21 Copy Comb Bind

INTRODUCTION TO URBAN FOREST AND
MANAGEMENT
Abd. Haris bin Shamsuddin

Centre of Landscape Architecture Studies,
Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying (FSPU)
UiTM 40450 Shah Alam
abdhar661@salam.uitm.edu.my
abdharis01@yahoo.co.uk
Course lecture for:
LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

Disclaimer:
All rights reserved. This lecture note is produced for the use of the class only. No part of this note
may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means for any purposes without prior
permission. The author shall not be liable for any special or consequential damages that result from
the use of the content within this document.

2016
2016
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INTRODUCTION TO URBAN FOREST AND MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
Chapter 1:
Urban forest and urban forestry
pg 3
Chapter 2:
The benefits of urban forest
pg 10
Chapter 3:
Urban environmental issues
pg 20
Chapter 4:
Urban forest management
pg 26
Chapter 5:
Urban forest management tasks
pg 32
Chapter 6:
General issues in managing urban forests
pg 46
Chapter 7:
The development and prospects of urban forestry

in Malaysia
pg 60
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1.0
Urban forest and urban forestry
This chapter will explain the meanings and concept of urban forest and urban forestry. It
will also elaborate the distinction between some terminologies that may bring similar
connotation to urban forest - urban woodland, urban park, community forest or green
space. The scopes of urban forest management are also explored to give the right
prospect of this field of study.
1.1
Urban forest
Generally, there is no definite meaning for urban forest or urban forestry. Although some
definitions by scholars may suggest significant similarity, it is still debatable while there are
still multiplicities of meanings in different parts of the world. In truth, the phrase is a
combination of two contradicts meaning of words, urban and forest. Urban refers to place
of high density of human population, which generally carries a negative connotation for the
environment. However, forest suggests a very positive connotation for the ecosystem and
environment, as it is generally understood as an area that covered with plants, mainly
trees. According to Christensen (2005), forest is a biological community dominated by
trees and other woody plants covering land include any large area where trees are
predominant. Therefore, the straightforward meaning of urban forest is it represents
vegetation especially trees that exists in cities, towns or suburbs. It includes woody plants
that are planted or naturally grown within the private and public space. It is a subject
matter that covers on the topic of urban and forest, and how these two components may
have an effect on each other in order to survive or sustain.
Urban woody plants may be characterised with natively or introduced species, as well as in
a natural or man-made form. Therefore, the scope of urban forest is not merely focus on
the physical aspect of plants maintenance. Correspondingly, Cordell (1979) has also
defined an urban forest to include all the similar natural components of the ecosystem of a
rural forest, which is the vegetation, water, soil, and wildlife resources. The only difference
is urban forest resources occur in highly populated areas and within the adjacent lands.
In addition, the designation of urban is also quite subjective and varies. The connotation of
urban may carry different expression and perception to different countries. However, the
most commonly accepted factor in signifying between non-urban and urban is by the
density of population in the area. One may say that area populated with a density of 1,500
people or more per km2 is categorised as urban. For example, according to Berkowitz et.
al. (2003), the United States Census Bureau defines urban areas as populated regions
with a density of 1,600 people/km2 or greater and a minimum population of 2,500.
Other may also regards the administration boundary of municipalities and city as the
determination between urban and rural region. Regardless, the concept of urban should
represent an area of more human population while the surrounding atmosphere is
considerably dominates by man-made structures for human use.
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1.1.1
Urban forest and urban woodland

Since urban forest represents plants especially trees in the urbanised area, it is very
difficult to distinguish the different of both. A straightforward meaning of woodland
is it represents a land that dominated by woody plants. Collin (2004) defines
woodland as an area in which the main vegetation is trees with some spaces
between them.
Of course, the woodland term has been traditionally used for thousands of years.
According to Robinson (2004), in general, forest is usually applied to treedominated communities of large extent, whereas woodland refers to smaller treecovered areas, which are often managed or used by people in some way. He also
adds that in Britain, the woodland is more commonly use to refer to smaller areas of
trees in rural or urban areas.
Generally, urban forest has a wider concept than urban woodland. According to
Roland et al (2005), urban woodland includes all types of forest or forest-like
vegetation within the urban forest while urban forests are those green areas
containing trees as major elements, covering all from woodland to parks and
individual trees in and near urban areas. Konijnendijk and Randrup (2004) also
clarify that urban forest carries a wider concept that covers urban wood and
woodlands or individual trees.
1.1.2
Urban forest and urban park

The existence of parks is a very common scenario throughout all urbanised area in
the world. According to Dee (2001), parkland refers to large open grassy spaces
scattered with individual trees or clusters of trees, usually naturalistic in form and
with rolling topography. Collin (2004) defines park an area of open land used as a
place of recreation.
However, Molnar and Rutledge (1986) define parks as a naturalised passive
retreats spaces. Roland et al (2005) justify urban parks can also contain a
considerable number of trees, but elements such as lawns, pastures, garden
elements and related infrastructure are more dominant, while forest stands are
limited or absent. Therefore, urban parks can be defined as a place in urbanised
area for passive retreat activities that may consists of related infrastructure and
facilities as well as plants. While parks refer to the specific area that may consists
of various landscape component, urban forest is focused on all vegetation in the
urban include those within the urban parks.
1.1.3
Urban forest and community forest

Somehow, the term community forest is also popular and has been widely used in
some parts of the world. According to Raven (2006), community is a group of
interacting species living in a particular area or ecosystem. Bell and Apostol (2008)
define community as all the people living in one district, or a group of people with
shared origins or interests. They conclude that community is developed either by
the geographical or a social concept.
Therefore, the connotation of community forest carries a sense of the presence and
involvement of local human community on the forest. It indicates that by some
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means, community forest is situated within and surrounding of population areas. It

can be concluded that the concept of community forest is very much alike the urban
forest if it is situated within an urban areas.
1.1.4
Urban forest and green space

Despite park as an open land used as a place of recreation, Collin (2004) justify
green space as an area of land which has not been built on, that containing grass,
plants and trees. Therefore, green space is generally refers to an area within the
urban vicinity that is undeveloped and usually dominated with green elements of
plants. Green space may also be in forms of open space or gardens. Similarly, the
concept of urban forest is broader that also covers all vegetation in green spaces.
From the discussion, it is obvious that urban forest is not merely represents woody plants in
the urban area. It also carries the connotation of green woody area in the city. As a result,
it can be concluded that the term of urban forest is an expression that represents two
meanings:
All vegetation especially trees in the urbanised area, and/or
All other urban area that associated with woody plants such as greenbelts, roadside
planting, etc.
COMMUNITY FOREST
GREEN SPACE
OPEN SPACE
GARDEN
All vegetation especially
trees in the urbanised area.
Species indigenous, native or
exotic.
Setting - planted or naturally grown

Site - private and public land
URBAN WOODLAND
URBAN PARK
All other area that associated with woody plants such

as greenbelts, roadside planting, etc.
What represents the urban forest?
1.2
Urban forestry
Of course, the concern of urban forest is bringing the concept of forest into the cities.
Traditionally, some may say that since natural forests are more concern with trees, urban
forestry is the task that concern on the care and management of tree population in urban
setting. However, according to Hudson (1985), urban forest is the planted environment
within the fabric of a variety of man-made uses. Therefore, it includes trees, shrubs, and
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lawns in city parks, public areas, private yards, and shopping centres as the overall green
environment that act as a people-oriented forest.
The term forestry carries a strong connotation as a profession that deals with the forest
management. Christensen (2005) gives the general definition of forestry as a profession
involved with the science, business, and art of creating, conserving, or managing future use
of forests. Nevertheless, there are various definitions proposed by scholars in defining
urban forestry. Simple definitions are such as suggested by Costello (1993) and Lee et. al.
(2004) that urban forestry is the management of trees and forests in urban areas.
Likewise, Jones (2008) defines urban forest as all the trees, woods, and associated open
spaces within an urban area, while urban forestry applies to the management of this
resource.
A similar definition also gains from the American Society of Consulting Arborists (retrieved
20 May 2010) which defines urban forestry as the management of naturally occurring and
planted trees in urban areas. Their justifications indicate that urban forestry is the concern
on managing vegetation, especially trees in the urbanised area. It deals with the
management of plants although this key word is not present in the phrase. Therefore, the
concept of urban forestry is likely to be very associated with urban forest management.
Management is an exercise of utilising all available resources to perform a task. It should
have a clear objective on what to be achieved before planning any action or operation to
reach the objectives. With regards to this, managing urban forest is also a task that carries
out to achieve specific objectives. Since urban forest concern with urban area, the
objective should also reflect to fulfil the need of human population.
Consequently, more comprehensive definitions are developed by scholars to incorporate
these objectives. One of the most cited definitions is by Miller (1997) which defines urban
forestry as the art, science and technology of managing trees and forest resources in and
around urban community ecosystems for the physiological, sociological, economic, and
aesthetic benefits trees provide society.
Miller has clearly pointed out that the
management of urban forest is mainly concern to enhance the overall quality of life for
human and their society.
According to Konijnendijk et. al. (2006), the phrase was first mentioned in the United States
as early as in 1894. Presley (1986) also writes that the American Forests magazine has
brought out an article entitled "A Forester Whose Field is in the City" in 1910. It indicates
that human have been involved in this activities, although it was yet to be known as urban
forestry.
However, the concept of urban forestry was actually first introduced in North America by
Jorgensen at the University of Toronto, Canada, in 1965 during the 46th International
Shade Tree Conference. Jorgensen also described in 1970 that urban forestry is a
specialised branch of forestry and has its objectives of the cultivation and management of
trees for their present and potential contribution to the physiological, sociological and
economic wellbeing of urban society (Jorgensen, 1986). These contributions include the
overall ameliorating effect of trees on their environment, as well as their recreational and
general amenity value.
Of course, the concept was initially introduced as a branch of the forestry profession. In
addition, the Society of American Foresters has also recognised urban forestry as a distinct
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branch of the forestry profession. As a result, in North America, urban forestry is more
focused on single trees or stands of trees located in or near urban areas (Konijnendijk et.
al., 2005). However, they also quote that in the European countries, urban forestry has
been more diversified and number of professions have participated and feel responsible for
one or more aspects related to forests, trees and other green space.
Eventually, for few decades, the concept has been expanding and adapted, following to the
continual challenges of trees management in urban perspective. Urban forestry is now
recognised as an interdisciplinary approach together with the issues of growing trees in the
urbanised area. According to Deneke (1978), although urban forestry is a specialised
branch of forestry, it is multi-managerial in nature involving forests, watersheds, wildlife,
outdoor recreation, landscape aesthetics, individual tree care, waste recycling, and wood
production. Nobles (1980) also point out that urban forestry may relate to all areas within
the urban environment that can support vegetation, as well as to apply landscape design,
tree maintenance, and the urban wood utilisation. Therefore, besides forestry, Deneke
(1978) suggests that it encompasses many other disciplines including arboriculture,
horticulture, plant pathology, landscape architecture, entomology, community planning and
development, and even political science.
Consequently, urban forestry is a profession that deals with the management of urban
forest. Its concern with all woody and associated vegetation in single or groups around
urbanised human settlements. It is gradually recognised internationally while there are
more people live in cities today than in rural areas.
1.3
The Scope of Urban Forestry
It is clear that the practice of urban forestry deals with various disciplines with the main goal
to enhance the overall quality of life for human and their society. From the discussion, it
can be concluded that the scope of the profession is apparently involved in list of
associated management aspects that may not be definite, such as shown in the figure
below:
Planning and
design strategy
of urban forest
Environment and
ecosystem
management
Tree planting
and care
Goal - enhancing the
quality of human life and
society
Outdoor recreation aesthetic and human

use
Financial and
economy benefits
The scope of management in urban forestry

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The associated management aspects that involved in urban forestry are as follows:
1.4
a)
Planning and design strategies of urban forest

In the planning aspects, it involved in all the legislation aspects such as the legal
course of action between private or public properties, the political perspective, the
State planning policies or development guidelines. The design strategies are
such as the planting design process, plants suitability selection, and the likes.
b)
Environment and ecosystem management

These scope concern on the environmental aspects and ecosystem management
in managing all urban forest resources. Amongst the common approaches
include such as recycling process, wildlife conservation, sustainable urban forest
management, stormwater management, etc.
c)
Tree planting and care

This scope concern on all aspects of tree establishment include tree planting or
transplanting, the plant science, and together with all regular maintenance
practices of trees include fertilising, pruning, pest management and the likes.
d)
Outdoor recreation
In order to enhance the quality of human life and society, urban forest should be
managed for the benefits of human and their societies. It can be a strategic
location for outdoor exercise or for local community to have their social and
gathering activities. The aesthetical value should also be considered as one of
an important aspect.
e)
Financial and economy benefits

Urban forest also deals with financial matter and the management scope should
also consider all in-house products such as fibre and wood for commercialisation.
Urban forest management
The increasingly interest in urban forestry has also initiated scholars to suggest a more
specific concept of urban forest management. For instance, Cordell (1979) writes that
urban forest management is the process through which multiple urban resources are
manipulated to provide long-term benefits to society. This definition designates that urban
forestry is more concern as the subject matter or profession, while urban forest
management is concern with the act or process to achieve the objectives. Furthermore,
Shafer and Moeller (1979) also outline that basically, urban forest management and
research involves at least four major areas of interest, namely as the following:
the benefits that people can get from urban forest;
the biological processes of urban forest and their effect towards environment;
the process of planting, growing and maintenance of all urban forest resources; and
good planning, design and management approaches of urban forest in the
development process.
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In addition, Dwyer et. al. (2003) focus their concern on the community aspect in the
management of urban forest. They suggest that urban forest managers should consider
list of the following factors to be comprehensive and adaptive:
the role and involvement of the community
the role and form of urban forest in fulfilling the community needs
applying an effective management plan that continually address the community
needs and urban forest
1.5
Conclusion
Although there is no definite meaning of urban forestry, the concept of urban forest
represents all woody plants especially trees in the urban area. Somehow, the term urban
forest may also associated with all other outdoor areas that can support vegetation include
urban woodlands, green spaces, roadside planting, buffer planting, residential; commercial;
industrial or institutional tree plantings, and the likes. On the other hand, the term urban
forestry carries the connotations of the profession that deals with urban forest management
in utilising it resources for the purpose to enhance the human life and society.
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2.0 The Benefits of Urban Forest

