Lecture 03 AC Circuits

CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Introduction to AC Circuits
AC Waveforms
AC Values
Complex Numbers Review
AC Circuits
Impedance Concept
Apparent Power & Power Triangle
Series-Parallel Circuits
1
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1 Introduction to AC Circuits
AC Signal
AC Circuit
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Figure 1: Various sources of AC power:

(a) thermal plant
(b) portable ac generator
3
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Figure 2: Various sources of ac power:

(c) windmill
(d) solar panel
(e) function generator
4
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1 Introduction to AC Circuits

Generating AC Voltages
One way to generate an AC voltage is to rotate a coil of wire at
constant angular velocity in a fixed magnetic field, Figure 3.
(Slip rings and brushes connect the coil to the load).
The magnitude of the resulting voltage is proportional to the
rate at which flux lines are cut (Faradays law), and its polarity
is dependent on the direction the coil sides move through the
field.
Since the rate of cutting flux varies with time, the resulting
voltage will also vary with time.
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Figure 3: Generating an AC voltage.

(b) 90 Position: Coil end A is
(a) 0 Position: Coil sides move
positive with respect to B.
parallel to flux lines. Since no flux
Current direction is out of slip
is being cut, induced voltage is zero.
ring A.
6
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.1
Figure 3: Generating an AC voltage.

(c) 180 Position: Coil again cutting (d) 270 Position: Voltage polarity
no flux. Induced voltage is zero.
has reversed, therefore, current
direction reverses.
7
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
Figure 4 : Coil voltage versus angular position.
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
Waveform Frequency, Period, Amplitude, and Peak Value

Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular
intervals), regardless of their wave shape, may be described by
a group of attributes such as frequency, period, amplitude,
instantaneous value and so on.
Frequency
The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined as
its frequency.
10
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
Figure 5 : Frequency measured in hertz (Hz)
11
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Examples of frequency range.
Power line frequencies

Audible
Standard AM radio band
FM band
TV transmissions
Optical and X-ray
50 Hz, 60 Hz
20 Hz - 20 kHz.
550 kHz - 1.6 MHz
88 MHz - 108 MHz
54-MHz - 890-MHz
Above 300 GHz.
12
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Period
The period, T, of a waveform, (shown below) is the duration
of one cycle. It is the inverse of frequency, f.
1
T
f
or
1
f
T
Period, T is the duration of one cycle,

measured in seconds.
13
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Amplitude and Peak-to-Peak Value
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance from zero
crossing to the peak whereas the peak to peak values is
distance between peak and trough.
14
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
The Basic Sine Waveform Equation
The voltage sine waveform equation is indicated in the figure
shown below
15
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
The wave equation is given by: e Em sin

where;
e = instantaneous value,
Em = maximum value and
= angular position of the coil.
Also,
t 2ft
Then,
e Em sin t Em sin 2ft
16
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2 AC Waveforms
Phase Difference.
Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between
different waveforms of the same frequency.
Consider Figure 6.
If the angular displacement is 0as in (a), the waveforms are
said to be in phase; otherwise, they are out of phase. When
describing a phase difference, select one waveform as
reference. Other waveforms then lead, lag, or are in phase
with this reference.
17
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
Figure 6 : Illustrating phase difference (*voltage is taken as reference).
18
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors as

shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 : Defining lead and lag.

19
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.2
AC Waveforms
Consider an example below where voltage and current are out

of phase by 40, and voltage lags. Using current as the
reference, the sketches are shown below.
20
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3 AC Values
Average Value
to find the average value of a waveform, divide the area under
the waveform by the length of its base. Areas above the axis
are counted as positive, while areas below the axis are counted
as negative.
This approach is valid regardless of wave shape. Average
values are also called DC values, because DC meters indicate
average values rather than instantaneous values.
area under the curve

average value
length of its base
21
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3
AC Values
For a sinusoidal voltage or current waveform,

