Phonon

For KDE Software Compilation 4's and KDE Frame- 1 Denition

works 5's multimedia framework, see Phonon (software).
For Phonon Communications or Phonon.in company, see A phonon is a quantum mechanical description of an elPhonon Communications.
ementary vibrational motion in which a lattice of atoms
In physics, a phonon is a collective excitation in a or molecules uniformly oscillates at a single frequency.[2]
In classical mechanics this designates a normal mode
of vibration. Normal modes are important because
any arbitrary lattice vibration can be considered to be
a superposition of these elementary vibration modes
(cf. Fourier analysis). While normal modes are wavelike phenomena in classical mechanics, phonons have
particle-like properties too, in a way related to the wave
particle duality of quantum mechanics.

2 Lattice dynamics
The equations in this section do not use axioms of quantum mechanics but instead use relations for which there
exists a direct correspondence in classical mechanics.
For example: a rigid regular, crystalline (not amorphous),
lattice is composed of N particles. These particles may
be atoms or molecules. N is a large number, say ~1023 ,
or on the order of Avogadros number for a typical sample of a solid. Since the lattice is rigid, the atoms must be
exerting forces on one another to keep each atom near its
Normal modes of vibration progression through a crystal. The equilibrium position. These forces may be Van der Waals
amplitude of the motion has been exaggerated for ease of view- forces, covalent bonds, electrostatic attractions, and othing; in an actual crystal, it is typically much smaller than the ers, all of which are ultimately due to the electric force.
lattice spacing.
Magnetic and gravitational forces are generally negligible. The forces between each pair of atoms may be characterized by a potential energy function V that depends
on the distance of separation of the atoms. The potential energy of the entire lattice is the sum of all pairwise
periodic, elastic arrangement of atoms or molecules in
potential energies:[3]
condensed matter, like solids and some liquids. Often
designated a quasiparticle,[1] it represents an excited state
in the quantum mechanical quantization of the modes of
V (ri rj )
vibrations of elastic structures of interacting particles.
i=j

Phonons play a major role in many of the physical properties of condensed matter, like thermal conductivity and where ri is the position of the i th atom, and V is the
electrical conductivity. The study of phonons is an im- potential energy between two atoms.
portant part of condensed matter physics.
It is dicult to solve this many-body problem explicThe concept of phonons was introduced in 1932 by Soviet itly in either classical or quantum mechanics. In order
physicist Igor Tamm. The name phonon comes from the to simplify the task, two important approximations are
Greek word (phon), which translates to sound usually imposed. First, the sum is only performed over
or voice because long-wavelength phonons give rise to neighboring atoms. Although the electric forces in real
sound. Shorter-wavelength higher-frequency phonons solids extend to innity, this approximation is still valid
give rise to heat.
because the elds produced by distant atoms are eec1

tively screened. Secondly, the potentials V are treated

as harmonic potentials. This is permissible as long as the
atoms remain close to their equilibrium positions. Formally, this is accomplished by Taylor expanding V about
its equilibrium value to quadratic order, giving V proportional to the displacement x2 and the elastic force simply proportional to x . The error in ignoring higher order
terms remains small if x remains close to the equilibrium
position.
The resulting lattice may be visualized as a system of balls
connected by springs. The following gure shows a cubic
lattice, which is a good model for many types of crystalline solid. Other lattices include a linear chain, which
is a very simple lattice which we will shortly use for modeling phonons. (For other common lattices, see crystal
structure.)