Urban forests are an important element in urban environment. There are many benefits of
urban forest and trees. It can improve the environment to reduce the impact of urban
development. Urban forest and vegetation can reduce stress and influence peoples health
and psychological well-being. It may also enhance the property value and to promote
wildlife. The presents of trees and vegetation may also soften and enhances man-made
structures by complementing these natural elements into urban surroundings. Therefore,
urban forest and trees should be taken care as one of a major asset in a city.
Although these references suggest some distinctiveness, in this chapter, the benefits of
urban forest are listed into eight categories. These categories are the environmental
benefits, psychological benefits, architectural and aesthetical benefits, social benefits,
recreational benefits, economy benefits, ecological benefits and educational benefits.
2.1
The environmental benefits of urban forest
Environmental benefits are all benefits that associated with the atmosphere and physical
surrounding. It is undeniable that environmental benefit is among the most importance
reason to have urban forests and trees in a city.
In the matter of air quality in the environment, the most important role of plants and
vegetation is they convert the carbon dioxide to oxygen in the atmosphere. Through
chlorophylls and with the present of light energy, they carry out photosynthesis to produce
foods of carbohydrate while releasing oxygen. Through this process, they also remove
carbon from the atmosphere and store it in their biomass. The amount of carbon from the
atmosphere that removed annually by trees is called carbon sequestration (McNeil et. al.
2006)
Carbon sequestration is very important to maintain the level of carbon dioxide (CO2) from
atmosphere in order to reduce the greenhouse effect. High level of carbon dioxide and
other associate gasses will trap heat in the atmosphere that prohibits it from releasing to
the space. It is known that the main cause for global greenhouse effect is carbon dioxide.
Trees sequester carbon dioxide from the air and act as carbon storage in their trunk,
branches, leaves and roots.
On the other hand, trees also remove pollution gasses in the atmosphere by absorbing
them through stomata cells at the leaf surfaces. As living forms, they also conduct
respiration, where food is utilised to produce energy for living.
Urban forests can also control the quality of air by preventing harmful land pollutants that
contained in the soil from getting into the waterways. It can remove the pollutants by
absorbing it to the ground.
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In the matter of temperature control, in general, trees can control wind flow to reduce heat
to reach ground, reduce solar radiation, and humidity control by rain screen or reduce
runoff.
Further facts and evidences on the environmental and physical values of urban forests and
trees in cities are such listed as follows:
According to ISA (2005), as for the environmental benefits, trees can provide a better
environment by moderating the climate, improving air quality and conserving water.
Trees intercept water, store some of it, and therefore reduce storm runoff and the
possibility of flooding.
Nowak et. al. (2007) quote for United States, urban forests are estimated to produce
about 61 million metric tons of oxygen annually. This is comparatively enough for the
consumption of about two-third of the whole U.S. population.
According to Goddard (1978), trees filter out noise. Trees also absorb the polluted air
but release a cleaner one with more oxygen and less pollutants. They reduce the
temperature through their shade and can screen bad views through the form.
Heisler (1977) even quotes that trees are effective to control noise by scattering out the
sound waves before being absorbed by the ground. Compact tree plantings can
definitely help to reduce traffic noise especially along urban roads.
McNeil et. al. (2006) write that trees can filter noise and act as an acoustical control.
They add, a screen of dense coniferous trees 30 meters wide can absorb 6-8 decibels
of noise.
The Delaware Center for Horticulture (retrieved 01.02.10) states that a well-managed
urban forest can controls runoff and flooding, reducing stormwater facility costs and
water pollution, removes air pollution that causes human health concerns and global
climate change, moderates temperatures and reduces energy consumption for heating
and cooling.
Heisler (1986) also list out some of the environmental benefits of trees in cities as
follows:
a) Controlling air temperature and humidity which one house in a neighbourhood with
many trees will be much cooler than air temperature around other houses.
b) Trees can also directly affect thermal radiation heat flows or indirectly affect them
by blocking solar radiation and greatly reducing ground surface temperatures.
c) References also indicate that an average reductions in solar radiation on horizontal
surfaces by mature open-grown deciduous trees range from about 70 to 90% on
clear days in summer and from about 20 to 55% in winter.
Campbell (1993) also list out benefit of trees in urban:
a) A mature tree in summer transpires up to 100 gallons of water a day, equivalent to
five large air conditioners operating 20 hours a day, with resulting temperature
decreases of 5-12 degrees
b) Dust counts can be decreased by 75% downwind of urban plantings. Fumes and
bad odours can be intercepted by trees or masked by their more pleasing odours.
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c) Well-placed tree buffers help channel traffic, control hazardous glare and reduce
unwanted noise by up to 50%.
According to Dwyer et. al. (1992), the influence of urban trees and forests on the
physical and biological environment are as follows:
a) Urban and community forests can strongly influence the physical/biological
environment and mitigate many impacts of urban development by moderating
climate, conserving energy, carbon dioxide, and water, improving air quality,
controlling rainfall runoff and flooding, lowering noise levels, harboring wildlife, and
enhancing the attractiveness of cities.
b) Urban forests can play an important role in urban hydrologic processes by reducing
the rate and volume of stormwater runoff, flooding damage, stormwater treatment
costs, and water quality problems.
c) Field tests have shown that properly designed plantings of trees and shrubs can
significantly reduce noise.
According to McPherson et. al. (1993), urban forests ameliorate climate and human
comfort through:
a) shading, which reduces the amount of radiant energy absorbed, stored, and
radiated by built surfaces,
b) evapotranspiration, which converts radiant energy into latent energy, thereby
reducing sensible heat that warms the air, and
c) air flow modification, which affects transport and diffusion of energy, water vapor,
and pollutants.
Maria do Carmo (1994) states that urban forest may be a main issue in urban planning
because it defines and structures the space. However, it will strongly affect city's
environmental quality and directly affecting public health. Urban forest promotes
benefits to the environment such as:
a) towards microclimate stability
b) the improvement of urban soil conditions.
c) the decrease of atmospheric pollution. Well planted streets can retain up to 70% of
the airborne dirt.
d) the reduction of costs of thermal conditioning in buildings.
e) the improvement of light and acoustic conditions.
f) the increasing property value through environmental landscape enhancement, and
According to Beckett et. al. (2000), trees situated close to a busy road captured
significantly more material from the largest particle size fraction than those situated at a
rural or background site. In particular, coniferous species were found to capture more
particles than the broad-leaves, with pines (Pinus spp.) capturing significantly more
material than cypresses (Cupresses spp.). They even conclude as the following:
a) Trees can capture significant quantities of health-damaging particles from the
atmosphere with the potential to improve local air quality
b) There are marked species differences in the ability of trees to capture pollutant
particles, such that conifers may be the best choice for pollution-control plantings.
c) Among the broad-leaved species studied, those with rough leaf surfaces are most
effective at capturing particles.
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2.2
The psychological benefits of urban forest
The psychological benefits concern on how urban forests and trees can provide positive
impacts towards human mind and their behaviours. Urban forests consist of vegetation
especially trees which are associated with natural forms and appearance that have the
pleasant effect to human mind. Further evidences indicate that these physiological benefits
may also contribute to human health and well-being.
2.2.1
The effects of trees on psychological aspects are listed as follows:
Ulrich (1986) also quoted that responses to trees and other vegetation can be linked
directly to health, and in turn related to economic benefit of visual quality. The
presence of vegetation, especially trees, has positive effects on preference.
Cackowski and Nasar (2003) also suggest that exposure to vegetation can facilitate
recovery from stress and fatigue. Roadside vegetation is amongst the elements that
appear to have restorative effects in reducing frustration.
Campbell (1993) also quotes that surgery patients recuperate faster with a view of
trees.
2.2.2
The impacts on natural and green spaces that urban forests can offer are explained
below:
Amongst the earlier study by Ulrich (1979) discovered that individuals feel significantly
better from stress after exposure to nature scenes rather than urban scenes that
lacking nature elements.
Nature exposures increase positive affects including
friendliness, playfulness and elation.
Kaplan, R. (1993) discovered that view on natural elements will strongly affected
satisfaction and restorative ratings, promote less frustration and more patience, higher
enthusiasm and life satisfaction as well as the overall health.
According to Velarde et. al. (2007), the visible landscape is believed to affect human
beings in many ways, including aesthetic appreciation and health and well-being.
Generally, the natural landscapes gave a stronger positive health effect compared to
urban landscapes. Urban landscapes were found to have a less positive and in some
cases negative effect on health.
2.2.3
The values of having urban forests in cities are illustrated as the following:
The Delaware Center for Horticulture homepage (retrieved 01.02.10) quotes that urban
forests may improve quality of life by reducing stress levels, enhancing social cohesion,
reducing crime and decreasing demand for social services.
Dwyer et. al (1992) also quotes various benefits of urban forests:
a) Urban forest may reduce stress and improved physical health for urban residents.
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b)
Psychologically, urban forest environments provide aesthetic surroundings,

increased enjoyment of everyday life, and a greater sense of meaningful connection
between people and the natural environment.
According to Grahn and Stigsdotter (2003), the more often a person visits urban open
green spaces, the less often he or she will report stress-related illness. The more time
they spent per week will also give a similar result.
Hansmann et. al. (2007) also quote that people who reported of feeling stressed and
out of balance experienced large increases in personal well-being during their time in
the green area. It appears that leisure activities in forest and parks might mitigate even
intense levels of psychological stress. Their study shows that the restorative effects of
visiting an urban forest and a city park in Zurich, Switzerland have showed positive
impacts on health. Suffering from headaches and stress decreased significantly, and
feeling well-balanced increased significantly. The recovery ratio for stress was 87%,
and the reduction in headaches was 52%.
Raffaele et. al. (2009) study also shows results indicate that longer and frequent visits
of green spaces generate significant improvements of the perceived benefits and wellbeing among users.
2.3
Architectural and Aesthetical benefits urban forest
The architectural and aesthetical benefits deal with the design and perception of the public
towards urban forests and trees. Trees may add interest and attractiveness of a place and
therefore may promote other associate benefits, such as to increase property value.
The Newcastle City Council (2007) also clarifies aesthetic values as one of the benefits
of urban forests.
According Campbell (1993), urban trees soften architectural lines; articulate entry
points and lends colour and distinction to public buildings.
In the matter of communal benefits, trees can enhance and function on one property
without infringing on the rights and privileges of neighbours. They provide privacy,
emphasize views, or screen out objectionable views (ISA, 2005)
Sommer et. al. (1990) proved that there is a high satisfaction for householders in
response to street trees.
Further statement by Schroeder (1989) quotes that research on human perception of
urban environments has shown repeatedly that trees have a powerful positive influence
on aesthetics and visual quality. Trees also promote relaxation and recovery from
stress. While street trees are primarily valued for visual aesthetics and shade, large
trees are the most preferred, especially when their foliage forms a continuous canopy
above the street.
According to Goddard (1978), urban forests can provide scenic appeal and natural
beauty which often is missing in urban areas.
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Faulkner (2004) in McNeil et. al. (2006) states that in architectural benefits, urban forest
can provide privacy control, screen objectionable views and gradual unfolding of a view.
While for aesthetic benefits, urban forests softens, complements or enhances
architecture by bringing natural elements into urban surroundings; emphasizes change
of seasons; provides 'play' areas; and add beauty through their shape, texture, colour,
and fragrance.
Dwyer et. al (1991) also state that apart from the sensory experiences they provide,
trees are also often valued as carriers of symbolic meaning such as the used of trees
as symbols of people as well as in religions.
2.4
The social benefits of urban forest
Perhaps, the most beneficial of having urban forest in cities from the aspect of social is it
promotes social interaction for the people and local communities. Urban forests may
attract significant numbers of visitors from every age group to spend their leisure time
there. It can also be a strategic location for local community to have their social or
gathering activities.
According to Urban Green Spaces Taskforce (2002), green spaces can foster social
inclusion and community development, citizenship and local pride by giving people the
chance to participate in the design, management and care of their local spaces. They
can also contributing to heritage and culture by providing reservoirs for collective
memory, venues for local festivals and civic celebration, and a livelier, more varied
townscape.
According to Lohr et. al. (2004), on their surveyed amongst residents of the largest
metropolitan areas in the continental United States show that the ability of trees to
shade and cool surroundings was the highest-ranked benefit. Their potential to help
people feel calmer was ranked second highest. Potential problems with trees were not
considered to be reasons not to use trees.
The public are now appreciating trees. According to Dwyer et. al. (1989), a study of
urbanites who use parks and forest reserved indicates that they are willing to pay
substantial amounts to have trees and forests in recreation areas.
Dwyer et. al (1992) also quote various benefits of urban forests. In the social
dimensions, these benefits are as the followings:
a) The presence of urban trees and forests can make the urban environment a more
desirable environments as a place to live, work, and spend leisure time.
b) Urban forests may promote stronger sense of community, empowerment of inner
city residents to improve neighbourhood conditions, and promotion of environmental
responsibility and ethics can be attributed to involvement in urban forestry efforts.
2.5
The recreational benefits of urban forest
Urban forest and tress can also provides a wide range of recreational activities. For
example, trees provide shade that can encourage recreational activities such as sitting,
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relaxing, reading, jogging, musical exercise, picnicking, cycling or skateboarding. Where