T
Eave
e(t )dt
T
For half wave,
Eave
Eave
and
I ave
1 T
Em sin t dt
T 0
Em
Im
Em sin t dt
0.318Em
0.318I m
22
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3
AC Values
For full-wave,
1
Eave Em sin t dt
Therefore,
Eave
2 Em
0.637 Em
and
I ave
2I m
0.637 I m
23
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3 AC Values
Effective (Root Mean Square, RMS) Value
An effective value is an equivalent dc value: it tells you how
many volts or amps of dc that a time-varying waveform is
equal to in terms of its ability to produce average power.
effective value, RMS
area under the squared curve

length of its base
24
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.3
AC Values
Eeff
e (t )dt
2 Em2 sin 2 t dt
0
1
1
2
sin
t
d
sin 2t
2
4
Therefore,
Eeff
Em
0.707 Em
2
and
I eff
Im
0.707 I m
2
25
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
A complex number is a number of the form

,
C = a + jb
Real Numbers
*(In circuit theory, j is used to denote the imaginary

component rather than i to avoid confusion with current i.)
26
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4 Complex Numbers Review

Geometrical Representation
Complex numbers may be represented geometrically, either in
rectangular form or in polar form as points on a twodimensional plane called the complex plane.
The complex number C = 6 + j8, for example, represents a
point whose coordinate on the real axis is 6 and whose
coordinate on the imaginary axis is 8. This form of
representation is called the rectangular form. Complex
numbers may also be represented in polar form by magnitude
and angle.
27
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Figure 8a: Complex number

in rectangular form.
Figure 8b : Complex
number in polar form.
28
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS

Conversion between Rectangular and Polar Forms
To convert between forms, note from Figure 9 that:
Rectangular form = C a jb
Polar form = C C
where a C cos
b C sin
Therefore C a 2 b 2
and
b
tan 1
a
Figure 9: Rectangular and

Polar Forms
29
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Powers of j
Powers of j are frequently required in calculations. Here are
some useful powers:
30
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS

Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers
Example
Given A = 2 + j1 and B = 1 + j3. Determine their sum
difference analytically and graphically.
and
31
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

These operations are usually performed in polar form.
For multiplication, multiply magnitudes and add angles
algebraically.
For division, divide the magnitude of the denominator into the
magnitude of the numerator, then subtract algebraically the
angle of the denominator from that of the numerator.
Thus, given A A A and B B B
A.B AB( A B )
Multiplication of
Complex Numbers
A A
( A B )
B B
Division of Complex
Numbers
32
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Reciprocals
The reciprocal of a complex number C C is
1
1
( )
C C
Complex Conjugates
The conjugate of a complex number (denoted by an asterisk *)
is a complex number with the same real part but the opposite
imaginary part.
33
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.4
Thus, the conjugate of C = C = a + jb is C* = C- = a - jb.

For example, if C = 3 + j4 = 553.13, then C* = 3 - j4 = 553.13.
34
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i. Purely resistive circuit

ii. Purely inductive circuit
iii. Purely capacitive circuit
35
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
Purely Resistive Circuit
(a) Source voltage is a sine

wave. Therefore, vR is a sine
wave.
(b) iR = vR/R. Therefore

iR is a sine wave.
Figure 10 : Ohms law applies to resistors. Note that current and

voltage are in phase.
36
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
For a purely resistive circuit, current and voltage are in phase.
Vm sin t
vR
iR
I m sin t
R
R
Vm
Im
R
37
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
Figure 11: Power to a purely resistive load. The peak value of p is

VmIm.
Instantaneous power is always positive which

means R is always dissipating energy as heat
38
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
i.
The instantaneous power is given by
Vm I m
1 cos 2t
p
2
and the average power is

Vm I m
P
VI (watts, W)
2
also,
2
V
P I 2R
R
(watts, W)
39
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
Inductor
Inductance is the property of a conductor which causes emf