LATTICE DYNAMICS

Phonon propagating through a square lattice (atom displacements greatly exaggerated)

2.2 One-dimensional lattice

In order to simplify the analysis needed for a 3dimensional lattice of atoms it is convenient to model a
1-dimensional lattice or linear chain. This model is complex enough to display the salient features of phonons.
The potential energy of the lattice may now be written as

2.2.1 Classical treatment

The forces between the atoms are assumed to be linear

and nearest-neighbour, and they are represented by an
{ij}(nn)
elastic spring. Each atom is assumed to be a point particle and the nucleus and electrons move in step (adiabatic
Here, is the natural frequency of the harmonic poten- approximation).
tials, which are assumed to be the same since the lattice
is regular. Ri is the position coordinate of the i th atom,
n1 n
which we now measure from its equilibrium position. The
n+1
sum over nearest neighbors is denoted as (nn).
d
1
m 2 (Ri Rj )2 .
2

2.1

Lattice waves

Due to the connections between atoms, the displacement

of one or more atoms from their equilibrium positions
give rise to a set of vibration waves propagating through
the lattice. One such wave is shown in the gure to the
right. The amplitude of the wave is given by the displacements of the atoms from their equilibrium positions. The
wavelength is marked.
There is a minimum possible wavelength, given by twice
the equilibrium separation a between atoms. Any wavelength shorter than this can be mapped onto a wavelength
longer than 2a, due to the periodicity of the lattice.

o++++++o++++++o++++++o++++++o++++++o++++++o++++++o+

un1

un

un+1

Where n labels the n -th atom, d is the distance between atoms when the chain is in equilibrium and un the
displacement of the n -th atom from its equilibrium position.
Not every possible lattice vibration has a well-dened If C is the elastic constant of the spring and m the mass
wavelength and frequency. However, the normal modes of the atom then the equation of motion of the n -th atom
do possess well-dened wavelengths and frequencies.
is :

2.2

One-dimensional lattice

operators, respectively, for the i th atom and the sum

is made over the nearest neighbors (nn). However one
d2 un
expects that in a lattice there could also appear waves
2Cun + C(un+1 + un1 ) = m 2
dt
that behave like particles. It is customary to deal with
This is a set of coupled equations and since the solutions waves in Fourier space which uses normal modes of the
are expected to be oscillatory, new coordinates can be wavevector as variables instead coordinates of particles.
dened by a discrete Fourier transform, in order to de- The number of normal modes is same as the number of
particles. However, the Fourier space is very useful given
couple them.[4]
the periodicity of the system.
Put
A set of N normal coordinates Qk may be introduced,
dened as the discrete Fourier transforms of the x 's and
N
N conjugate momenta dened as the Fourier trans
un =
Uk eiknd
forms of the p 's:
k=1

Here nd replaces the usual continuous variable x . The

1 ikal
e xl
Uk are known as the normal coordinates. Substitution Qk =
N l
into the equation of motion produces the following decoupled equations.(This requires a signicant manipula1 ikal
e
pl .
tion using the orthonormality and completeness relations k = N
l
[5]
of the discrete Fourier transform )
The quantity kn turns out to be the wave number of the
phonon, i.e. 2 divided by the wavelength.
d2 Uk
This choice retains the desired commutation relations in
2C(cos kd 1)Uk = m
d t2
either real space or wave vector space
These are the equations for harmonic oscillators which
have the solution:

Uk = Ak e

ik t

k =

2C
(1 cos kd)
m

[xl , pm ] = il,m
1 ikal ik am
e e
[xl , pm ]
[Qk , k ] =
N
l,m

i ial(kk )
=
e
= ik,k
N

Each normal coordinate Uk represents an independent

l
vibrational mode of the lattice with wavenumber k which [Qk , Qk ] = [k , k ] = 0
is known as a normal mode. The second equation for k
is known as the dispersion relation between the angular From the general result
frequency and the wavenumber.[6]

1
xl xl+m =
Qk Qk
eial(k+k ) eiamk =
Qk Qk eiamk
N
2.2.2 Quantum treatment
l
kk
l
k

2
pl =
k k
A one-dimensional quantum mechanical harmonic chain
l
k
consists of N identical atoms. This is the simplest quantum mechanical model of a lattice that allows phonons The potential energy term is
to arise from it. The formalism for this model is readily
generalizable to two and three dimensions.