suitable, urban forest can be the site together with playground or sport field for various
active and passive activities. Tree climbing is a challenging and interesting activity that can
be held for certain type of species. Further evidences also indicate that these recreational
benefits can significantly contribute to human health and well-being.
Johns (1978) justifies that recreational opportunities are among the benefits that trees
in urban can provide.
Maria do Carmo (1994) states that urban forest may be the options for recreation and
leisure for the population, especially low income, in public areas such as parks, squares
and gardens.
Urban Green Spaces Taskforce (2002) also states that green spaces can promoting
healthy and preventing illness by providing places for physical activities, including
walking and cycling
Chen and Jim (2008) also quote that where appropriate, urban forests that
supplemented with playgrounds and sports fields may provide diverse range of passive
and active recreational system including sitting, reading, sunbathing, playing with
friends or children, tree climbing and hiding, picnicking or eating, and watching and
feeding wildlife or birds.
2.6
The economy benefits of urban forest
The economy factors are concern on how does urban forest can save cost or gain revenue
whether in short or long run. These economic benefits are also very associated with
energy conservation which can be obtained from urban forest and trees. Urban forest and
trees may encourage a healthier lifestyle to the neighbourhood and therefore may reduce
the overall annual expenditure needed for their medical treatment.
In addition, besides producing fibre and wood, various medicinal substances also derived
from some species of trees that can be commercialised to generate income. Further
evidences also indicate numerous economy benefits of urban forest and trees.
Besides directly storing carbon, urban trees also reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
by cooling ambient air and allowing residents to minimize annual heating and cooling
(Rowntree et. al., 1991)
The Delaware Center for Horticulture homepage (retrieved 01.02.10) quotes that
maintaining a robust tree canopy can provide more than 2.5 times the return on
investment. It also suggests that urban forest can enhances community economic
viability and increases property values of a place.
According to McPherson (2005) in McNeil (2006), trees pay us back, which a cost
benefit analysis of 100 trees over 40 years resulted in a net benefit of US $244,000.
Trees are also a wise investment of funds because planted homes are more valuable
than non-planted homes (ISA, 2005.)
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According to Campbell (1993), property values are increased by 15-20% when homes
are surrounded by large trees or are located on well-shaded avenues
According to Morales (1980), from the values derived by the regression analysis, it was
found that good tree cover added approximately six percent of the total property value of
the homes observed.
Furthermore, according to Johns (1978) within our green world, trees are the oldest,
largest, and most important life forms. They provide shade, beauty, screening, historic,
and sentimental attachments with the past, living air and water filters for our effluent
discharges, as well as adding financially to real estate values by as much as 20%.
Rudie and Dewers (1984) also indicate that the value of shade trees in the home
landscape in reducing cooling energy costs, and illustrates that optimum position for
trees in relation to a home setting.
McPherson et. al. (1993) also quoted their findings in the aspect of economic benefits
from trees. From monitoring and computer simulation studies, it indicates that trees can
be a cost-effective energy conservation measure for some electric utilities. They suggest
that a single 25-ft tall tree can reduce annual heating and cooling costs of a typical
residence by 8 to 12 percent.
Heisler (1986) also listed out some of the benefits of trees in cities as follows:
a) For windbreaks, it is estimated that seasonal energy reductions from tree
windbreaks range is up to 40%. For houses with a windbreak on only one side,
estimated savings ranged from 23 to 25%.
b) A summary of research data suggests that the maximum potential annual effect of
trees on energy use in conventional houses is about 20 to 25% compared to the
same house in the open.
Dwyer et. al (1992) have also quoted various benefits of urban forests in the economic
dimensions. These benefits are:
a) In term of real estate values, the sales value of real estate reflects the benefits that
buyers attach to the attributes of that property, including the trees and forest
resource found on the property, along the street, and in neighbouring parks and
greenways.
b) Urban forest resources also make a broad contribution to the economic vitality of a
city, neighbourhood, or subdivision. While this is particularly difficult to quantify,
many cities and towns are named after trees and forests in U.S. There are many
areas strive to be designated as a "Tree City USA."
On the other hand, urban forests and trees may also produce fibre and wood for
commercialisation. It can act as a short-rotation pulp and paper plantations.
According to Wolf (2003), study results suggest that higher price valuations are
mediated by psychological inferences of district character and product quality. Thus,
creating and stewarding an urban forest canopy may enhance revenues for businesses
in retail districts that offer diverse products at varied prices.
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Further study by Laverne et. al. (2003) show that landscaping with a good aesthetic
value added approximately 7% to the average rental rate of a building. Good building
shade was also highly valued, positively impacting rental rates by about 7%.
McPherson et. al. (1991) findings suggest that trees can be a cost-effective substitute
for shelters at bus stops in mid-latitude cities where shade is useful.
2.7
The ecological benefits of urban forests
Of course, one of the main ecological benefits of urban forest is the creation of habitats for
wildlife. Urban forests support a high level of biodiversity to provide many types of habitats
for many species. These include flora, birds, bat, mammals, and many insects. Urban
forest can be a strategic place for migratory birds to stop by. On the other hand, trees in
urban may also act as a connector and corridors network between green spaces for wildlife
conservation. The more canopy cover of tree means the more ecosystem benefits they
can provide.
According to Dwyer et. al. (1992), urban trees and forests will promote ecological
stability by providing habitat for wildlife, conserving soil, and enhancing biodiversity.
Maria do Carmo (1994) also states that urban forest benefits include the improvement of
the hydrological cycle and the increase in the diversity and quantity of species of urban
fauna.
According Dyck (2003), listed some specific of ecological benefits are as follows:
a) The forest systems provide such efficient filters that often used to treat wastewater
or waste solids, either from domestic treatment plants, from industry, or from
agricultural land. Forest treatment of wastes act as an ecological function as it
purifies waste streams.
b) Trees are recognised for their ability to stabilise soils and reduce erosion. They
also increase soil carbon (organic matter) and soil fertility levels.
c) Understorey plants can also flourish under tree cover and provide habitat and food
sources for fauna.
According to Bolund and Hunhammar (1999), urban forests are amongst urban
ecosystem which can act as an ecosystem services that refers to the benefits human
populations derive from ecosystems. These systems generate a range of ecosystem
services include air filtration, micro climate regulation, noise reduction, rainwater
drainage, sewage treatment, and recreational and cultural values. They concluded that
these locally generated ecosystem services have a substantial impact on the quality-oflife in urban areas and should be addressed in land-use planning.
2.8
The educational benefits of urban forest
Trees and urban forest can provide educational benefits for local community. Various
types of tree species can be the model for outdoor learning activities such as plants
identification and species characteristics. Watching and feeding wildlife or birds can also
be as type of the educational exercises.
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In addition, urban forest can be a fine site for field works study of courses such as
ecological system, biological wildlife, horticultural practice or botanical variety and
education. It can also act as an ideal site to conduct relevance scientific research.
Chen and Jim (2008) also describe that urban forests can provide sites for conducting
scientific research, which can contribute to a more thorough and holistic understanding
of urban ecosystems in general.
The Urban Green Spaces Taskforce (2002) states that green spaces can encourage
education and lifelong learning by providing valuable resource for learning about the
natural world and local environment. They are increasingly used as an outdoor
classroom for school subjects ranging from nature study to citizenship. They can help
rekindle the relationship between urban residents and the natural world, and provide an
educational resource for children and adults alike. They can also provide work
experience and learning opportunities in environmental management and opportunities
for community activities.
2.9
Conclusion
Trees and urban forests are far more important for our life than we can expect. In general,
they enhance the quality of our life with their role towards the environment and human
health. Their values are not merely for beautification but most importantly, they generate
local ecosystem and act as an ecosystem services for the benefit of human life.
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3.0 Urban Environmental Issues

Unlike natural forest, trees in most urban areas are often suffered on stressful environment.
The effect of urban heat island, heat radiation, environmental pollution of air and soil
contaminants, dust, restricted root, utility conflicts, stormwater runoff, over fertilising, etc
are generally associated with urban condition that will direct or indirectly affect all
vegetation, including trees.
From the perspective of plants growth, the urban issues can be divided into two types,
namely as the general environmental issues and the site physical issues. The general
environmental issues are associated with the global environment and atmosphere factors
such as the quality of air and the likes, while the site physical issues are concern with the
physical factors at the planting site such as a restricted root space and a compacted soil
condition. This chapter will explain on the urban environmental factor with the four main
issues:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
3.1
Green house effect and urban heat island

Degradation of air quality
Storm water mismanagement, and
Declining biodiversity
Greenhouse effect and urban heat island
The greenhouse effect is the increase in temperature of the earth surfaces caused by
certain gasses that are trapped in the atmosphere and being heat up by sun. These gases
are released by the activities of human that mainly by burning fossil fuels.
The present of these gasses is actually important so that the heat energy from the sun will
not all radiate back to space that may cause the earth surface to be in extremely cold
condition. For millions of years, the amount of these gases was low and constant to
maintain the temperature level of the earth to support life forms of flora and fauna.
However, with the increased of amount particularly beginning from the industrialisation era,
the effect has become more noticeable. It has increased the earth temperature that also
contributed to the phenomenon of global warming. These gases are namely as water
vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane or other fluorinated compounds. For that
reason, they are called the greenhouse gases and amongst these, water vapour and
carbon dioxide are known to be the major cause of this phenomenon. The greenhouse
effect occur because these gases allow much of the suns ray in but then trap the heat by
preventing most of it from directly escape to the atmosphere. Akbari (2001) even quotes
that the increased use of fossil fuel and deforestation together has raised atmospheric CO 2
concentration some 25% over the last 150 years.
According to the New World Encyclopedia (2008), the earth reflects about 30 percent of the
incoming solar radiation. Thus, from the remaining seventy percent, 19 percent is
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absorbed by the atmosphere while 51 percent reached to the land and water that warming
the earth surface and used for many process include evaporation and plant photosynthesis.
High amount of gasses released by human

activities are trapped at the atmosphere
Some suns rays are

prevented from released
back to the atmosphere
and are heat up
The Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is also particularly caused by other human activities such as
industrial discharges or burning other forms of energy. This is more particularly happens in
the urbanised area, which is also contribute to phenomenon of urban heat island. Urban
heat island refers to the situation of urbanised area to stay warmer than its surroundings.
This effect is also caused by the lack of vegetation and the presence on large amount of
man-made structures such as road, pavement and buildings. Lack of plants will lessen the
capacity to absorb sunlight or to evaporate water that may reduce the heat effect. The
presence of more man-made structures which are water resistant will also absorb heat
from sunlight and raise the temperature of those surfaces during day time. These materials
will release heat after sun set that resulting a warmer effect during night time. Therefore,
one may say that urbanisation is the main reason of urban heat island.
34 32 30
Temperature (Celsius)
Large
amount
of
man-made
structures will absorb heat from
sunlight
and
raise
the
temperature
Sub-urban/rural
Urban area
Sub-urban/rural
Urban heat island

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Vegetation play a main role to intercepts radiation and produces shade that may also
reduce urban heat effect. Trees also sequester carbon dioxide from the air and act as
carbon storage in their trunk, branches, leaves and roots. Therefore, the decrease number
of plants in cities will also contribute to the effect of greenhouse and urban heat island. In
the end, it will also contribute to global warming, that is the increase earth average
temperature due to these reasons. Global warming is to be the major issue in the world
presently which one of the clearest impacts is the melting glaciers. This will gradually
increase the water level of sea in the earth, modifies rainfall patterns and may give an
impact towards the planets overall climate.
3.2
Degradation of air quality
Urban areas are known to be in a degradation of air quality condition with the issue of
pollution by emissions.
The general meaning of pollution is the contamination of air, water, or soil by substances
that are harmful to living organisms (The American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2005).
According to California Environmental Protection Agency (2010), air pollution is the
degradation of air quality resulting from the unwanted chemicals or other materials
occurring in the air.
The causes of air pollutions can be as naturally or by human activities. The naturally
caused of air pollutions are such as volcanic eruption or burning forest by lightning, while
the human activities include burning fuel or automobile emissions.
According to Karnosky (1978), ozone (O3) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are amongst the air
pollutants that known can cause more damages to urban trees. Particularly, according to
Cowling (1987), the major chemicals of air pollutants are in the urban area as listed as the
followings:
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) that is produced during the combustion from materials such as
coal, oil, and biomass.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2) that are also released from the process of combustion
from materials such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
Toxic elements These are heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, mercury, fluorine
and other toxic elements that are released from list of processes including petrol and
diesel consumption of vehicles
Volatile organic compounds (VOC) Variety of carbon compounds include ethylene,
gasoline, cleaning and painting solvents, pesticides, etc.
Carbon monoxide (CO) that is a highly toxic gas that produced during incomplete
combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas and incineration of garbage.
Particulate matter (PM) that is a category of pollutants ranging from very coarse dust to
fine aerosol particles that may cause atmospheric haze or effecting the respiratory
system.
Ozone (O3) and other photochemical oxidants These include peroxyacetyl nitrate
(PAN) and peroxyproprionyl nitrate (PPN) that occur as an extra pollutants which are
produced when Nitrogen oxides and VOC interact with oxygen at the atmosphere.
Various acid depositions that are produced when the released gaseous chemicals
interact with oxygen, ammonia, and moisture in the atmosphere.
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Cowling (1987) also listed out the effects of air pollutants on our natural environment and
community. These are the direct or indirectly effects on human health; damage to
materials; increased haze in the atmosphere; acidification of water bodies, ground waters
and soils; fumigation of surrounding plants; effecting the health and productivity of urban
forests; and fertilisation of plants and surface waters.
According to Beer and Higgins (2000), plants play important roles to make the climate more
moderate locally and they also have a major impact through the great forests on world and
regional climates. In terms of air quality, plants cleansing the air and making it breathable
by animals and man through photosynthesis or by trapping dirt and dust particles. Most
importantly, trees will also remove pollutants and carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air. For
instance, the trees in the central part of Beijing removed 1261.4 tons of pollutants from the
air and stored carbon dioxide (CO2) in biomass form by the urban forest that was amounted
to about 0.2 million tons in 2002 (Yang et. al., 2005),
However, they also added that air pollution may also be the cause for plants to die.
Kozlowski (1980) states that air pollution can adversely affect the physiological processes
of tree to decrease growth without necessarily causing visible symptoms of injury. He even
particularly adds that conifers are generally injured more than broadleaved trees by air
pollutants. For this reason, Beckett et. al. (2000) justify that coniferous plants tend to
capture more particles from the atmosphere than the broad-leaves
3.3
Stormwater mismanagement
Stormwater is runoff water from urban areas that especially caused by rains. Managing
stormwater is to make sure all water are not to be disposed as quickly as possible to urban
drainage system that may cause flooding. More and more impervious surfaces of manmade structures such as road and pavement in urbanised area will cause more problem of
managing the stormwater.
Therefore, stormwater management (also known as
Sustainable Urban Drainage System - SUDS) is a task to manage the water to be stored,
or recycled for commercial and domestic use. Respectively, according to Landphair and
Klatt (1987), the primary goal of any stormwater management program is the control and
mitigation of flooding and associated problems.
Managing stormwater should be in a comprehensive manner, which natural approaches
may result a much better solution. It should also address other problems such as pollution,
erosion, sedimentation, and groundwater protection. Other important values such as
resource conservation, environmental quality or public amenity should also be well thoughtout.
Therefore, proper management of urban stormwater is an important factor in managing the
environment. Mismanagement of stormwater and urban runoff may results in flooding,
erosion, and water quality problems. For example, using water basins to collect storm
runoff is not just to prevent flooding, but also to control the water from carrying chemical
substances such as fertilisers, pesticides and other contaminants directly into storm drains.
Over-fertilised or contaminated water may lead to other environmental issues such as
triggering algae blooms that may destroy habitat for fish and crabs.
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Getting the stormwater into the soil through biological processes of filtering is amongst the
wise approach of restoring water quality. Using environmental-friendly elements such as
tree canopy and rain gardens may also filter the run-off water before polluting the drainage
system or the underground water.
3.4
Declining biodiversity
Biodiversity derives from two words, bio and diversity. Bio refers to all living things while
diversity means variety or many types. Therefore, biodiversity refers to many types of
living things and the general meaning of biodiversity is the variety of life forms that exist on
the earth. Corona (1993) gives the meaning of biodiversity as the variety and variability
among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur.
Biodiversity should not be confused by large number of single species. According to
Newcastle City Council (2007), biodiversity is usually considered at three levels: genetic
diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Meffe et al. (2002) even elaborate the
concept of biodiversity should encompasses on the entirety of life and the various
processes the living organism undergoes or participates in, such as nutrient cycling,
predator-prey interactions, migrations, trophic dynamics, and evolutionary change.
These life forms are referred as all species of flora and fauna including microorganisms.
They grow in habitats in the ecosystems such as tropical forest, desert or at sea. Biological
diversity has multiple functions such as protecting the mangrove swamp or as a natural
filter in the soil.
Therefore, biological diversity will promote the ecosystem productivity. For instance, the
more diversity of plants means the increase of food security for man and wildlife. Greater
diversity of species will create healthy ecosystems that will naturally sustain all life forms to
resist from any disasters. Human health also depends on biodiversity as many of
medicinal substances also derived from the natural resource.
Therefore, to sustain a healthy life, human need to preserve the diversity of plants and
wildlife. According to the United Nations Environment Programme homepage (retrieved 06
July 2010), it is estimated that 40 per cent of the global economy is based on biological
products and processes. Hence, the more diversity of species means the greater possibility
of economic development. Effective use of biodiversity at all levels is a precondition for
sustainable development.
In addition, there are also other importance of biodiversity include for aesthetical value and
to promote tourism industry. Aesthetical value may promote the sense of attraction of a
place while the concept of ecotourism industry is based on the significant value of natural
and ecosystem environment of a site to be the fundamental activities for visitors.
However, the process of urbanism and human activities are causing the loss of species of
plants and animals over time. Many ecosystem functions are lost which may affect human
health. According to UNEP (2002), the global biodiversity is being lost at a very high rate
due to land conversion, climate change, pollution, unsustainable harvesting of natural
resources and the introduction of exotic species. Consequently, it also reports that since
the 1990s, climate change emerged as one of the major potential threats to biodiversity.
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In the scope and practice of urbanisation, fragmentation of land is one of the main causes
of declining biodiversity (Corona, 1993). Some species require several habitats in close
proximity at different times of the year, such as the migratory birds.
According to Alvey (2006), protecting a large natural form of landscape is the ultimate goal
of preserving biodiversity. This may not possible in an urban area that known to be
compacted with structures and development demands. Therefore, having more plants and
vegetation from various species may reduce the impact of declining biodiversity. According
to Dyck (2003), native forests are generally regarded as the best means to conserve
indigenous biodiversity. As for planted forests, exotic trees cover can also provide native
understorey plants, as well as habitat and food sources for native fauna.
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4.0 Urban Forest Management

