in MJ

Total decomp

Total decomp flow

cum vol flow

Volume needed
for heat removal

pile volumes

decomp loss
pile vol flow

- 128 -

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