1
1
1
2
(xj xj+1 )2 = m 2
Qk Qk (2eika eika ) =
m
As in the previous section, the positions of the masses 2 m
2
2
j
k
k
are denoted by x1 , x2 , ... , as measured from their equilibrium positions (i.e. xi = 0 if particle i is at its equi- where
librium position.) In two or more dimensions, the xi are
vector quantities. The Hamiltonian for this system is
 ( )


ka 
k = 2 2 [1 cos(ka)] = 2 sin
2 
N
2
p

1
i
The Hamiltonian may be written in wave vector space as
H=
+ m 2
(xi xj )2
2m
2
i=1
{ij}(nn)

(
)
where m is the mass of each atom (assuming is equal H = 1
k k + m2 k2 Qk Qk
2m
for all), and xi and pi are the position and momentum
k

LATTICE DYNAMICS

The couplings between the position variables have been

transformed away; if the Q 's and 's were hermitian
(which they are not), the transformed Hamiltonian would
describe N uncoupled harmonic oscillators.

vibration is not restricted to the direction of propagation, and can also occur in the perpendicular planes, like
transverse waves. This gives rise to the additional normal
coordinates, which, as the form of the Hamiltonian indiThe form of the quantization depends on the choice of cates, we may view as independent species of phonons.
boundary conditions; for simplicity, periodic boundary
conditions are imposed, dening the (N + 1) th atom as
equivalent to the rst atom. Physically, this corresponds 2.4 Dispersion relation
to joining the chain at its ends. The resulting quantization
is

k = kn =

2n
Na

for n = 0, 1, 2, ...,

N
.
2

The upper bound to n comes from the minimum wavelength, which is twice the lattice spacing a , as discussed
above.
The harmonic oscillator eigenvalues or energy levels for
the mode k are :

(
En =

)
1
+ n k
2

n = 0, 1, 2, 3......

The levels are evenly spaced at:

1
,
2

3
,
2

Dispersion curves in linear diatomic chain

......

Where 12 is the zero-point energy of a quantum harmonic oscillator.

An exact amount of energy must be supplied to
the harmonic oscillator lattice to push it to the next energy level. In comparison to the photon case when the
electromagnetic eld is quantized, the quantum of vibra- Optical and acoustic vibrations in linear diatomic chain.
tional energy is called a phonon.
All quantum systems show wave-like and particle-like
properties simultaneously. The particle-like properties
of the phonon are best understood using the methods of
second quantization and operator techniques described
later.[7]

2.3

Three-dimensional lattice

This may be generalized to a three-dimensional lattice.

The wave number k is replaced by a three-dimensional
for some waves corresponding to
wave vector k. Furthermore, each k is now associated Dispersion relation =(k)
lattice vibrations in GaAs.[8]
with three normal coordinates.
The new indices s = 1, 2, 3 label the polarization of the
phonons. In the one-dimensional model, the atoms were
restricted to moving along the line, so the phonons corresponded to longitudinal waves. In three dimensions,

For a one-dimensional alternating array of two types of

ion or atom of mass m1 , m2 repeated periodically at a
distance a, connected by springs of spring constant K, two
modes of vibration result:[9]

2.5

Interpretation of phonons using second quantization techniques

operator, then it describes a quantum eld theory of noninteracting bosons.

(
(
)
)2
2
1
1
1
1
4 sin (ka/2)
The energy
spectrum of this Hamiltonian is easily ob2

=K
+
K
+

,
m1
m2
m1
m2
m1 mtained
by the method of ladder operators, similar to the
2
quantum harmonic oscillator problem. We introduce a
where k is the wave-vector of the vibration related to set of ladder operators dened by:
its wavelength by k=2/. The connection between
(
)
k
Qk
frequency and wave-vector, =(k), is known as a
1
bk
=
+
i
, Qk
=
lk
/lk
2
dispersion relation. The plus sign results in the so-called