It is discussed earlier that urban forestry as the art, science and technology of managing
trees and forest resources in and around urban community ecosystems for the benefits of
the society. Therefore, managing urban forest is the concern on how these trees and
forests can enhance its benefits for the community. Dwyer et. al (1992) also quote that
urban forestry planning and management efforts should focus on how the forest can best
meet those needs.
Nevertheless, managing an urban forest is not a straightforward task. Urban forest is
highly regarded as a feature that supports rich biodiversity and restoring quality
environment. Simultaneously, urban forest is also an appropriate location for human social
and recreational activities. Therefore, dealing the conflicts between human needs and
sustaining the ecosystem is amongst the main challenge for urban foresters in managing
urban forests. Situated in urbanised area, urban forests are also exposed to the stressful
surrounding that is less supportive for plants growth.
According to Georgia Forestry Commission (2001), the goal of the model urban forest is to
enlarge and improve the urban tree canopy to obtain the economic, ecological, and social
benefits of trees. While, in consideration of the land use and planting locations, Maco and
McPherson (2002) suggest that 25% coverage of plants in a city is considered as
appropriate and achievable.
In order to improve an urban forest, the Georgia Forestry Commission (2001) has also list
out six principles to be used as part of the urban forest management strategies. The
principles are as the followings:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Preserve all existing trees and urban forests in a city

Allocate more space and area for planting trees
Ensuring the overall environment for tree growing is protected.
Select trees based on species diversity and suitability
Select an efficient planting locations, and
Manage the urban forest as a continuous resource regardless of ownership
boundaries.
Managing urban forest encompass in utilising available inputs to produce targeted outputs.
Of course, dealing with funding is amongst the principal input. Since typically, cost of
managing are gradually increase over years, Dwyer et. al (1992) also quote that the
challenge faced by urban forest resource managers and planners is to balance the many
benefits and costs that are associated with urban trees and forests.
Furthermore, according to Ottitsch et. al. (2005), there are three group of interests in
managing urban forests, whereas most common conflicts arising from them. These are the
social, ecological and economic interest groups. Social interests concern on matters such
as the forest recreation activities, the aesthetic value, or the landowner. The ecological
interest concern on factors include the nature conservation or wildlife protection, while the
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economic interest concern on aspects include employment, land value or timber market.
Therefore, managing urban forest is a very demanding task in balancing these interest
groups to achieve the desired goal. Dyck (2003) also states that the role of management
on planted forest is not so much on the benefits, but more, how do they maximise, or
perhaps optimise these benefits to satisfy as many stakeholders as possible.
However, as explained earlier, Dwyer et. al. (2003) suggest that approaches to urban forest
management must be comprehensive and adaptive to allow for adjustments in
management activities. This is definitely true, following to the complexity of urban forest
ecosystems and their multi-functionality. Therefore, applying urban ecology principles has
been the most conventional approach of managing urban forest. Its focused on ecological
approach of the urban forest as a whole that based on the interrelationship between the
natural systems and balance with sustainable community. A number of models that apply
ecology principles are also developed by scholars to achieve sustainability in managing
urban forest.
4.1
Managing an urban forest
Managing urban forest is an approach to manage urban forest in fulfilling all the benefits
that it can offer. As explained in chapter two, these benefits are categorised as
environmental benefits, psychological benefits, architectural and aesthetical benefits, social
benefits, recreational benefits, economic benefits, ecological benefits, and educational
benefits. By adopting the suggestion from Ottitsch et. al. (2005), these factors can be
generally grouped as the social, economy and ecological dimensions.
The social dimension
These are the factors that direct or indirectly relate to the benefits for the people and
their society. In some way, the psychological, aesthetical and environmental aspects
may have an effect on human well-being. Unquestionably, human health is much
related with their social interaction and recreational activities.
While providing with some of recreational facilities, management should also focus on
promoting the sense of community as well as pleasing environments for people to
spend leisure time. It is also beneficial to involve all communities and people living on
or nearby the urban forest to join in the management team. Public that involve in the
management will have the sense of belonging of the urban forest which in the end
initiate them to care more of the site. Public involvement is now becoming more
essential while the Urban Green Spaces Taskforce (2002) even quotes that community
involvement is at the heart of planning and achieving better urban parks and green
spaces. Amongst the approaches of getting the public to engage successfully as
stakeholders is by establishing urban forest friends group, or recognising them as part
of the team in planning and decision-making process.
The economy dimension
This aspect deals with the cost in managing of urban forest includes all expenses in
recruiting staff, acquisition of material and machinery, and the likes. Of course, funding
is most crucial issue in managing public land of urban forest while they cannot rely
merely on the production of fibre and wood as the main revenue. Therefore, it is
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apparently difficult to manage a public urban forest if profit is to be the main goal. The
rational is at least, to manage within the allotted annual budget of local authorities.
The focus of economy factors should extend towards the non-monetary or intangible
economic returns on how the urban forest can save cost or gain revenue whether in
short or long term. It should be measured through energy conservation which can be
obtained from urban forest and trees, the ecological economics, or perhaps the cost
that are saved by the government from medical and health treatment expenditure.
The ecological dimension
One of the primary goals of urban forest management is to maintain the healthy and
productive ecosystems of the urban forest. Conservation of biodiversity is among the
key factor in achieving ecological benefits. Management should focus on the
complexity, provide quantitative measurement of each characteristic, and carry out the
task over the time while sustaining the natural balance of the ecosystems.
The ecological dimension should not focus merely on individual tree method since it
has a complex interaction between all the natural elements at a scale of maintaining the
biodiversity and the ecosystem of the urban forest as a whole. Managing the ecological
aspect deals with natural elements include soil, water, vegetations, wildlife and micro
organisms. The main agenda should focus on maintaining the natural processes of the
ecosystems. Simultaneously, it should not lessen the importance of social aspects in
the management agenda.
4.2
Sustainable urban forest management
Currently, humankind has shown a serious concern on adopting sustainability in the

management program of urban forest. The term sustainable forest management was
established following to the sustainable development concept that was firstly introduced in
1987 by the Brundtland Report of United Nation. The definition of sustainable development
is development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development is the concern on
the negative impact of development which may be harmful to the environment if no proper
action taken.
In the scope of management, sustainable approach means to sustain all the resources not
to be depleted or permanently lost. Therefore, in principle, the most sustainable urban
forest is forests that can stay survive by its own, without any external input. Apparently, the
existing natural forests that are less interfered by any human activity can be considered as
the most sustainable forest.
Although many discussions are made on the concept of sustainable urban forest
management, the ultimate definition is still difficult to describe. However, it is clear that the
ultimate goal of sustainable urban forest management is to achieve towards a sustainable
urban forest.
In identifying the definition of sustainable urban forest, one may suggest the meaning
through the concept of sustainable landscape. The Department of Environment and
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Heritage, Government of South Australia (undated) defines sustainable landscape as a

healthy and resilient landscape that will endure over the long term without the need for high
input of scarce resources. The key word is these landscapes should be in natural functions
and processes that able to maintain themselves into the future. By means of adopting this
definition, one may suggests that sustainable urban forest is an urban forest that is healthy
and resilient that will tolerate in long term without the need of high input.
Nevertheless, some may also argue with this statement in sense that the concept of urban
forest should not be comparable with natural forest or other landscapes. In their writing,
Clark et. al. (1997) have thoroughly analysed all questions that concern in defining
sustainable urban forest. They claim that sustainable urban forests cannot be separated
from the activities of humans. Sustaining of urban forests should focus at the broadest
level that is the environmental quality, resource conservation, economic development,
psychological health, wildlife habitat, and social well-being. Ultimately, they suggest the
definition of sustainable urban forest as the naturally occurring and planted trees in cities
which are managed to provide the inhabitants with a continuing level of economic, social,
environmental and ecological benefits today and into the future (Clark et. al., 1997)
Through the concept, they also suggest that a model of urban forest sustainability should
be founded on three components, namely as the vegetation resource, the community
framework and the management of the resources.
For vegetation resource, the criteria include an ideal amount of canopy cover, uneven
age distribution of plants, rich in species diversity and the preservation of native
species.
For community framework, the criteria include insure all public agency cooperation,
share common goals and objectives, involvement of all private landholders, green
industry cooperation, participation from all neighbourhood, strong public awareness of
trees as a community resource and the likes. Buchecker et al. (2003) suggest that
promoting direct participation at the local level could help landscapes to develop in a
sustainable way.
For the resource management, the criteria include implementing a management plan
for trees on public and private property, maintain adequate funding, employ adequate
skill staff, apply effective assessment tools, protection of existing trees, proper species
and site selection, ensure citizen safety and enforced recycling programme.
These are the criteria that can steer towards sustainability of an urban forest. In fact, these
criteria can be rated by providing quantitative measurements. In the end, a performance
indicator may demonstrate the achievement level.
In the scope of management task, sustainable urban forest management task is to
minimise all input or output of the forest. Since the main objective of urban forest is for the
benefits of the society, all possibilities in minimising external input should be well-thought
without compromising on the multi benefits that urban forest can offer. On the other hand,
sustainable urban forest management are also concerned to minimise any activities that
can harm the environment. As a result, the use of any chemical substances should be
avoided, or else, to be applied in the most sensible manner.
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Inputs and resources of management task can be grouped into four main categories,
namely as the manpower, money, machineries and materials. In order to minimise input
especially the external resources, utilising all internal inputs should be the best choice. For
example, organic waste from the forest can be utilised to be the fertiliser instead of using
chemical-based substance. Involving local community in the management team may more
or less, be the answer to the issue of labour and manpower.
Furthermore, Gustavsson et. al. (2005) also listed out five approaches towards sustainable
urban forest management. These approaches are adaptation to local conditions; using
natural processes and conditions; the management continuity; minimising use of
chemicals; and sustaining water and recreation management.
a) Adaptation to local conditions
The management approach should adapt to local condition of the site. For instance,
the use of variety native plant species may easily suit to local condition which in the
end, require less effort in managing the trees. However, the use of exotic species
those have long established and adapted to local climate without much human
involvement are also acceptable.
b) Using natural processes and conditions
To promote all natural processes and condition means to encourage natural ecosystem
and bio-diversity of the urban forest. The re-cycling of organic waste from the urban
forest as mulching and compost is known to be an effective way to replace chemical
fertilisers. Trees should be allowed to grow naturally, with less human effect. Prune
trees with a minimal amount when necessary, while all removed branches should be
shredded as mulch.
c) Management continuity
Managing urban forest sustainably is a continuous tasks and monitoring should be
done regularly to ensure the objective is achievable.
d) Minimising use of chemicals
To the extent possible, eliminate or reduce the use of chemical substances in
managing urban forests. Chemical application may poses serious damage not only to
the environment, but also to the public and wildlife. In dealing with pest, selecting a
pest-resistant tree species or applying a more environment-friendly approaches include
mechanical application, should be the preference instead of using chemical pesticide.
The use of non-toxic products which will not harm the environment can also be
explored.
e) Sustaining water and recreation management
Managing water resource sustainably can be carried by collecting and storage storm
water in a water bodies such as retention pond. This natural resource may also be
used for plants maintenance while when possible, irrigation is carried out by natural
gravitational pressure.
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In the scope of recreation management, minimum recreational facilities should be provided.

All recreation facilities should promote the use of local material and minimising any serious
impact to the ecosystem and environment.
4.3
Applying sustainability approaches
As explained earlier, allowing natural processes and efficiently utilising public involvement
are some of the key factors in sustainable urban forest management. All potential local
resources should be effectively utilised and chemical used should be minimised.
An effective arboricultural practices may also be in line towards sustainable urban forest
management. For example, allowing trees to grow in their most natural manner will reduce
the need of pruning. Pruning should be conducted if only necessary and all removed
branches should be shredded as mulches or to produce compost. In addition, applying
heavy mulching may give various benefits such as regulating the soil temperature,
conserving water of soil, controlling weeds and it can turn out to be organic fertiliser as it
decomposed.
In terms of designing urban forest, proper location planting of trees that less interference
with buildings and man-made structures such as sidewalks, roads or utilities may give
advantages in managing trees in urban area. The right species of plant should be selected
at the right place of planting. In many cases too, native species of trees appear to survive
from pest attack or disease much better than the exotics.
A more environment-friendly approach in managing pest or plants disease should be
applied instead of using chemical. Some non-toxic substances can be used to control
certain type of pest. For example, the white vinegar can be used to remove weeds while
onion is also effective to control termites. The Integrated Pest management (IPM)
approach should be fully utilised in controlling pest.
Therefore, managing urban forest towards sustainability requires proper planning approach
and also understanding from all sectors that involved. All involved staffs should primarily
appreciate and be familiar with the concept before everything is on the ground.
Sustainable urban forest management need a long term and continuous efforts from all
party involved.
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5.0 Urban Forest Management Tasks

Urban forests are the vegetation that natively or introduced species, which exists in cities,
towns or suburbs. It is also referred to all other areas that associated with woody plants,
especially trees in the city. The simple idea of urban forest is bringing the concept of forest
into the cities. Since natural forests are more concern with trees, urban forestry is the task
that concern on the care and management of plants population, especially trees in urban
setting.
It has been discussed that trees in most urban areas are often suffer on the stressful
environment. The green house effect and urban heat island, degradation of air quality,
storm water mismanagement, and declining biodiversity are some of listed issues of urban
environment. It will give a direct or indirectly impacts to all vegetation in the urbanised
area.
Urban soils are also often has no organic layer. The common trend of development will
frequently begin by bulldozing the whole site in order to facilitate construction. As a result,
most of the rich topsoil was removed while subsoil that is less suitability for plants growth is
exposed to the ground surfaces.
Urban soils also generally suffered from all human physical activities in towns and cities.
The soil profile may be disturbed, pH may be changed, or drainage scheme are altered.
Laying underground utilities, piling works, building foundations or other construction works
will seriously spoiling the soil. These will directly affect the root system that will cause
plants to be unhealthy and may also die. On the other hand, overhead utilities and planting
close to building structures may restrict space for plants to grow well, especially trees.
Impervious materials such as concrete pavement and bituminous roads are commonly
seen to cover the ground surfaces in urbanised areas. Impervious material will prevent
natural water infiltration and block aeration to the underneath soil. With less water and
aeration, microorganisms are difficult to thrive and then reduce the biological activities. In
the end, the soil will remain poor that constituent of less or no organic matter.
Furthermore, according to Lilly (2001), compaction is one of the biggest problems in urban
soil. Compaction is often caused by construction, foot or vehicular traffic, engineered soils
to support roads for buildings, or other factors. According to Craul (1994), soil compaction
commonly causes damages to soil profile by reducing water infiltration, loss of pore space
and aeration, increased soil density, decreased waterholding capacity, increased
mechanical impedance to root growth to reduce nutrient uptake, and reduction in soil micro
organism activity. In addition, according to Schnelle et. al. (1989), roots are primarily found
in the upper few inches of soil while construction such as asphalt paving can reduce soil
oxygen levels from 18% to as low as 3% in some instances. A below 15 per cent oxygen
within soil pores may affects numerous physiological and metabolic processes include
disintegration of leaf ultrastructure, leading to wilting, chlorosis, abscission and reduced
photosynthetic capacity, as well as stem hypertrophy, blackening of roots and death
(Percival, 2004)
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These results support the supposition that trees in urban environments are subjected to
more type of stresses than trees in natural forests. Therefore, managing urban forest is a
challenging profession that require sufficient skill and knowledge in ensuring tress in the
urban will thrive within these unfavourable surrounding.
According to Percival (2004), about 80 per cent of problems relating to amenity trees are
related to roots. Percival also quotes list of facts concerning tree roots such as follows:
Tree roots spread is up to two to three times than their height. The root growths are
extended well beyond the canopy.
The volume of root growth is predominantly lateral in soils and parallel with the ground
surface.
Roots do not grow towards anything in particular, but will branch profusely when
favourable moisture or nutrient conditions allow.
Tree canopy
Tree roots extend beyond the canopy and most are situated
at the upper level of soil.
For transplanted trees, the tap roots can only survive for the first few years of the trees
life.
Root penetration to 4 or 5 metres depth may rarely occur, particularly in dry areas with
a low water table.
Percival (2004) also quotes that increased soil temperature in urban environments affects
root initiation, branching, orientation, direction of growth and lifespan.
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Urban forest management task