(voltage) to be produced by a change in current flowing
through it
Used in:
Electronics : switched mode power supply as energy storage devices
Electrical : transformers
Telecommunication : communication circuit electrical noise reduction.
40
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Purely Inductive Circuit
d ( I m sin t )
di
vL L L
dt
dt
LI m cos t
Since cos = sin (t+90),
vL Vm sin(t 90)
Vm LI m
Voltage vL is proportional to
the rate of change of current iL.
The faster the current changes,
the larger the induced voltage.
41
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
For a purely inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 90.
For inductance, current lags voltage

by 90. Here iL is reference.
Phasors showing the

90 lag of current.
42
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Inductive Reactance
Vm LI m X L I m
Vm
XL
Im
Also,
X L 2fL
43
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Inductive Reactance
the opposition to the flow of current, which results in the
continual interchange of energy between the source and the
magnetic field of the inductor.
unlike resistance (which dissipates energy in the form of
heat), does not dissipate electrical energy (ignoring the effects
of the internal resistance of the inductor).
44
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.
Power to an Inductive Load
Figure 12 : Power to a purely inductive load. Energy stored during each

quarter cycle is returned during the next quarter-cycle. Average power is
zero.
45
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
ii.

With v = Vmsin(t + 90) and i = Imsin t, pL = vi becomes
where :
pL VI sin 2t
V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the

voltage and current respectively.
The average power over a period, PL = 0.
The reactive power (associated with a pure inductor), QL is given by:
QL VI (reactive voltamperes, VArs)
V2
QL I X L
XL
2
(reactive voltamperes, VArs)

46
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
Capacitor
Capacitance is the ability of a body to store electrical charge (Q)

Used in:
Electronics : signal coupling by blocking DC signal while allowing
AC signal to pass
Electrical : power factor correction
Telecommunication : tune radios to particular frequencies in the
resonant circuits.
47
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
Purely Capacitance Circuit
For capacitance, current is proportional to the rate of change of
voltage.
dvc
d
ic c
c Vm sin t CVm cos t
dt
dt
I m cos t I m sin t 90
Vm
1
I m CVm
, Xc
, C in farad (f)
Xc
C
1x106
or X c
, C in microfarad ( F)
2 fC
48
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
Capacitive reactance, Xc is the opposition to the flow of
charge, which results in the continual interchange of energy
between the source and the electric field of the capacitor.
Like the inductor, the capacitor does not dissipate energy in
any form (ignoring the effects of the leakage resistance).
49
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
Figure 13: For capacitance, current always leads voltage by 90.

50
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.5
AC Circuits
iii.
Figure 14: For capacitance, current always leads voltage by 90.
51
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
To remember which leads/lags which:

ELI and ICE
52
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
The opposition that a circuit element presents to current in the

phasor domain is defined as its impedance.
It is measured in ohms and is a measure of how much the
element will impede the flow of charge through the network.
V
(ohms)
I
V V

I
I
Z Z
53
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
Impedance consists of:

Resistance elements
Capacitance elements
Inductance elements
54
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
Resistance
For a pure resistance (Figure below), voltage and current are in
phase. Thus, if voltage has an angle v, current will have the
same angle.
VR VR VR
ZR
0 R
I
I
I
ZR R
55
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
Inductance
For a pure inductance, current lags voltage by 90. Assuming
a 0 angle for voltage (we can assume any reference we want
because we are interested only in the angle between VL and I),
we can write VL = VL0 and I = I90.
VL
VL 0
ZL
I
I 90
VL
90 jL
I
Z L jL jX L
XL=inductive reactance
56
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.6
Impedance Concept
Capacitance
For a pure capacitance, current leads voltage by 90.
VC VC 0
ZC
I
I90
1
1
90 j
(ohms )
C
C
1
ZC j
jX C (ohms )
C
XC=capacitive reactance
57
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.7
Apparent Power and Power Triangle
Apparent Power
When a load has voltage V across it and current I through it as
shown below, the power that appears to flow to it is VI (with no
concern for the components of the load).
S VI (VA)
2
V
S I 2Z
(VA)
Z
VI
S
(kVA)
1000
58
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.7
Apparent Power
P 2 QL
S P jQL
S S
If the circuit is capacitive instead of inductive,
S P jQC
P=real power
Q=reactive power
S=apparent power
59
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.7
Power triangle for capacitive case.
60
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.7 Apparent Power and Power Triangle