1
lk 2 (bk + bk )
optical mode, and the minus sign to the acoustic mode.
(
)
In the optical mode two adjacent dierent atoms move
k
bk = 12 Qlk
i /l
, k =
k
k
against each other, while in the acoustic mode they move

i
together.
lk 2 (bk bk )
The speed of propagation of an acoustic phonon, which

is also the speed of sound in the lattice, is given by the

k
slope of the acoustic dispersion relation, k (see group
lk =
m
k
velocity.) At low values of k (i.e. long wavelengths),
the dispersion relation is almost linear, and the speed of By direct insertion on the Hamiltonian, it is readily verisound is approximately a , independent of the phonon ed that
frequency. As a result, packets of phonons with dierent
(but long) wavelengths can propagate for large distances
across the lattice without breaking apart. This is the rea(
)

son that sound propagates through solids without signik bk bk +

Hph =
2
cant distortion. This behavior fails at large values of k ,
k
i.e. short wavelengths, due to the microscopic details of
the lattice.
[bk , bk ] = k,k , [bk , bk ] = [bk , bk ] = 0.
For a crystal that has at least two atoms in its primitive As with the quantum harmonic oscillator, one can show
cell, the dispersion relations exhibit two types of phonons, that b and bk respectively create and destroy one excik
namely, optical and acoustic modes corresponding to the tation of energy k . These excitations are phonons.
upper blue and lower red of curve in the diagram, respectively. The vertical axis is the energy or frequency Two important properties of phonons may be deduced.
of phonon, while the horizontal axis is the wave-vector. Firstly, phonons are bosons, since any number of identiby repeated application of
The boundaries at -/a and /a are those of the rst cal excitations can be created

the
creation
operator
b
.
Secondly,
each phonon is a
[9]
k
Brillouin zone. A crystal with N 2 dierent atoms
collective
mode
caused
by
the
motion
of every atom in
in the primitive cell exhibits three acoustic modes: one
the
lattice.
This
may
be
seen
from
the
fact
that the ladder
longitudinal acoustic mode and two transverse acoustic
operators
contain
sums
over
the
position
and
momentum
modes. The number of optical modes is 3N 3. The
operators
of
every
atom.
lower gure shows the dispersion relations for several
phonon modes in GaAs as a function of wavevector k in It is not a priori obvious that these excitations generated
the principal directions of its Brillouin zone.[8]
by the b operators are literally waves of lattice displaceMany phonon dispersion curves have been measured by ment, but one may convince oneself of this by calculating
the position-position correlation function. Let |k denote
neutron scattering.
a state with a single quantum of mode k excited, i.e.
The physics of sound in uids diers from the physics
of sound in solids, although both are density waves:
sound waves in uids only have longitudinal compo- |k = b |0.
k
nents, whereas sound waves in solids have longitudinal
and transverse components. This is because uids can't One can show that, for any two atoms j and ,
support shear stresses (but see viscoelastic uids, which
only apply to high frequencies, though).

cos [k(j )a k t]+0|xj (t)x (0)|0

k|xj (t)x (0)|k =
N mk

2.5

Interpretation of phonons using sec- which has the form of a lattice wave with frequency k
and wave number k .
ond quantization techniques

In fact, the above-derived Hamiltonian looks like the classical Hamiltonian function, but if it is interpreted as an

In three dimensions the Hamiltonian has the form

(
)
3
H = k s=1 k,s bk,s bk,s + 1/2 .