For this book, the management tasks of urban forest are explained in two aspects, that is
management of information system, and the general tree care or maintenance practices.
The management of information system deals with the specific data and information that
are available of the woody plants and the site. The general tree maintenance practices that
will be discussed are planting and transplanting, mulching, pruning, fertilising, and pest
management of urban trees.
5.1
Management information system
Management the information system is an important tool to ensure that the urban forests
are continuously managed to fulfil its purposes for the benefits of social, environmental and
ecological; for today and the future. Or course, the type of data and information are varies
based on specific site condition, climate or species. The management of these relevant
data and information is for the purpose of decision making on the planning and
management program. It is also important that all these data are reliable and are kept upto-date.
Certainly, the there are wide range of data and information that can be compiled for the
management purposes. According to Schipperijn et. al. (2005), among the general
information types are listed as follows:
Basic green-space information
Environmental and ecological information
Socio-cultural information
The basic green-space information includes all general data of urban forest such as the
location of site, the species of tree available, and the individual tree inventory data. It
should also include the maintenance activities of the site and the trees. For example, each
site should have its data such as the site location, the total of tree available, tree density
and the likes. Each tree should also have its individual record such as the routine
maintenance information and the health status.
Environmental and ecological information refers to all information on the environmental
condition and ecological value on the site. These include the stormwater run-off pattern or
the biodiversity significance of the site. It includes information on such as climate, geology
(type of soil, etc.), hydrology, wind pattern, and water or noise pollution. The ecological
information is such as the vegetation and wildlife species. It relates with the environmental
and ecological benefits of the urban forest can offer.
Socio-cultural information relates with the psychological, architectural and aesthetical,
social, recreational, economic and educational benefits that the site encompassed. It may
include all data and information such as the local community interest, local cultural value,
the aesthetical value, or the economic benefits the urban forest can offer.
Managing information system is not a simple task, which tree surveyors should able to
collect all structural data including the physical conditions and health status. For instance,
an inventoried data of tree should record all characteristics such as species, age, size,
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location, physical condition, and the likes. It is a complete inventory data for each tree that
is regularly updated and maintained.
According to Webster (1978), the guide to judging shade tree condition utilises 6 factors,
that is the trunk, growth rate, structure, insect and disease problems, crown development,
and life expectancy. In addition, according to Anderson & Eaton (1986), amongst the
procedures to minimize tree liability include tree inspection, documentation of inspection,
and adoption of other urban forestry practices.
In particular, McBride (2008) also suggests that at each sample site, the following
information was recorded for each tree species present:
the diameter at breast height;
tree height;
height to the base of the live crown;
crown radius;
tree spacing; and
growing space.
In addition, tree canopy closure along and across the street, planting pattern,
approximate tree age, tree condition, and adjacent building type, height, and age
were also noted. Additional structural information was recorded by preparing a
cross-section sketch of each streetscape
All fields data are recorded using recorded sheets and can be customised in database
software in computer. Recorded data are updated and images are also stored together
with the management works that carried out over time. At present, the used of GIS
(Geographical Information System) software application is a very useful tool to store and
utilise the data and information. List of GIS software such as MapInfo and ArcGIS are
proven can monitoring and tracking all field data collection for the purpose of inspections,
maintenance and operations in making decisions.
The Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is also commonly used as most helpful tool at site.
It is a receiver device from satellite data for the horizontal and vertical positions to locate
the precise coordinate of the tree at the earth. GPS is used to precisely locate all trees at
site according to the globe coordinate while these data can be stored in the GIS software.
A transponder can also be used as a device in recording each individual tree with all the
characteristics and data on management treatment. This computerised label is implanted
to each individual tree and can be easily detected for the process of identifying and
updating information. However, this tool may require high initial cost to be implemented
especially if the amounts of trees are numerous while the lifespan period of the transponder
is still remaining uncertainty.
Managing information of urban forest should also extended to wide range of urban forest
features and data include plants distribution, vegetation type, canopy cover amount, soil
profile, hydrology data and all technical aspects that concern to urban forest management.
With the aid of GIS software and satellite images, managing and planning of urban forest
can be more comprehensively accomplished.
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5.2
Tree inspection
Tree inspection should be done to check the tree health to avoid any disease, pest attack
or physiological disorder. Regular check is important before the health problem become
more serious and difficult for treatment. The frequency of inspection is very much depends
on the tree age, the location and species. Tree within insignificant location may only need
annual or once in every two years inspection. However, mature trees within critical location
such as along heavy traffic roadway may require as frequent as every six months.
During the inspection, it is important to examine the four characteristics of tree vigour: new
leaves or buds, leaf size, twig growth, and absence of crown dieback (ISA, 2005). In
addition, imbalance form of tree structure or low branches on vehicular road or pedestrian
walkway may indicate the need for pruning. It is also important that the tree inspectors
should have the basic knowledge on all common symptoms and abnormalities of tree for
possible further treatment. All data are also recorded and updated in the database
software for further references and actions.
5.3
The general tree maintenance practices
Appropriate tree care and maintenance practices are crucial in order plants can grow well
and healthy thus provide the benefits for the society. It is the nature of trees that it will
continually grow as long as they live. Therefore, dealing with trees is a continuous task,
and should not be treated as single treatments. Goff and West (1975) in Clark and
Matheny (1991) even quoted that trees slow in growth as they approach maximum age,
and become more vulnerable to disease, wind and other causes of death. Therefore, they
suggest that maintenance considerations must also change as the tree proceeds from
juvenile to mature stages of development.
5.3.1 Tree planting
Right procedure of tree planting is amongst the important factors to ensure tree can
grow well and healthy. The characteristics of the soils and surrounding where plants
grow will also give a great impact on the plants health.
In addition, good and effective practices will definitely be more economic and safe time
in managing trees. For example, according to Chapman (1981), the correct selection of
trees can vary the annual maintenance cost from 20 to 50 percent of the planted price.
Beside the characteristics of the species, list of other factors need to be considered for
tree planting are the soil condition and the planting space requirement. It is also
important to make sure all safety measures are well considered for planting trees in the
urbanised area. These safety measures include the underground or overhead utility
lines, user safety, and distance from structures such as drainage systems or buildings.
In terms of distance between plants, as Rothenberger (1988) justifies, it is not possible
to uniformly recommend exactly on the planting distance between plants since the
actual spacing depends on what effect is to be achieved, the ultimate mature size of a
plant and how it is to be pruned and maintained.
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However, in terms of the conflict between overhead utility lines, Andresen (1989)
suggests that small trees which will not exceed 30 feet (9m) at maturity may be planted
15 (4.5m) feet or more from the wires to allow adequate space for future growth;
medium trees that range between 30 and 70 feet (9 and 21m) in height at maturity
should be planted at least 35 feet (10m) away; and large trees expected to reach
beyond 70 feet (21m) at maturity should not be planted within 45 feet (14m) of
overhead wires. He suggests that only large shrubs that expected to reach 15 feet
(4.5m) or less at maturity may only be planted beneath utility wires.
It is also a common practice to plant trees within impervious surface in urban area.
Regarding to this, Wu et. al. (2008) suggest that the minimum pervious surface
required for small, medium and large trees was set as 1.5m2 (16 ft2), 3.3m2 (36 ft2), and
9.3m2 (100 ft2) respectively.
Gilman and Partin (2007) also recommended that the minimum distance between
planting and paved surfaces should be 2 ft for small tree, 4 ft for medium tree and 10 ft
for large trees. They add that the total soil area required for each category of trees is
10 ft x 10 ft, 20 ft x 20 ft and 30 ft x 30 ft for small, medium and large trees.
Tree planting technique should follow the tendency of roots growth. Ninety five per
cent of roots are found in the top 600mm of soil (Percival, 2004) and roots extend
outward over an area one to two or more times the height of the tree (Perry, 1982).
Roots tend to grow laterally where more water and oxygen are available within soils
pore. Therefore, the recommendation techniques on how to plant a seedling tree on a
ground are as follows:
a. Prepare the planting hole. The depth should be slightly deeper or follows the height
of the root ball size. As roots have the tendency to grow laterally, the broader the
planting hole is the better. Watson et. al. (1992) clarify that the root system of trees
is obviously larger after one season than trees planted in a smaller holes. In
general, the width should be at least twice larger than the root ball width.
b. Remove the polythene cover and place seedling gently in the planting hole. Make
sure the root ball did not break and damage the roots. The trunk flare should be
placed a bit higher than the ground level to expose more oxygen for roots growth.
Make sure the tree is straight up and at the proper level. According to Karen et. al.
(2006), deep planting can predispose trees to transplant failure and girdling root
formation. It is a significant source of stress in landscape trees.
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Tree
Loosen dug soil to
be backfilled
Existing earth level
surface
Planting hole depth should follow root

ball size but wider is the better.
Size of planting hole as compared to the root ball
c. Fill back the planting hole gently with the original, loosened soil. Soil should be
loosened enough to ease new roots growth. In general, the use of soil conditioner
such as compost is not really recommended so that roots can get used to the site
soil condition (Whitcomb, 1979). Watson et. al. (1992) also discovered that root
density were similar between the amended or unamended soil used as backfill in
tree planting. They added, the root development was good in the unamended soil
used as backfill, most probably because of the reduction of compaction and
increased aeration which resulted from digging the hole.
However, for an extremely hard and poor condition of soil such as new construction
site, the planting hole can be filled with good top soil or loam soil to support the
initial roots development. The use of mixed soil of volume ratio by 3 : 1 (loam soil
: organic matter) can be the alternative. In a high acidity soil such as peat, it is also
practical to add limestone to reduce soil acidity.
The filled soil is then gently compacted within the area out of the root ball to hold
the seedling upright.
d. The use of staking and guying is not encouraged unless the seedling cannot stand
upright by itself or within a strong wind ground. Where trees are planted on
undisturbed depth of soil, and the soil surrounding is firmly backfilled, staking
should not be needed.
Planting without staking will allow trunk to sway in the wind and develop stronger
trunk and faster root development. Staked trees may develop a smaller root
system, grow taller faster, expensive, time-consuming and require follow-up
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staked trees of equal height (Whiting, et. al., 2006). If used, stake should be
removed after tree is strong enough to stand upright but should not be more than
one year.
e. Apply mulches, since mulching can regulate the temperature, to conserve water
and to control weeds. Grass should be kept away from newly planted trees to avoid
competition of nutrients
f.
Provide temporary shelter if necessary, especially in the tropics. According to

Kjelgren and Rupp (1997), shelters reduced water stress and increase drought
tolerance, but the response will depend on the species. In addition, the presence of
shelters could also facilitate weed control by reducing the sun light to the ground.
g. Watering thoroughly is needed for newly planted trees. It is also good to provide
earth mound around the tree to hold more water
Tree
Earth mound to hold

water
Staking & Guying - if only

necessary
Mulches
Existing ground level
Planting hole
Original loosened soil
Tree planting diagram
5.3.2 Urban Tree Mulching

The practice of mulching for urban trees is similar with the common method of
arboriculture. Mulching is a highly recommended practice in managing all trees and is
carried out by placing loose material on planting beds. Organic-based materials such
as fallen leaves, cut grasses or wood chips are amongst the most commonly used as
mulch. The benefits of mulching for urban trees are numerous include such as the
followings:
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To regulate soil temperature from the extreme heat of urban atmosphere by

conserving water at the ground surfaces
Once its decomposed, mulches can produce organic matter and improve the urban
soil structure. Organic matter will provide nutrients and can hold water longer for
the tree
To provide protection of soil surface from rain or surface runoff
Mulches can control weeds growth
Mulches can avoid mechanical damages to tree trunk and roots without the
intrusion of operation machineries such as grass cutter
Minimising the possibility of grasses or other plants to compete nutrients for trees,
etc
In addition, using domestic organic based mulches is part of recycling initiative to
promote sustainable practice in urban forest management. All organic wastes of plants
include collected weeds can be returned back to soil as nutrients.
According to Whitcomb (1979), plants with mulch treatments increased in growth as
fertiliser level increased. He even quotes that plants with no mulch show no benefit
although with fertiliser. The easiest of mulching is by allowing fallen leaves to remain
under the canopy. However, some may argue with this approach for urban trees for
aesthetical reason. For that, the used of other desirable materials such as wood chips
or palm trunk fibre can be used.
Non-organic based mulches are such as marble chips, stone or rocks, which are
considered as permanent mulches. They are more popular as decorative features and
also effective to control weeds, but in some cases, it may be difficult to cut grass or to
conduct site cleaning once these mulches mixed with the soil.
Heavy mulches is acceptable, but most studies showed that it should not be more than
10cm thick (Watson et al, 1991). The most effective mulching is when it covers all the
root system but not in contact to the tree trunk. Although it may look less interesting,
the best practice of mulching is to apply it well beyond the tree canopy equivalent with
the root span. For that reason, the practice of mulching is usually carry out only for
young urban trees. It is barely to see mature urban trees are mulched, unless with
specific reason or condition, such as a closed-mulching design, or trees those are
located within less primary site.
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Mulches can be applied well beyond tree canopy
Tree trunk should clear from

mulches
Mulches
Appropriate mulching technique
5.3.3 Urban Tree Pruning

Pruning tree is to remove parts of tree for specific purposes. Pruning tree require
adequate skill and knowledge since inappropriate pruning may poses more problems to
the trees in the future. It is common practice to carry out pruning in schedule to prevent
obstruction on users.
Pruning urban trees is crucial since it deals with various defects in urban environment
such as utility line clearance, walkway obstruction, broken branches by vehicular
movement, or damaged by construction. The urban heat island effect and dense high
rise buildings may also alter the wind flow pattern and direction that may cause great
damages to urban trees. In many cases, pruning urban trees may require special
equipment include crane to perform the task.
Allowing trees to grow in their natural forms is the most practical way of managing
trees. Therefore, pruning should only be carried out if it is necessary. In this case, tree
branches that are weak, infected, or interrupting utility lines should be pruned
accordingly.
The reasons to prune urban trees can be listed as follows:
a. To train and guide the growth of young trees
b. To maintain trees health by removing all weak, infected or decayed branches; or to
allows air and light penetration
c. To enhance user safety by clearing branches from utility lines or buildings, blocking
view and physical obstruction of low branches
d. To recover from damages of hurricane of heavy storms
e. To maintain tree desirable form and shapes, or to control tree size
f. To ease transplanting purposes, etc.
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Therefore, all urban trees should be trained and guided their form when they are young
to solve many problems of pruning later on. During this stage, they should start to
develop strong well-spaced branches with a balance form as they mature.
A proper training and guide of young

tree to develop a strong single trunk
and well-spaced branches
Topping is a pruning technique to remain only main stubs. It also known as pollarding
or heading back. According to Shigo (1984), this technique should not be done as it
causes serious injury to tree. ISA (2005) even states 6 reasons why topping should not
be practiced as it stresses trees since they lose most of their leaves, it may causes
decay, it leads to sunburn, it creates hazards than non-topped trees, it makes trees
ugly and is also expensive.
5.3.4 Urban Trees Fertilisation