The power relationships may be written
generalized forms as = + and =
in
where P = P0, QL = jQL, QC = jQC, and I* is the

conjugate of current I. These relationships hold true
for all networks regardless of what they contain or
how they are configured.
61
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Series-Parallel Circuit
= 0 = + 0 =
= 90 = 0 + =
= 90 = 0 =
For a series ac circuit consisting of n impedances, the total

impedance, ZT is
= + ++
62
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
The rectangular form of an impedance is written as

=
= 2 + 2 ()
= 1
63
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Basic of Series-Parallel Circuit

Both AC and DC may consists of series, parallel or/and series
& parallel circuit.
As an introduction, lets examine the DC circuits where the
types of DC circuits are:
i. Series
ii. Parallel
iii. Series & Parallel
64
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
DC : Resistor in Series
Total resistor can be determined:
The power dissipated by each resistor is
determined as:
65
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
DC : Resistor in Series - Important LAWs

1. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
The summation of voltage rises and voltage drops around a
closed loop is equal to zero.
Alternatively, the summation of voltage rises is equal to the

summation of voltage drops around a closed loop.
66
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8

1. Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
E V1 V2 V3 0
or
E V1 V2 V3
67
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8

2. The Voltage Divider Rule
The voltage dropped across any series resistor is proportional
to the magnitude of the resistor. The total voltage dropped
across all resistors must equal the applied voltage source(s)
by KVL.
R2
V2
E
R1 R2
68
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
DC : Voltage Source in Series
69
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
DC : Resistor in Parallel
Elements or branches are said to be in a parallel connection when
they have exactly two nodes in common.
+
1 2
-
+
2
-
70
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
71
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
The voltage across all parallel elements in a circuit will be the
same.
1 = 2 = 3 = = =
An important effect of combining parallel resistors is that the
resultant resistance, RT will always be smaller than the smallest
resistor in the combination.
72
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
Two Resistors in Parallel
Three Resistors in Parallel
Dont memorise!!!
73
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
DC : Resistor in Parallel - Important LAWs

1. Kirchhoffs Current Law
The summation of currents entering a node is equal to the
summation of currents leaving the node.
I1 I 5 I 2 I 3 I 4
74
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
DC : Resistor in Parallel - Important LAWs

2. Current Divider Rule
75
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
DC : Resistors Series & Parallel
76
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
AC Circuit
i. Series (RL, RC and RLC)
ii. Parallel (RL, RC and RLC)
77
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
i. AC RL Series
R
Using Ohms Law
= sin =
Total Impedance : = +
Using Ohms Law : =

= =
Voltage at Resistor, VR and Inductor, VL

= ,
+ =
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

78
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
i. AC RL Series
R
Real Power, P
= + = +
= 0 + 90
=
Reactive Power, Q
2
= 2 =
79
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
i. AC RC Series
R
= sin = = =
Total Impedance : = +
Using Ohms Law : =
Voltage at Resistor, VR and Capacitor, VC
= ,
+ =

80
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
i. AC RC Series
R
Real Power, P
= + = +
= 0 + (90)
=
Reactive Power, Q
2
= 2 =
81
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
i. AC RLC Series
= sin( ) =
Total Impedance : = + +
Using Ohms Law : =

= = =
Voltage at Resistor, VR, Inductor, VL and Capacitor, VC

,
= , = and =
+ + =

82
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
i. AC RLC Series
Real Power, P
= + +
= + +
= 0 + 90 + (90)
Reactive Power, Q
= +
= 2 =
83
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
ii. AC RL Parallel
= sin = = =
Total Impedance :