Acoustic and optical phonons

THERMODYNAMICS

4 Crystal momentum
Main article: Crystal momentum
By analogy to photons and matter waves, phonons have

Solids with more than one atom in the smallest unit cell,
exhibit two types of phonons: acoustic phonons and optical phonons.
Acoustic phonons are coherent movements of atoms of
the lattice out of their equilibrium positions. If the displacement is in the direction of propagation, then in some
areas the atoms will be closer, in others farther apart, as in
a sound wave in air (hence the name acoustic). Displacement perpendicular to the propagation direction is comparable to waves in water. If the wavelength of acoustic
phonons goes to innity, this corresponds to a simple displacement of the whole crystal, and this costs zero energy.
Acoustic phonons exhibit a linear relationship between
frequency and phonon wavevector for long wavelengths.
The frequencies of acoustic phonons tend to zero with
longer wavelength. Longitudinal and transverse acoustic
phonons are often abbreviated as LA and TA phonons,
respectively.
Optical phonons are out-of-phase movements of the
atoms in the lattice, one atom moving to the left, and
its neighbour to the right. This occurs if the lattice basis consists of two or more atoms. They are called optical because in ionic crystals, like sodium chloride, they
are excited by infrared radiation. The electric eld of
the light will move every positive sodium ion in the direction of the eld, and every negative chloride ion in
the other direction, sending the crystal vibrating. Optical phonons have a non-zero frequency at the Brillouin
zone center and show no dispersion near that long wavelength limit. This is because they correspond to a mode of
vibration where positive and negative ions at adjacent lattice sites swing against each other, creating a time-varying
electrical dipole moment. Optical phonons that interact
in this way with light are called infrared active. Optical
phonons that are Raman active can also interact indirectly
with light, through Raman scattering. Optical phonons
are often abbreviated as LO and TO phonons, for the longitudinal and transverse modes respectively; the splitting
between LO and TO frequencies is often described accurately by the LyddaneSachsTeller relation.
When measuring optical phonon energy by experiment, optical phonon frequencies are sometimes given
in spectroscopic wavenumber notation, where the symbol
represents ordinary frequency (not angular frequency),
and is expressed in units of cm1 . The value is obtained
by dividing the frequency by the speed of light in vacuum.
In other words, the frequency in cm1 units corresponds
to the inverse of the wavelength of a photon in vacuum,
that has the same frequency as the measured phonon.[10]
The cm1 is a unit of energy used frequently in the dispersion relations of both acoustic and optical phonons,
see units of energy for more details and uses.

k-vectors exceeding the rst Brillouin zone (red) do not carry any
more information than their counterparts (black) in the rst Brillouin zone.

been treated with wave vector k as though it has a

momentum k , however, this is not strictly correct, because k is not actually a physical momentum; it is called
the crystal momentum or pseudomomentum. This is because k is only determined up to addition of constant vectors (the reciprocal lattice vectors and integer multiples
thereof). For example, in the one-dimensional model, the
normal coordinates Q and are dened so that

def

Qk = Qk+K

def

k = k+K

where

K = 2n/a
for any integer n . A phonon with wave number k is thus
equivalent to an innite family of phonons with wave
numbers k 2a , k 4a , and so forth. Physically,
the reciprocal lattice vectors act as additional chunks
of momentum which the lattice can impart to the phonon.
Bloch electrons obey a similar set of restrictions.
It is usually convenient to consider phonon wave vectors k
which have the smallest magnitude (|k|) in their family.
The set of all such wave vectors denes the rst Brillouin
zone. Additional Brillouin zones may be dened as copies
of the rst zone, shifted by some reciprocal lattice vector.

5 Thermodynamics
The thermodynamic properties of a solid are directly related to its phonon structure. The entire set of all possible
phonons that are described by the above phonon dispersion relations combine in what is known as the phonon
density of states which determines the heat capacity of a
crystal.
At absolute zero temperature, a crystal lattice lies in its
ground state, and contains no phonons. A lattice at a nonzero temperature has an energy that is not constant, but

6 Operator formalism

a)

The phonon Hamiltonian is given by

H=

Brillouin zone

1 2
1
(p + 2 q2 )
2
2

In terms of the operators, these are given by

b)