As living forms, tree needs nutrients to grow well while frequently, most urban soils are
lack of sufficient nutrients. In some situations, the urban site and soil profile such as
impervious soil or improper pH, the available nutrients may not be able to be utilised by
plants. Hence, mulching is also an important practice to improve the soil structure to
help plants in obtaining these nutrients.
Regular fertilising may not be required for mature urban trees. Trees in urban areas are
merely not for commercial production while fertilisation may cause more maintenance
requirement to control their growth. Therefore, mature urban trees that are vigour and
healthy should not need additional fertilisers. Fertilising urban trees is usually done for
specific reasons such as unsatisfactory growth, confined root space or treatment from
damages. It is also important to know which nutrients that are needed and how should it
applied, so that it is really benefiting the trees.
As a matter of fact, air and water are the main sources of nutrients for plants. They
provide carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as the element for plants for photosynthesis
process to produce carbohydrate (CHO) while releasing oxygen. Fertilising is to provide
plants with other than these nutrients that required for a healthy growth.
Generally, there are six elements that are needed in greatest quantities for fertilisation.
These are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca)
and sulphur (S) which are known as macro mineral nutrients. Amongst these, N, P and
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K are known to be the greatest. Other than that, there are also twelve elements that are
known as micro mineral nutrients or trace elements since they are needed in small
quantities.
Nitrogen (N) is generally needed to develop green colour of leaves. It presents in the
chlorophyll molecule and as component of all proteins. Phosphorus (P) is important for
roots development and a major constituent of chromosomes that presents as DNA. It is
important for early maturity, and for seed or fruit production. Potassium (K) is important
for plants and roots growth. It is necessity for carbohydrates and flowers manufacturing,
and to be more resistant to diseases.
There are various types of fertilisers. Organic fertilisers are fertilisers that derived from
decaying materials of plants or animal origin, while inorganic fertilisers are principally
produced by chemical process. There are also organic-based fertilisers that have been
commercialised in the market, with various trade names. These synthetic fertilisers are
produced chemically but are categorised as organic since it derives from organic
ingredients. Commercial fertilisers refer as all types of fertilisers that are
commercialised, which are marketed and saleable.
Organic fertilisers have many advantages and should be the main choice for urban tree
fertilisation. While improving soil structure and richness, organic fertilisers will also
improve water holding capacity and will not harm to roots if it is used in large amount.
Most importantly, it is chemical free and complies with sustainable urban forest
management by using natural processes and conditions.
The requirement of nutrients for trees depends on many factors include type of species,
size, the health stage and age. The soil condition may also determine the rate of
fertiliser needed. For example, certain range of soil pH may restrict some nutrients to be
taken by trees. In certain condition, it is wise to soil test in laboratory to identify soil
nutrient status before conducting fertilising.
It is a common practice to apply macro nutrients for fertilising. Among these, N is the
most since plants need N more than others. In addition, N may also easily losses from
soil through leaching of nitrate, erosion of organic matter and volatilisation (Keefer,
(2000). Therefore, it is a general practice to provide nutrients with the ratio for N:P:K
such as 2:1:1 or 1:1:1. As a result, the ratios of such as 20:10:10 or 15:15:15 are
generally used.
According to National Landscape Department (2008), organic fertilisers are
recommended for fertilising during the initial 6 months of growth before applying
complete fertilisers. The Department also suggests that fertilising mature trees should
only base on the tree requirements such as to encourage leaves or flowers production.
Methods of fertilising
There are several methods of applying fertilisers for trees as suggested by Hamilton et
al (1981) and Keefer (2000).
The most common method is by broadcasting over the ground surfaces. It is also
recommended to scattered the fertilisers beyond the canopy since this is where root
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system are more active. However, broadcasting may cause fertiliser to be washed
away by water. More fertilisers may also consumed by other plants include grass as
their roots exist together.
The next method is by soil drill holes or deep-root feeding, which may also known as
pocketing. This is where small holes are drilled outside the canopy, fill up with
fertiliser and covered. However, applying too many pockets may poses more
damages to roots while too much amount of chemical fertiliser may harm the roots.
For that reason, applying liquid soil injection method may be more practical.
Drilled-in or tree liquid injection method is normally carried out for nutritional problem
or damaged roots tree. However, the open wounds may subject to infection, while
this is very time consuming method with a special training staff.
Applying fertilisers with irrigation water is another method although it may not
suitable for a larger size of trees and may also lead to much waste of nutrients.
Another method is by foliar spray, which is spraying fertiliser directly to the leaves.
However, this technique will definitely require additional cost and of course, is not
suitable for large size of trees.
Therefore, the methods should be used is depends on various factors such as the site
and plant condition. Hamilton et al (1981) also indicated that in general, surface
applications will provide the same benefits to a tree or shrub as soil drill holes feeding
(pocketing).
5.3.5
Pest Management of Urban Trees
Managing pest for ornamentals trees may not be significant as agricultural plants as they
do not majorly involve with edible products. Furthermore, in most natural condition,
damages cause by pests for ornamental plants are tolerable and usually are not a major
issue.
It is important to understand that the reason of plants disorder can be divided into two
reasons, namely as the abiotic factors and biotic factors (Tattar, 1980). Abiotic factors
are the result from nutrients disorder or environment stress. They are non-infectious but
may weaken trees or made them susceptible to pest attack.
The biotic factors are the results from living pathogens that damaging plants. Living
pathogens can be in forms of plants, animals, human or micro-organisms. They can be
grouped as bacteria, virus, fungi, nematodes, insects and other animals. However, only
bacteria, virus and fungi may directly cause diseases that are infectious and some are
incurable.
Bacteria are one-celled organisms but able to perform their own metabolic processes.
Virus is the most microscopic agent that can replicate inside living cells of organisms
with no chemical can affect them. Fungi are multi-cellular organisms but do not produce
own food and also available in form of mushrooms. Nematodes or eelworms usually
infect the roots underground.
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However, insect is the largest group of pest agents and in general, they can be grouped
into three according to their feeding habits (ISA, 2005).
Chewing insects with the symptoms and signs include entire or portion leaf blade
consumed or missing
Sucking insects with general symptoms of black spots, leaves wrinkled in yellow,
wilting and die.
Borers, which may cause damage on fruits and wood by tunnelling into it. A
powdery dust at the base of a tree may give a good sign on the presence of borers.
Perhaps, for urban trees in the tropics, termite or white ants is to be the most damaging
pest. Thousands of individuals may be produced by a single colony while they may
attack all types of woods; dead of living trees. Some may also consider human as a
pest agent of urban trees.
Action in controlling pest for urban trees should only be taken if the damage is serious
since some techniques of controlling pests may give an impact towards the natural
ecosystem. Cultural control, mechanical control, physical controls, organic control and
regulatory control of pests are techniques that are least harmful to the natural
ecosystem and environment. While cultural control is by applying agriculture practices
such as sanitation and removing infected trees, mechanical control is a method by
using mechanical tools such as handsaw, netting, trapping or water spraying. Physical
control is by applying non-toxic chemicals such as steam or vapour control, hot air,
heat, light and sound, or using lighting trap.
Organic control is to control pests by applying organic based substances that are not
harmful to human or environment while regulatory control is to preventing pests
spreading towards a country or district by enforcing the law and legislations.
On the other hand, biological control is by using the natural enemy or specific diseases
to kill or control the pests while chemical control is by applying chemicals substances to
prevent damages by pest. Chemical control is a common technique but should not be
encouraged as it can harm plants, danger to human or hazard to natural environment
and ecosystem. It also has other weaknesses such as major pests may develop
resistance or it may also kill the pest natural predator which will result pest to multiply
rapidly.
It is very well-known to apply Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approach to control
pests presently. IPM is introduced in managing pest with the objective to give least
effect on the environment and with the integration on all suitable methods. According
to Rhoads (1985), IPM is an approach to dealing with pest problems within an
ecological framework and with techniques that have been fully evaluated in terms of
their economic and sociological impact. The key factor in an IPM program is to gather
and analyses all information of the matter before deciding best solutions in controlling
the pest. Chemical control may be used if necessary, but selection should be made of
the least impact on the environment and ecosystem. In addition, according to Feucht,
and Butler (1988), over 90 percent of all plant diseases can be controlled or avoided
without the use of chemicals. They add, effective non-chemical control may require the
integration of two or more non-chemical control methods.
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6.0 General Issues in Managing Urban Forests

This chapter will presents on list of the general issues in managing urban forests. As part
of the urban components, urban forests could not keep away from much of the complicated
issues of urban and city management. Urban forests and trees are not movable properties
and it is almost impossible to move them in order to resolve some of the urban issues.
They are associated with high density of human population and will directly affect from
every bit of human activities in the city.
Various types of issues can be seen in managing urban forests throughout the world. Each
country and even each site poses different issues which are generally based on list of
internal or external factors. These may include the climate, domestic law and legal aspects,
the local culture or even the political interest. The following lists are some of the general
issues that may be interrelated from one to another.
6.1
Private land ownership
Urban forest represents all associated land of woody plants at towns and cities that may
include public or private land. Public lands own by the government and are generally
managed by the jurisdiction of the city municipalities or government agencies. For
example, the City of Toronto has an estimated of 10 millions of trees with six million of
these trees are located on private property (City of Toronto website, accessed 14
November 2011).
However, private land may poses issues if the property owner put less effort in managing
the trees and the green spaces. These green spaces are sometimes neglected and create
unpleasant view towards the whole city landscape.
On the other hand, trees those are located on private properties adjoining the public land
may also create conflicts to the municipality of fallen leaves litter or overhanging branches
that may risks the public. In this case, it is wise if the private land owners and municipality
can cooperate or work together to solve the matter.
Generally, private land owners are also not legally liable from any damages and hazards
that caused by their trees. Hence, it is common to see notice sign of Park at Your Own
Risk within private premises although the Consumer Claims Tribunal argues that this sign
were breaking the law as its constituted an unfair practice against consumers (The Star, 22
June 2011).
6.2
Continue loss of mature trees and green spaces
The process of urban sprawl or new settlement demands may result more and more green
spaces to disappear in accommodating these new development. These most valuable city
assets may all possibly transformed to new man-made forms if no actions are taken in
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controlling these circumstances. Infrastructure upgrading projects such as the widening

traffic road, new pedestrian pathway, or the development of new public transit network in
big cities have caused hundreds of trees to be disposed over time.
As part of the initiative towards a healthier environment in cities, the World Health
Organisation (WHO) has also justified the minimum standard for green space is 16sqm per
person. However, the Kuala Lumpur city is reported to have around 12sqm per person,
and this number may decline to around 8sqm per person by 2020 as a result population
growth and rural-urban migration (Gonzales, 2010).
6.3
Lack of knowledge and budget of municipalities
The department team of municipalities that involved in urban forest management may lack
of knowledge in managing the urban forest effective and efficiently. In many cases,
managing urban trees is treated as single treatments or ad hoc tasks. Managing urban
trees is perceived as a not crucial profession, which require less technical background for
those on-ground workforces. Frequently, the departments are not lead by qualified urban
forester, which are not specialised in the whole scope of urban forest management.
In many cases too, local municipalities are often face with typical scenario of government
agencies, which is the budget limitation. Budget allotted in managing urban forests may
not be as good enough, since it is perceived not to be the main agenda comparing to other
task of urban management. The information system management for urban trees is
generally implemented only by few most leading municipalities or city halls.
6.4
Poor tree conditions
The stressful urban environment with lack of proper or scheduled tree care programs also
led to urban trees to be in poor conditions. Most of the on-ground operations are merely
based on public complaints with less initiative or effort towards proactive approaches.
In long term, poor tree conditions may also led to a shorter life span of urban trees. In the
end, more budgets are needed for urban tree replacement schemes while eventually;
young trees may take place in occupying most urban green. As a matter of fact, urban
forest programs should focus on extending the life span of these mature trees since most
of the benefits from urban forest are derived from them.
6.5
Poor design and planning
The major issues of poor design and planning are probably inappropriate species selection
and the crucial tree planting location. It is very important to understand that all urban tree
planting selections should be based on the prevailing environment condition. Utilising
hardy, robust species or trees with stronger root system are some of the wise
recommendations in dealing with this issue.
Furthermore, according to Chapman (1981), factors to consider when selecting trees for
city streets or park landscapes include pruning requirements and response, disease
resistance, catastrophic insect pests, soil adaption, complementary planting, shade or sun
adaption, provenance, and adaptive cultivars.
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Design should also response to potential growth failures and faults in the future. Tree
should be located far enough from any buildings or manmade structures. Planting trees
under utility lines has been to be one of the main problem in managing urban trees all
these years. As for the underground utility lines, roots conflicts are more substantial for
sewerage pipes as compared to other types of utility services. Sewerage pipes transports
waste water from buildings to the treatment plant before disposal. Therefore, any failure of
joints and fitting, or leakage of this utility system may create a favourable condition for roots
to grow with. The next type of underground utility line that poses high possibility of conflict
with roots is the water pipes lines.
Improper location of tree planting also poses much of urban tree maintenance issues. Too
close distance planting from structures may result in cracks or damages by the root
system. In addition, the material and design of structures will also influence the degree of
damages. For example, porous or loose material may encourage excessive root intrusion
that continuous to grow and may clog the system. According to Schrock (1994) in Randrup
et al (2001), in the United State, roots cause more than 50% of all stoppages in sewer
systems and most structural failures are caused by roots, corrosion, soil movement, and
inadequate construction combined.
Therefore, a correct design and planning of urban trees is important to deal with these
circumstances. According to King (1979), a good Master Street Tree Plan has many
advantages as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Less interference with buildings.

