Chapter

4

States of Consciousness

consciousness - our awareness of various cognitive

processes, such as sleeping, dreaming, concentrating,
and making decisions
waking consciousness - mental state that encompasses
the thoughts, feelings, and perceptions that occur
when we are awake and reasonably alert
altered states of consciousness - mental states that
differ noticeably from normal waking consciousness
(sleep, dreaming, hypnosis, meditation and intoxication)

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unconsciousness -condition of being not conscious;

involves complete or near-complete lack of
responsiveness to people and other environmental
stimuli
Coma-state of unconsciousness lasting more than six
hours, in which a person: cannot be awakened; fails to
respond normally to painful stimuli, light, or sound;
lacks a normal sleep-wake cycle; and does not initiate
voluntary actions
-a lack of awareness and wakefulness

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Brain death -lack of activity of the cortex and in

the brain stem (irreversible)
Vegetative state- is a rare condition, caused by brain

damage, in which a person comes out of a coma and is

awake (can open their eyes occasionally and
demonstrate sleep-wake cycle) but completely lacks
cognitive function

not aware of their surroundings, feeling of pain/pleasure

not able to follow and understand speech
not able to have thoughts, memories, emotions, and intentions of
any kind

-wakefulness but a lack of awareness

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We spend 1/3 of our lives in

the altered state of
consciousness (sleeping)
During sleep our awareness of
surrounding decreases and
voluntary movements reduce

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While the exact reason for sleep isnt known, there is

evidence that sleep is necessary
to restore mental and physical functioning,
boost our immune system (less susceptible to disease)
to cleanse our body of chemicals released when cells
use energy to do their jobs
improves cognitive functioning (good sleep generates
insightful solution creativity, decision-making, problem
solving, test performance)
to form long-term memories
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Circadian rhythms are a fundamental adaptation

to the 24 hours solar cycle of light and dark.
circadian rhythm - a regular biological rhythm
with a period of approximately 24 hours
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) - in the
hypothalamus; receives input from the retina
regarding light and dark cycles and is involved in
regulating the biological clock

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The measurement of brain wave patterns and

physiological changes in the body reveal four
distinct stages of non-REM and one period of
REM sleep.
rapid-eye movement (REM) or paradoxical sleep sleep stage characterized by rapid-eye movements
and increased dreaming
non-REM (NREM) sleep - non-rapid-eye movement
stages of sleep that alternate with REM stages
during the sleep cycle

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Twilight State
going to sleep
relaxed wakefulness
(just before you fall
asleep)
When you are the
onset of sleep you
experience low
irregular alpha waves.

Stage 1
Kind of awake and kind of
asleep.
Only lasts a few minutes,
Marked by a slowing of the
pulse, muscle relaxation, and
side-to-side rolling of eyes
Once awake, you may be
unaware of having slept,
Your brain produces Theta+
alpha Waves.

Stage 2
Progressively deeper sleep
Your heart rate, blood
pressure, and body
temperature continue to drop
The sleeper is hard to awaken
and doesnt respond to light
and noises
Begin to show sleep spindles
short bursts of rapid brain
waves.
Plus beta waves

Stage 3
The first phase of deep sleep
A slow heart rate, blood
pressure, and body
temperature
The sleeper is hard to awaken
and doesnt respond to light
and noises
Delta waves

Stages 4
Deep sleep-very slow delta
waves
Very low pulse rate, blood
pressure, body
temperature,
Slow breathing
If awoken you will be very
groggy
Vital for restoring bodys
growth hormones and good
overall health.
From stage 4, your brain begins to speed up and you
go to stage 3, then 2.then

REM Sleep
Rapid Eye Movement
Often called paradoxical
sleep.
Brain is very active (resemble
stage 1).
Dreams usually occur in REM.
Body is essentially paralyzed.
Increased heart rate, blood
pressure; muscle are relaxed
Very difficult to awaken
Theta and beta waves.