H=

a a

Brillouin zone
Brillouin zones, a) in a square lattice, and b) in a hexagonal lattice

uctuates randomly about some mean value. These energy uctuations are caused by random lattice vibrations,
which can be viewed as a gas of phonons. (The random
motion of the atoms in the lattice is what we usually think
of as heat.) Because these phonons are generated by the
temperature of the lattice, they are sometimes designated
thermal phonons.
Unlike the atoms which make up an ordinary gas, thermal phonons can be created and destroyed by random energy uctuations. In the language of statistical mechanics this means that the chemical potential for adding a
phonon is zero. This behavior is an extension of the harmonic potential, mentioned earlier, into the anharmonic
regime. The behavior of thermal phonons is similar to
the photon gas produced by an electromagnetic cavity,
wherein photons may be emitted or absorbed by the cavity walls. This similarity is not coincidental, for it turns
out that the electromagnetic eld behaves like a set of harmonic oscillators; see Black-body radiation. Both gases
obey the BoseEinstein statistics: in thermal equilibrium
and within the harmonic regime, the probability of nding phonons (or photons) in a given state with a given angular frequency is:

n(k,s ) =

1
exp(k,s /kB T ) 1

Here, in expressing the Hamiltonian in operator formalism, we have not taken into account the 12 q term, since
if we take an innite lattice or, for that matter a continuum, the 12 q terms will add up giving an innity.
Hence, it is renormalized by putting the factor of 12 q
to 0 arguing that the dierence in energy is what we measure and not the absolute value of it. Hence, the 12 q
factor is absent in the operator formalised expression for
the Hamiltonian.
The ground state also called the vacuum state is the
state composed of no phonons. Hence, the energy of the
ground state is 0. When, a system is in state |n1 n2 n3 ...
, we say there are n phonons of type . The n are
called the occupation number of the phonons. Energy of
a single phonon of type being q , the total energy of
a general phonon system is given by n1 1 + n2 2 + ...
. In other words, the phonons are non-interacting. The
action of creation and annihilation operators are given by

a |n1 ...n1 n n+1 ... =

n + 1|n1 ..., n1 , n +1, n+1 ...

and,

a |n1 ...n1 n n+1 ... =

n |n1 ..., n1 , (n 1), n+1 , ...

i.e. a creates a phonon of type while a annihilates.

Hence, they are respectively the creation and annihilation operator for phonons. Analogous to the Quantum
harmonic oscillator
case, we can dene particle number
operator as N = a a . The number operator commutes with a string of products of the creation and annihilation operators if, the number of a 's are equal to
number of a 's.
Phonons are bosons since, |, = |, i.e. they are
symmetric under exchange.[11]

7 Nonlinearity

where k,s is the frequency of the phonons (or photons) As well as photons, phonons can interact via parametric
in the state, kB is Boltzmanns constant, and T is the down conversion[12] and form squeezed coherent
temperature.
states.[13]

11

Phononic computing

As phonons carry information, it is theoretically possible

to build a quantum computer using phonons.[14][15][16]

See also
Boson
Brillouin scattering
Fracton
Linear elasticity
Mechanical wave
Phonon scattering
Phononic crystal
Rayleigh wave
Relativistic heat conduction
Rigid unit modes
SASER
Second sound
Surface acoustic wave
Surface phonon
Thermal conductivity
Vibration

EXTERNAL LINKS

[8] Peter Y. Yu, Manuel Cardona (2010). Fig. 3.2: Phonon

dispersion curves in GaAs along high-symmetry axes.
Fundamentals of Semiconductors: Physics and Materials
Properties (4th ed.). Springer. p. 111. ISBN 3-64200709-0.
[9] For a discussion see Prasanta Kumar Misra (2010).
"2.1.3 Normal modes of a one-dimensional chain with
a basis. Physics of Condensed Matter. Academic Press.
pp. 44 . ISBN 0-12-384954-3.
[10] Mahan, Gerald (2010). Condensed Matter in a Nutshell.
Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-69114016-2.
[11] Feynman, Richard P. (1982). Statistical Mechanics, A
Set of Lectures. Reading, Massachusetts: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc. p. 159.
ISBN 0-8053-2508-5.
[12] Phonon-phonon interactions due to non-linear eects in a
linear ion trap
[13] Reiter, D E; et al. (2009). Generation of squeezed
phonon states by optical excitation of a quantum dot
(PDF). Institute of Physics. Retrieved February 28, 2014.
[14] How To Build A Phononic Computer.
www.
technologyreview.com (MIT). August 13, 2012. Retrieved
23 June 2014.
[15] Thermal Memory: A Storage of Phononic Information.
[16] "'Phononic Computer' Could Process Information with
Heat.