Fewer tree disease problems.
Lower tree maintenance from the standpoint of trimming, removal, and spraying.
Less or no expense when streets are widened.
Less damage to sidewalks and curbs.
Aesthetically more pleasing.
Safer to the public using the roads and sidewalks.
Lower trimming and removal costs to utilities.
Less outages of electric and telephone services.
Poor design Why should place these

trees at the narrow strip, while
considerable space are available next to
it.
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As for limited spaces for planting, Ware (1994) suggests the criteria of trees should be the
small size, slow growth, easily trimmed and perhaps columnar shape trees, that are
tolerant of both aboveground and belowground constraints
6.6
Dealing with new utility lines, infrastructure and site construction

works
At one time, it was a common scene to see road side are dug in order to facilitate utility
lines or infrastructure works. Greater capacities of utility services system are installed
throughout time corresponding to the continuous rise of demands from the public. Digging
and trenching will potentially increases the possibility of trees to fall over as the roots that
anchoring the tree is damaged.
According to ISA (2005), less damage is done to tree roots if utilities are tunnelled under a
tree than digging across the roots. Tunnelling machineries has now been extensively used
to install underground wire cables of electrical and telecommunication services in many
cities. For example, an Auger Boring Machine can bore horizontally through soil to install
pipelines or cables below the ground. This trenchless construction method can be
considered as an environmental-friendly approach with its minimal excavation.
In particular, Yingling et al (1979) quote that tree size and age as the criteria to consider in
deciding whether to trench or tunnel. They suggest that in the vicinity of small trees, those
less than 6 inches dbh (diameter at breast height), open trenches should not extend under
their crowns, regardless of the size of roots found.
New construction works may also cause many problems in managing urban trees. ISA
(2005) explains that site construction can cause five types of damages to trees, which is
physical injury to trunk and crown, cutting of roots, soil compaction, smothering roots by
adding soil, and exposure to the elements.
a)
Physical injury to trunk and crown is the aboveground injuries of branches or tree
trunk that mainly caused by the construction equipment and machineries. These
injuries include dead or broken branches, bark stripping and the likes.
b)
Cutting of roots are the underground damages or injury to the roots system that are
mainly caused by the activities of soil digging. For example, soil excavation for new
road, building foundation, or drainage constructions will poses serious damages to
roots that are mainly exist at upper level of soil.
c)
Soil compactions of construction site are mainly caused by the heavy equipment, or
bull dozer and trucks operations. Perhaps, this is the most serious damage for
urban trees that poses at construction sites. Several references also substantiate
that soil compaction may seriously cause damages to roots system (Lilly, 2001;
Percival, 2004; Patterson, 1977; Craul, 1985; and Schnelle et al., 1989)
Unquestionably, soil compaction will increase soil density, loss of pore space and
reduce water infiltration (Craul, 1994). These will cause roots to become thicker,
shorter and distorted with few root hairs (Schnelle, 1989). According to Randrup
(1997), soil on construction sites was heavily compacted at depths from 0.3 - 0.8 m,
where roots hair is mostly found. In addition, Percival (2004) also listed out
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numerous effects on physiological and metabolic processes for trees with low level
of oxygen within the soil pores.
d)
Adding soil at the ground surface of trees or grade raising may causes roots to
suffocate or smother. Adding soil may give a similar effect as soil compaction as it
causes loss of pore space for roots aeration. Changes in grade are common
practice at construction site such as the cut and fill operations or laying the
sediment deposits.
e)
Exposure to the elements refers to the new atmosphere condition the tree receives.
Construction may lead to removal of some existing vegetation and trees, or
changes on the grading of ground. New hard surfaces such as bituminous road,
hard pavement, and concrete drainage system will take place as new site elements.
Existing drainage pattern may be disturbed, water table level may be changed that
can cause frequent flooding. All these changes may affect the remaining trees to
expose more of sunlight, heat or even strong wind that may cause physiological
stress or prone to breaking from wind.
6.6.1
Dealing with trees at construction site
In dealing with trees at construction site, there are list of initiatives that can be
introduced in order to protect or preserve the trees. By adapting the suggestion from
ISA (2005), the initiatives are as listed as the followings:
Pre-construction care
Revise and improve the contract specification so that tree protection is to be part
of the contract for the contractor to adhere. Make sure the penalty on damaging
trees is included as part of the contract
Work and plan together with the project manager before the site construction
begin in identifying the best method on how to preserve the trees
Provide fences or barrier so that the trees are protected from any equipment or
truck intrusion at site
Carry out preventive pruning to minimise the possibility of damages before the
site construction is in progress
During construction care

-
Control and limit the access of construction traffic of other activities at the site
from damaging the trees
Maintain good communication with the whole project team involved; include the
contractor, site supervisor, material supplier, etc. Monitor and records the
construction progress as well the trees condition frequently
Post-construction care
Carry out post-construction maintenance for the trees so that it may recover and
adapt to the environmental changes quickly.
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6.6.2
Managing damaged trees at construction site
Trees that are damaged at construction site can be treated by list of good
arboricultural practices. However, before any attempt of repairing the damages is
made, is also wise to determine whether it is worth to save the tree or not. Young
trees may be replaced at a lower cost than preserving them. However, extensive
treatment of mature trees can be very costly and any attempt should be for a good
reason. This may include major damages such as massive broken trunks or grade
raising. If it is decided to remove the tree, it should be replaced with a new tree with
a proper species and size for the site.
In general, the type of damages can be recorded as the aboveground or
underground damages. The aboveground damages are the visible injuries to trunk
and branches; while the underground damages are the unseen physical root
damages. In fact, the underground damages are more crucial that can cause tree
to die.
The most common treatments for aboveground damages include pruning, and
cable and bracing:
Pruning
Any broken branches should be removed accordingly for next major adjacent
branch. If to remove the top main trunk, cut it in slope for the next major branch to
develop as a new trunk. Do not leave flat top which can encourage rot and decay.
Injured trunks or main branches such as stripped bark can be repaired by trimming
and cut of the healthy bark around it to leave a clean wound shape. It must be
done with sharp knife with round shape at the top and bottom, instead of having a
sharp angle that may encourage decay. The wound will soon recover with the
formation of callus tissues to cover the periphery of the wound cutting.
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The next major branch is to

replace as a new trunk
Slope cutting
Apply natural
target pruning
An illustration on pruning a
seriously damaged trunk of
construction site.
In this case, the whole trunk is to
be removed to allow next new
shoot to replace the trunk.
Cabling and bracing

Cabling and bracing is a structural device to support a tree by using cables.
Although it is possible to use cable alone, braces are often worked together in
most cases.
Cabling and bracing can be used to support the weak structure of a tree or to
reduce hazard possibility. Leaning small to moderate size of tree can be
straightened by bracing them with cables. This technique requires many technical
aspects include the type and strength of material and the arrangement of cables.
Depends on the size and severity, split trunks may also be hold together with
bracing rods and supported with cable to hold the canopy. However, bracing and
cabling may also subject to failure over time, and should be inspected regularly.
There are various systems of cabling and bracing. It can be tightened to another
tree as an anchorage, or by ground-anchored system. A group of trees can be
tightened together, to form a better anchorage between them.
As for the underground damages, the general treatments include irrigation, mulching,
fertilisation, and improving the root aeration:
Irrigation
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Proper scheduled of watering will stimulate new roots to develop and recover from
the construction damages. In fact, watering can contributes more than any other
common treatments for the root system. However, over-watering should be
avoided while the soil drainage should also be in proper condition. The best
approach is to apply water to 30 cm deep to facilitate deep and shallow roots
growth.
Mulching
Applying organic mulches for few inches thick may give various benefits for roots
system to develop and recover. Mulches can regulate soil temperature and
conserve more water. It will also improve the urban soil structure and aeration.
Therefore, if possible, apply mulches to cover the whole root system. However,
merely applying mulches could not repair on damages to roots that caused by
raising the soil grade.
Fertilisation
Immediate fertilising on damaged trees is subjective in reason to allow some
period for the roots to recover. Therefore, it does make sense if to delay the
process of fertilisation for about a year. In the beginning, a minimum amount of
fertiliser that based on the tree needs and conditions can be used.
The most practical technique of fertilising is by broadcasting towards the whole
root system. Fertilisers can be scattered starting about 50 cm from the tree trunk
extending beyond the tree canopy. Apply more water especially if chemical
fertilisers are used. Hence, if possible, applying liquidated fertiliser by watering to
the root zone is a much better approach. It is also important to keep mulched and
well watering during the recovery period.
Improve root aeration
Perhaps, this is the most crucial treatment for a damaged urban tree of
construction site. Improving root aeration on a compacted soil may seriously
damage the root system if not conducted properly. Any corrective attempt of
improving root aeration should give minimum impacts to the root system.
According to ISA (2005), there are two rational techniques to improve root aeration
especially if the soil grade has been raised.
Drilling holes or vertical mulching

This technique is by drilling holes in the ground for about 5 10 cm diameter
through the root zone. It should at least 30 cm depth depends on the raised
grade. These holes can be retained to allow aeration, or it can also be filled
with mulches or peat moss to support the roots growth. They can also
function to collect and hold water for the use of the roots.
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Tree canopy
A top view on drilling holes or vertical

mulching techniques. Holes are drilled
extended from the tree canopy
Drilled holes
Radial Aeration
This method is carry out by creating narrow trenches in radial formation
outwards from the tree trunk. It should be done by compressed air gun to
minimise root damages. The length of trenches should extend the canopy
while the depth is also depends on the raised grade.
These narrow trenches can be filled with compost or good topsoil to
stimulate roots growth.
Tree canopy
Top view on radial aeration technique.

Using compressed air gun and radial
pattern of trenches will minimise roots
damages
Narrow trenches in
radial formation
6.7
Lack of coordination
municipalities
between
utility
service
providers
and
Sometimes, it is depressing to see some urban trees are improperly cut or pruned to make
clear of overhead utility lines. It is likely to appear that these utility companies are the
authorised agency which responsible in managing those trees.
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Good planning and coordination from all interest groups is needed to ensure that these
trees are not managed by untrained staff that can damage the trunk or roots. They may be
allowed to carry out necessary work to these trees, provided with qualified staff and
equipment, or with the coordination from the authorised agency. Whenever possible,
underground utility lines should be re-aligned not too close to the roots system.
6.8
Lack of public awareness on the importance of urban forest
Quite number urban residents could not strongly appreciate the important of having urban
forest in city. For them, trees are merely served as beautification entity and pose problems
as litter or hazards to users. Insufficient public awareness constitutes a major barrier in
achieving a healthy urban forest. If all the public are well aware and acknowledged
especially on the technical aspects, this might be relatively good enough in solving certain
issues of managing urban trees include on the private lands.
Therefore, many tree associated programs in big cities also focus in raising public
awareness concerning the importance of trees towards local environment and ecosystem
as part of the strategy. Collaborative efforts between those involved the municipality,
corporate companies and local community is crucial in ensuring the success the program.
All those should participate together in the planning and management stages for their own
streets, blocks and communities.
6.9
Vandalism and sabotage
There are many cases where urban trees are victimised of vandalism or sabotage by
users. For example, urban street trees that obstruct shop lot advertisement and signage
are sometimes destroyed by these shop owners.
Vandalism is illegal and could bring various negative impacts such as bad site impression,
contribute to public fear of crime, and great cost of repair or restoration. For instance, the
Ampang Jaya Municipal Council (MPAJ) claims that 30% of the 100,000 trees planted
yearly by the council in the past few years had been chopped down by residents (Zhin,
2010)
Abdul Malek et al (2009) study indicated that people perceived vandalism to occur because
of various factors include the opportunities provided by the surroundings, user behaviour,
lack of security and enforcement, lack of maintenance and inspection, location and design
of the facilities, and the materials used for such facilities. This means that various aspects
need to be analysed in dealing with this issue.
6.10
Hazardous trees and public safety
Urban trees may be hazardous especially in the occasion of tree fell. In most cases, heavy
windstorm or hurricane can uproot trees and crush cars or other vehicles that may injure or
even lead to casualty amongst motorists.
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It is impossible to entirely prevent the disaster and tragedy occurrence as it is also by the
act of God. However, by practising preventative maintenance, it may lessen the probability
of these occurrences. Each potential hazard trees should be first identified based on list of
factors such as the species, size, forms, location and site conditions. Large unbalanced on
site roads trees may possibly pose higher risk than others. Unless for a specific reason, it
is wise to remove this potential hazard tree although it should be the last resort.
List of studies are also conducted for a better understanding of tree and windstorm
hazards. Duryea et al ((2007) state that the more rooting space a tree has, the healthier it
is and this means a better anchorage and resistance to wind. They even suggest that right
pruning, growing in groups or clusters, and using native species are some of the
approaches towards more wind-resistant trees. As for pruning, Gilman et al. (2008) also
discovered that trees that are reduced or thinned accordingly could receive less damage in
windstorms
Furthermore, Evans (1981) suggests five ways to reduce tree liability, that is hire a welltrained and professional staff; carry out proper tree inventories; apply appropriate tree
maintenance program; maintain good communication and respond with the public; and
sufficient personnel and equipment.
6.10.1 Managing hazardous trees
In managing hazardous trees, ISA (2005) suggested list of tree treatments to make
it safer and reducing the associated risks.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
6.11
Whenever possible, remove or relocate the site elements or structures in

preventing them from being damaged if the tree falls;
Prune the hazardous tree accordingly in order to reduce the possible risk;
Provide physical support such as cabling and bracing for the weak branches
or unstable form of tree;
Provide routine care such as mulching, fertilising etc. to improve its health,
or
Remove the hazardous tree
Tree roots and sidewalk pavement conflicts
The issues of urban tree roots and sidewalk pavement have been long discussed by
scholars. Roots growing under sidewalk may crack of lift the pavement and poses hazards
to users. Public injuries may occur while municipalities can be found liable for these
incidents. On the other hand, replacement of trees or repairing paved surfaces may
require to a great extent of budget for these agencies.
6.11.1 Factors that influence the damage amount by roots
There are various factors that may influence the damage amount for pavement by
roots. These factors include:
Tree species
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Each species has a different characteristics include the mature size, the growth
rate, the natural form, etc. For instance, Rain tree (Enterolobium saman) has
the tendency to develop their main root system at surface that may cause more
damages for pavement.
Tree age
Certainly, as they grow, mature trees may cause more damages than young
trees. According to Foster et al. (1978), the average survival rate for sidewalk
trees is about 10 years. Therefore, they suggest that the sidewalk tree
population needs to be renewed every 10 years.
Distance of tree to pavement
The closer tree to pavement means the more possibility of damages it can
create. Although tree roots extend well beyond the canopy perimeter, a
minimum distance of planting should be used as general guide.
By adapting from Wu et al. (2008) suggestions on minimum pervious surface
required for small, medium and large trees are 16 ft2, 36 ft2, and 100 ft2
respectively, it is figure out that the minimum distance for small, medium and
large trees should be at least 60 cm (2 ft.), 90 cm (3 ft.) and 1.5 m (5 ft.).
However, providing additional amount is much better while larger species like
Rain tree (Enterolobium saman) may require in having more pervious surfaces
than others.
Type of design and material of pavement
Logically, porous type of pavement will allows water penetration and aeration
that may encourage roots development under the pavement. This is also good
for the tree establishment and to support Stormwater management or
Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SUDS).
However, Morgenroth and Buchan (2009) quote that soil moisture and aeration
beneath pervious and impervious paving is not differ in supporting roots growth.
Similarly, Astrid et al. (2009) also suggest that pervious porous concrete does
not provide additional benefits in ensuring growth and survival of pre-existing
mature trees in new urban developments. Therefore, the perception that porous
or pervious pavement may provide a better condition for roots growth is
doubtful. As a result, one cannot presume that there should be more damages
to the pervious pavement than the impervious after certain period of time.
However, the used of pervious pavement such as interlocking concrete paving
may also ease in repairing works with limit material replacements than a larger
portion.
In addition, according to Gilman (2006) and Smiley (2008), a gravel or foam
layer proved the most effective at keeping roots deeper under the bottom of
sidewalk slab. Therefore, pavement installation should apply this technique in
dealing with tree roots and pavement conflicts. The statement is rationalised by
Bhavana et al. (2011) which justify that using a highly permeable base layer
under pervious concrete might improve water infiltration and gas exchange and
help maintain or restore the root zone environment of mature trees in urbanising
areas
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Furthermore, Smiley (2008), also suggests that alongside-pavement vertical

barrier treatments were more effective at reducing root growth under the
pavement than under-pavement treatments. Finally, he suggests that the
combination of vertical root barriers and under-pavement treatments of gravel or
foam layer may reduce the risk of damage to pavement even further.
Section drawing on the used of

root barriers and under-pavement
treatment for tree planting
Root barriers
Pavement
Gravel or foam layer
Soil
Surrounding site condition