Changes in REM and NREM Sleep

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More than one-third of all adults and the majority of

adolescents are sleep deprived (not getting enough
of sleep).
Sleep deprivation has many negative consequences:
Difficulty in paying attention, remembering, and
decision making
Decreases in productivity
Increased risk of on-the-job and auto accidents
Contributes to heart attacks, asthma, strokes, high
blood pressure, and diabetes

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nightmares - frightening dreams that occur

during REM sleep and are remembered
night terrors - frightening, often terrifying
dreams that occur during stage 4 of NREM sleep
from which a person is difficult to awaken and
doesnt remember the content.
Wake up screaming and have no idea why.
Not a nightmare.
Most common in children (boys) between ages 2-8.

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insomnia- difficulty in falling asleep or

remaining asleep throughout the night
apnea-breathing difficulty during the night
and feelings of exhaustion during the day
narcolepsy- sudden nodding off during the
day and sudden loss of muscle tone following
moments of emotional excitement

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Dreams are vivid visual and auditory experiences

that occur primarily during REM periods of sleep.
Some cultures believe dreams have special
meaning
Dreams are often very vivid, making it difficult
to distinguish them from reality
Dreams during NREM Stage 4 are forgotten
Dreams during REM are recalled 80% of the
time.
4-5 dreams per night

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Freuds Theory of Dreams

Dreams are a royal
road to the
unconscious mind
Manifest Content
(storyline)
Latent Content
(underlying meaning;
hidden thoughts and
desires)

Dreams and Information Processing

In our dreams, we reprocess
information gathered during
the day
Our brain decides what
information is valuable and
should be stored.
Dreams are illogical because
the brain is scanning rapidly
old files and comparing them
with new clippings.

Dreams and Waking Life

Dreams are a way to
deal with the
stresses of everyday
life.
We tend to dream
more when we are
more stressed.

Dreams and Neural Activity

Dreams are a reflection of the
brain activity during sleep.
During dreams: the limbic system
(emotions, motivation, memories)
and auditory and visual areas of
the forebrain are activated but
not the prefrontal cortex (logic,
judgment)
This is why dreams dont make
sense

Drugs and Altered Consciousness

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that

change moods and perceptions.
The use of mood-altering substances varies
among cultures.
The reasons for the use of these substances has
changed over time.
Many psychoactive drugs are stronger today and
have unpredictable consequences.

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substance abuse - a pattern of drug use that

diminishes the ability to fulfill responsibilities at
home, work, or school that results in repeated
use of a drug in dangerous situations or that
leads to legal difficulties related to drug use
substance dependence - a pattern of compulsive
drug taking that results in tolerance, withdrawal
symptoms, or other specific symptoms for at
least a year

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Tolerance-the effect of a drug is reduced due to

repeated use. A higher doses are required to achieve
the same effect .
Withdrawal- unpleasant physical or psychological
effect when drug use is discontinued.

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The causes of substance abuse and dependence

are a complex combination of biological,
psychological, and social factors that varies for
each individual as well as for each substance.

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In analyzing drugs and drug use, psychoactive

substances are grouped into three categories:
Depressants - chemicals that slow down
behavior or cognitive processes.
Stimulants - drugs, including amphetamines and
cocaine, that stimulate the sympathetic nervous
system and produce feelings of optimism and
boundless energy.
Hallucinogens - any of a number of drugs, such
as LSD and mescaline, that distort visual and
auditory perception.
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Depressants are chemicals that slow down

behavior or cognitive processes.

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Depressant that is the intoxicating ingredient in

whiskey, beer, wine, and other fermented or distilled
liquors
Affects the frontal lobes of the brain involved in
inhibitions, impulse control, reasoning and judgment
Most frequently used psychoactive drug

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 More than 86 billion dollars are spent annually on

alcoholic beverages.
At least 14 million Americans have problems with
drinking
Three times as many men as woman are problem
drinkers
Abuse and addiction highest in the 18-29 year old age
group
Alcohol abuse has many social consequences:
Loss of friends and family
Problems at school or work
Loss of income, property
Alcohol is involved in 60% of ALL crimes.
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Excessive,
chronic use of
alcohol can
harm virtually
every organ in
the body