= =
+
Using Ohms Law : =
Current at Resistor, IR and Inductor, IL
= ,
=
+ =
Kirchhoff's
Current Law
84
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
ii. AC RL Parallel
Real Power, P
= +
= +
= 0 + 90
2
= =
Reactive Power, Q
=
= 2 =
85
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
ii. AC RC Parallel
= sin = = +
Total Impedance :

= =
+
Using Ohms Law : = = =
Current at Resistor, IR and Capacitor, IC
= ,
=
+ =
Kirchhoff's
Current Law
86
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
ii. AC RC Parallel
Real Power, P
= +
= +
= 0 + cos(90)
2
= =
Reactive Power, Q
=
= 2 =
87
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
ii. AC RLC Parallel
Total Impedance :
=

=
+ +
= sin = = = =
Using Ohms Law : =
Current at Resistor, IR , Inductor, IL and Capacitor, IC
= , =
=
+ + =
Kirchhoff's Current Law
88
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
ii. AC RLC Parallel
Real Power, P
= + +
= + +
= 0 + 90 + cos(90)
Reactive Power, Q
= +
89
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

The basic format for the current divider rule in ac circuits is
exactly the same as that for dc circuits; that is, for two parallel
branches with impedances Z1 and Z2
90
CHAPTER 3
AC CIRCUITS
3.8
CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

Example
Using the current divider rule, find the current through each
impedance
91

Lecture 03 AC Circuits

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CHAPTER 3

3.1 Introduction to AC Circuits

Figure 1: Various sources of AC power:

Figure 2: Various sources of ac power:

3.1 Introduction to AC Circuits

Figure 3: Generating an AC voltage.

Figure 3: Generating an AC voltage.

Figure 4 : Coil voltage versus angular position.

Waveform Frequency, Period, Amplitude, and Peak Value

Figure 5 : Frequency measured in hertz (Hz)

Power line frequencies

Period, T is the duration of one cycle,

The wave equation is given by: e Em sin

e Em sin t Em sin 2ft

Figure 6 : Illustrating phase difference (*voltage is taken as reference).

The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors as

Figure 7 : Defining lead and lag.

Consider an example below where voltage and current are out

area under the curve

For a sinusoidal voltage or current waveform,

For half wave,

area under the squared curve

Complex Numbers Review

A complex number is a number of the form

*(In circuit theory, j is used to denote the imaginary

3.4 Complex Numbers Review

Complex Numbers Review

Figure 8a: Complex number

3.4 Complex Numbers Review

Figure 9: Rectangular and

Complex Numbers Review

3.4 Complex Numbers Review

Complex Numbers Review

Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

Complex Numbers Review

Complex Numbers Review

Thus, the conjugate of C = C = a + jb is C* = C- = a - jb.

i. Purely resistive circuit

Purely Resistive Circuit

(a) Source voltage is a sine

(b) iR = vR/R. Therefore

Figure 10 : Ohms law applies to resistors. Note that current and

Purely Resistive Circuit

Figure 11: Power to a purely resistive load. The peak value of p is

Instantaneous power is always positive which

and the average power is

Inductance is the property of a conductor which causes emf

Purely Inductive Circuit

For inductance, current lags voltage

Phasors showing the

Figure 12 : Power to a purely inductive load. Energy stored during each

Purely Inductive Circuit

V and I are the magnitudes of the rms values of the

(reactive voltamperes, VArs)

Capacitance is the ability of a body to store electrical charge (Q)

Purely Capacitance Circuit

Figure 13: For capacitance, current always leads voltage by 90.

Purely Capacitance Circuit

Figure 14: For capacitance, current always leads voltage by 90.

To remember which leads/lags which:

The opposition that a circuit element presents to current in the

Impedance consists of:

Apparent Power and Power Triangle

Apparent Power and Power Triangle