11 External links
Explained: Phonons, MIT News, 2010.
Optical and acoustic modes

10

References

[1] F. Schwabl, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, 4th Ed.,

Springer (2008), p. 253
[2] Simon, Steven H. (2013). The Oxford solid state basics
(1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ Pr. p. 82. ISBN 978-019-968077-1.
[3] Krauth, Werner (April 2006). Statistical mechanics: algorithms and computations. International publishing locations: Oxford University Press. pp. 231232. ISBN
978-0-19-851536-4.
[4] Mattuck R. A guide to Feynman Diagrams in the manybody problem
[5] Greiner & Reinhardt. Field Quantisation
[6] Donovan B. & Angress J.; Lattice Vibrations
[7] Mahan, GD (1981). many particle physics. New York:
springer. ISBN 0306463385.

Phonons in a One Dimensional Microuidic Crystal

and with movies in .

12
12.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Tranh Nguyen, Marie Poise, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Alisha.4m, JSquish, Splibubay, Debangshu0, Borders999, GianniG46, Fizicist, Sonygal, Tls60, ClueBot NG, Starshipenterprise, Kgordiz, Zak.estrada, Helpful Pixie Bot, Skarmenadius, Berkecelik, Zedshort, Boston1034,
BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Mwchalmers, Lugia2453, Datta research, Cesaranieto~enwiki, Mark viking, DungeonSiegeAddict510, ScotXW,
Monkbot, Rhlius, Cyrej, KasparBot, Macky0209, Dbuckingham42, Sushins94, WilliamJennings1989, Siddharth532 and Anonymous: 164

12.2

Images

File:1D_normal_modes_(280_kB).gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/1D_normal_modes_%28280_

kB%29.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This is a compressed version of the Image:1D normal modes.gif phonon animation
on Wikipedia Commons that was originally created by Rgis Lachaume and freely licensed. The original was 6,039,343 bytes and required long-duration downloads for any article which included it. This version is 4.7% the size of the original and loads much faster. This
version also has an interframe delay of 40 ms (v.s. the originals 100 ms). Including processing time for each frame, this version runs
at a frame rate of about 2022.5 Hz on a typical computer, which yields a more uid motion. Greg L 00:41, 4 October 2006 (UTC).
(from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:1D_normal_modes_%28280_kB%29.gif) Original artist: Original Uploader was Greg L (talk)
at 00:41, 4 October 2006.
File:Brillouin_zone.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Brillouin_zone.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Wikipedia en Original artist: Gang65
File:Cubic.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Cubic.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: donated
work Original artist: Original PNGs by Daniel Mayer, traced in Inkscape by User:Stannered
File:Diatomic_phonons.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Diatomic_phonons.png License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brews ohare
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Lattice_wave.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Lattice_wave.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created by en:User:FlorianMarquardt (en:Image:Phonon.png), vectorized in Inkscape by Mysid. Original artist: en:User:
FlorianMarquardt, Mysid
File:Optical_&_acoustic_vibrations.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Optical_%26_acoustic_
vibrations.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brews ohare
File:Phonon_dispersion_relations_in_GaAs.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Phonon_dispersion_
relations_in_GaAs.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brews ohare
File:Phonon_k_3k.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/Phonon_k_3k.gif License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Shaind at English Wikipedia
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: based o of Image:Stylised Lithium Atom.png by Halfdan. Original artist: SVG by Indolences. Recoloring
and ironing out some glitches done by Rainer Klute.

12.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0