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Downers:
Potentially deadly depressants, esp. when combined
with alcohol
Often used to treat epilepsy or insomnia
Can interfere with sleep pattern and cause
dependence
Effects are similar to alcohol
-light-headedness,
-silliness,
- poor motor coordination,
- loss of inhibition,
-increased aggression

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Opiates
Derived from poppy plant
Depressants (Slow down
breathing, hear rate)
Morphine, heroin, methadone,
codeine (other painkillers)
Heroin and other opiates
resemble the bodys
endorphins.
Produce euphoria,
drowsiness, rush of
pleasure but
Highly addictive

Heroin is an opiate with strong sedative (downer ) and

painkilling effects.
depressant
Can be injected, sniffed or smoked
Effects can start quickly and last for several hours (euphoria
followed by nodding off)
Heroin is highly addictive (leads to both physical and
psychological dependence)
Produces high tolerance : you need to take more to get the same
effect
Severe withdrawal symptoms: profuse sweating, severe cramps,

Doesnt produce hallucinations

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hot/cold flashes, cold turkey skin, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsion

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Caffeine
Stimulant that excites the sympathetic nervous
system
Found in coffee, tea, and other beverages.
} high doses of caffeine can cause anxiety, headaches,
heart palpitations, insomnia, diarrhea
} may cause dependence(causing headaches, lethargy)
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stimulant
increases heart rate, blood vessels
constriction,
speeds up the process of wrinkling,
aging
correlated with lung, stomach, liver
cancers.
may cause either sedative or
stimulating effect
withdrawal- nervousness, difficulty
concentrating, insomnia, drowsiness,
headaches, irritability, cravings,
12- to 17-year-olds who smoke are 12
times more likely to use illicit drugs
and 16 times more likely to drink
heavily.

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stimulant drugs that initially produce rushes of euphoria

often followed by sudden crashes of exhaustion and
depression.
produces increased wakefulness and focus
decreases fatigue and appetite
High doses produce sweating, tremors, heart palpitations,
anxiety, insomnia
May lead to paranoia, hallucinations, suicidal thoughts,
aggression
Used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy

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Psychostimulant drug derived from the coca plant

Used as a local anesthetic
It can be snorted, injected or smoked (crack cocaine)
Produces a sense of euphoria, excitation, increased alertness
and also leads to anxiety, depression, and addictive cravings.
Euphoric effect lasts 5-20 min
Status drug - amphetamine of the wealthy
High doses produce hallucinations
Suppresses appetite
Addictive drug

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distort visual and auditory perception

Produces hallucinations and delusions similar to a
psychotic state
Can result in psychosis, memory loss, paranoia, panic
attacks, nightmares and aggression
Drug ingested orally in various forms: paper, squares,
pills, tablets
Effects peak between 1-4 hours after taking and
fade after 12 hours.
No physical dependence. Further doses are
ineffective after 3-4 days use.

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Marijuana
a mild hallucinogen
produces euphoria, a sense of wellbeing, relaxation,
Enhances enjoyment of music, food,
sex
Leads to loss of awareness or
distortion of time
droopy eyes
Increases thirst and hunger
Possible psychosis
No physiological dependence

Interferes with short term- memory

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Biological Factors

Genetic predisposition

Psychological Factors

Expectation of the effect of drug

Social Factors

Family environment
Physical and sexual abuse

Cultural Factors

Some substances like alcohol accepted

Religious views

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methods of concentration, reflection, or focusing

of thoughts undertaken to suppress the activity
of the sympathetic nervous system.
used to treat stress-related medical problems
such as muscle tension and pain
Useful for stress reduction
May enhance effectiveness of the immune system
and overall psychological well-being

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Hypnosis - trancelike state in which a

person responds readily to suggestions.
Debate over what it really means to be
hypnotized
Individuals vary in degree of
suggestibility
Hypnosis doesnt produce foolish or
embarrassing behaviors
Therapeutic uses for pain, anxiety
Also used for cessation of smoking but
effectiveness is debatable
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