Roots will continue to grow particularly lateral in soils wherever favourable
moisture and aeration conditions allow. If the other side of trees are more
supporting, the roots will mostly develop at this area and may result in a onesided root system. Eventually, the tree can be more susceptible to windstorm
because there appear to be no roots growing on the other side of tree.
6.11.2 Dealing with sidewalk pavement
The main challenge in dealing with this issue is to allow roots to grow under
pavement but without or with a minimum damage to the structure. Since trees are
living forms that continue to grow, the solutions of this matter cannot be considered
as permanent.
Among the best possible approaches in dealing with this circumstance is by
adopting preventive maintenance. For example, root pruning may be necessary but
should be carried out in the early stage of roots growth. Right species of tree
should also be planted within the right place.
Using root barriers is considered as one of the common techniques used by many
municipalities. According to Morgenroth (2008), root barriers are a physical or
chemical impediment intended to limit root growth to designated areas away from
infrastructure. The root barrier is made from plastics or geo-textile fabric and is
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installed along tree-side edge of the pavement. It will force roots to grow deep and
below the pavement to prevent damage.
According to Smiley et al. (2009), the use of root barriers will significantly reduced
the amount of root growth. They conducted a study on five different commercial
products of root barriers and discovered no differences among the products tested.
However, in general, it is also noticed that using root barriers may also create a
condition where roots are deflected to deeper in the soil layers and returned to the
surface soil. At the end, roots girdling is seen to be a common phenomena of using
root barriers. Hence, according to Smiley (2008), root barrier treatments were most
effective on a moderately drained clay loam soil. Therefore, in order to use root
barriers, one should make sure that the soil is suitable for a better results.
In fact, the absolute effect of root barriers on mean root depth is still inconclusive.
Pittenger and Hodel (2009) quoted that barriers in well-drained soil did not produce
a deeper root systems. Besides this, Morgenroth (2008) explains that barriers are
effective in well-drained, noncompacted soils, which are virtually nonexistent in
most roadside urban areas.
The next technique in dealing with roots and sidewalk pavement is by using
engineered soil. Engineered soil is a term used to describe soils that have the
strength to receive weight-bearing loads but also withstand compaction to allow
aeration for roots growth. A study by Rahardjo et al. (2009) discover that a mixture
of 20% top soil and 80% granite chip by dry mass was the optimum mixture for
withstanding the maximum wind force needed to uproot the tree.
Loads are transferred from
stone to stone in the gravel
Soil between the stones are unaffected

by compaction for roots growth
An enlarged section of an engineered soil

structure.
Besides of using coarse gravel or foam layer under a pavement, there is also an
attempt to install a rubber layer under the pavement. Roots may grow between the
concrete and the rubber. However, as the roots expanded, the rubber will bends
without lifting the pavement.
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7.0 The development and prospects of urban forestry in

Malaysia
Trees play an important role for every city in the world. In Malaysia, the beginning eras of
trees planting in the urbanised area were generally for beautification purposes. Plants
were planted to create green impact that can soften the harsh environment of building
structures in cities. Eventually, trees and other types of plants began to appear within the
scenery of parks, along streets and open spaces in cities. With the present issue of global
warming and urban heat island, the role of trees and vegetation become more
distinguished. The local bylaw make obligatory for new development projects to provide at
least 10 per cent of green space. The government also committed in the urban greening
agenda by accomplishing various tree planting programmes at the national, state or local
level.
Although the profession of urban forestry is still new and least recognised in the country,
the urban tree planting programmes continues particularly because of the global concern
on the environment degradation these days. Among others are the planners, architects,
landscape architects, agriculturist, horticulturist, arborists, nursery companies, or other
interest groups who play a part in visualising the urban greening programmes.
This chapter will discuss on the development and roles of urban forestry agenda in the
country. It will begin from the historical perspective on the programme of urban tree
planting and urban greening since the early days. In the end, it will also review on the
prospects of the field in the future.
7.1
The beginning of urban tree planting in the country
The earliest attempt of urban tree planting in the country was initiated by the British
colonialists. The planting of Pterocarpus indicus (Angsana trees) was also recorded in
1778 at Malacca (Koening, 1894). According to Burkill (1966), amongst the many species,
Angsana tree was recorded as the pioneer species planted as street trees that started in
Malacca. This effort was later followed by Penang and Singapore for their street plantings.
Eventually, by 1802, Angsana trees were greatly planted and grown by the British within
these tree states in the country (Gardner et al, 2011).
The character of Angsana with large crown spreading and easily to propagate made them
to be well-accepted at the time. The species was then become amongst the popular
species for urban planting in Malaysia and Singapore (Philip, 1999).
Angsana is also known as a fair resistant species. However, in 1920s, majority of these
Angsana trees were killed by an unknown disease especially in Malacca and Singapore
(Gardner et al, 2011). In particular, according to Furtado (1935) in Hai (1996), this disease
was most seriously recorded from 1875 to 1925. A similar symptom appears again in 1985
in Singapore and in 1992 on the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia. However, for this
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time, the wilt disease and death of Angsana is then identified caused by a fungal, Fusarium
oxysporium (Philip, 1999).
As the result, new indigenous or exotic species are introduced in the country. Among the
local species of tree that started to be planted include Syzygium grande (Kelat jambu),
Millettia atropurpurea (Tulang daing), Peltophorum pterocarpum (Yellow flame), Mesua
ferrea (Penaga lilin) and Lagerstroemia speciosa (Bungor). These species have been
widely planted in the urban areas during the 1920s and 1930s by the collaboration between
Federated Malay States Forestry Department, Department of Agriculture and the Public
Works Department (Adnan and Abdul Latiff, 1993 in Sreetheran et al., 2006).
However, according to Gardner et al (2011), it is very fortunate because some of the
remaining of Angsana can still be seen in Penang, which are now aged more than 200
years old. Amongst those Angsana tree that planted around 1802 and still available today
is the one that located at the Penang Hospital. They even wrote that beside Angsana, the
oldest street tree recorded in Penang is the Azadirachta excelsa (Sentang), a wild tree from
the forest that has been around since 1820.
Amongst
the
remaining
Angsana tress in Penang that
were grown in 1802. The tree
age is now more that 200 years
and are found at Penang
Hospital compound
7.2
The beginning era of urban greening programmes
The earliest attempt of urban trees planting and greening programme in Malaysia started in
1970s at Kuala Lumpur with the initiation towards a green city. Serious urban tree planting
programmes have been intensively implemented throughout the city started from 1973
(Ayoub, 1989 in Sreetheran et al., 2006). The City Hall classified potential areas of the tree
planting programmes for the roadside; public parks and open spaces; along highways or
expressways; within industrial areas and housing estates; and within major developments
in the city centre. Many species were planted including Rain tree, Wild cinamomum, Ficus,
Bunga tanjung and Mahogany together with the existing species.
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Since then, continuous efforts were given to ensure that the urban greening programmes
are implemented throughout the nation. Over the years then, many local authorities have
involved in the greening and beautification programmes of their administration territory.
7.3
The development of public parks in the country
Apart from the urban tree planting programmes, the country also emphasises on the
development of urban parks to fulfil the needs of urban communities.
The development of the public parks and recreation in Malaysia started with the
introduction of the first Lake Garden in Kuala Lumpur in 1890s. At first, it was created as a
utility nursery and landscape parkland, for the recreation of the British officers and their
families at that time (Jamil, 2002). Completed with man-made lake, the new garden was
designed by A.R. Verning, the State Treasurer. Venning took over 10 years to gradually
clear the area in the valley of the River Bras-Bras and planted the garden with ornamental
flowering trees and shrubs (Ahmad Fuad, 2011). In the effort, towkay Chow Ah Yeok, the
new Kapitan of Kuala Lumpur after Yap Ah Loy, also contributed 100 Champaka and Citrus
trees for the collections in the botanic garden. The botanic garden was official opened by
the Governor of the Straits Settlements, Sir Cecil Clementi Smith in 1889 (ibid).
Named as the Perdana Lake Gardens (Taman Tasik Perdana) in 1975, the garden was
then eventually expanded towards 92 hectares of land, completed with Kuala Lumpur Bird
Parks, Orchid Garden, Hibiscus Garden, Deer Park, Butterfly Park, the National Monument
and Asean Sculpture Garden (Kuala Lumpur City Hall, 2010). It was then undergoing on
phases of rehabilitation projects and renamed as the Perdana Botanical Gardens (Taman
Botani Perdana) in 2011 immediately after the completion of the first phase improvements
(Fazleena, 2011). The second and third phases are expected to be completed by year
2015 which this is part of the citys greening initiative under the Greening Kuala Lumpur
and River of Life projects
The Penang Botanical Garden, also known as the Waterfall Gardens, was established in
1884. The idea was from the first Superintendent, Charles Curtis. It lies in a deep valley at
the foot of 366 feet jungle clad hills, bounded with evergreen tropical rainforests and
divided by a cascading stream of that meanders through sprawling 242 hectares of prime
and undulating ground (Penang Botanic Gardens website, retrieved 15 March 2010).
After the development of the first railway line connecting Taiping and Port Weld in 1897,
the Taiping Lake Garden was built around abandoned mining pools. The idea was initiated
by J.P. Roger, the Secretary of Government of Perak in 1894. The lake was about 50
hectares in size and was officially opened to the public in 1910 (Jamil, 2002).
Therefore, as the British left Malaysia on 31 August 1957, they leave behind the three
historical public parks in the country, namely as Lake Garden Park in Kuala Lumpur,
Penang Botanical Garden in Penang and Taiping Lake Gardens in Perak.
However, for the few decades after the independence of the country, no new public park
was initiated by the government of Malaysia. The main agenda was to focus on the
economic development and the eradication of poverty. Agricultural and industrial
development plays as the main concern of the government of that time.
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As the country economy began to boost and well-developed, the issues of high population
growth and urbanisation started to rise in the 1970s. The environmental issues in urban
areas lead to public concern towards a more healthy life in the cities.
On 1st February 1972, the Kuala Lumpur was declared to be the first city status in the
country. Effort was made to improve the overall living quality of the urban population. In
1970s, the Kuala Lumpur city initiated the first idea of turning former mining land at
Temerloh Road into a public park. This first post-independence public park was opened in
January 1980 as Titiwangsa Lake Park (Taman Tasik Titiwangsa). Designed by Malaysian
and Japanese architects, the park is situated on 46 hectares of area that complemented
with a sports complex, musical fountain and floating restaurant (Kuala Lumpur City Hall,
2010). It provides boats for rental and facilities for water sports like kayaking, jogging, and
horse riding.
The third park in Kuala Lumpur (after the Perdana Lake Garden and Titiwangsa Lake Park)
was also developed from abandoned tin mines area as Permaisuri Lake Park (Taman
Tasik Permaisuri) and opened in 1989. Situated in 49 hectares of space, it is completed
with man-made ornamental fountains, with 7-tiered flower terrace, a traditional Malay
garden and aromatic herb garden (Kuala Lumpur City Hall, 2010).
Simultaneously, list of public parks have also been on the ground especially within the most
populated urban region of the Klang Valley. These include the Shah Alam Lake Park
(Taman Tasik Shah Alam) as the first public park in Klang Valley that spreads over 50
hectares or area and divided into 3 lake zones. The next is the Subang Jaya Park, also
developed from tin mines and officially opened to public in 1990.
The need of providing more parks for city dwellers also spreads out nationwide. Under the
Sixth Malaysia Plan, the government had allocated budget for 11 new public parks, which
one for each state to be implemented (New Straits Times, 1991). The proposed parks are:
1. Melati Lake Park, Perlis
2. Kedah Riverfront Park, Kedah
3. Seberang Jaya Linear Park, Penang
4. Kuala Kangsar Town Park, Perak
5. Alam Kuala Selangor Park, Selangor
6. Telok Kemang Beach Park, Negri Sembilan
7. Melaka Town Park, Malacca
8. Urban Forest Johor Bahru, Johore
9. Kuantan Town Park, Pahang
10. Marang Town Park, Terengganu, and
11. Rantau Panjang Town Park, Kelantan
One of the projects is the first urban forest concept of recreational park in Malaysia. It was
developed at Johor Bahru and known as Urban Forest Recreational Park of Johor Bahru.
With 20.23 hectare of area, the project was initiated in 1993 through the consultation with
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). It has many major facilities and attractions include
the Tembusu Courtyard (the administration office), the Seven Lakes, Childrens
playground, Campsites and Chalet, Ecological park and Foodcourt. Additional features are
also created to promote the attraction of the park include the Orchid Garden, that was
completed in 7 May 2003, while The Johore Malay House was completed in 2009.
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The second urban forest concept of recreational park was also developed in Seremban. It
is also known as Taman Malaysia and was officially open to the public on 29 October,
1999. The park was developed on an original primer forest which many of the trees are still
preserved include Pulai, Jelutong and Merawan. The facilities available include chalets,
camping area, barbeque pits, gazebo, surau, fern garden, children playground and
reflexology paths. The open amphitheatre was designed is most distinctive way together
with existing big trees as shade elements in the middle of the forest.
Over time, there are increasingly numbers of public parks developed towards the nation.
According to Kuala Lumpur City Hall (2010), presently, other significant public parks in
Kuala Lumpur include as the followings:
Batu Metropolitan Park A 24 hectares park that designed at a former open cast mining
at Jalan Ipoh. The park facilitated with picnic areas, barbeque pits, jogging tracks,
reflexology paths and exercise stations.
Datuk Keramat Lake Park A park created especially for the surrounding communities.
Provided with lake, large children playground, jogging tracks and exercise stations, this
park is designed for all age groups.
Bukit Jalil Park A 31 hectares international park, which is intended to be both for
recreational and educational purposes.
It is also completed with the Laman
Antarabangsa, a major tourist destination thats unique to Malaysia.
Pudu Ulu Park A 26 hectares park facilitated with boat house, multipurpose hall,
swimming pool, library, horticulture centre and children playground.
Kepong Metropolitan Park A huge of 120 hectares located near former tin mines and
designed for maritime activities and water sports.
Menjalara Lake Park An 11 hectares park provided with lakes, par course and children
playground.
Rimba Kiara Park The park is provided with small lakes, camping and outdoor
facilities. As part of the Taman Arboratum Bukit Kiara that contains forest reserves for
research, the park is suitable for camping and outdoor activities.
Lembah Kiara Recreational Park - A neighbourhood park, where the facilities include
golf and country clubs, and an equestrian arena.
7.4
The present era of urban greening programmes
The government of Malaysia has also continuously demonstrates their attention and
commitment towards the importance of urban greening programmes in the country.
Amongst the earliest initiation is the launch of Landscaping the Nation programme that
was initiated in May 1995 as the government initiatives towards creating and preserving
beautiful landscapes in the country. The vision is to make Malaysia a Garden Nation by
the year 2005.
In July 1995, the first version of National Landscape Guidelines by the Town and Country
Planning Department, Ministry of Housing and Local Government was published as a
reference for developing and managing landscaped areas. The Second edition was
released in 2008 by the National Landscape Department.
In 1995, Town and Country Planning Act, 1976 (Act 172) was amended to protect the
importance of environmental conservation with regards to tree. The new provision is
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available as Tree Preservation Order beginning from Sections 35A to 35H of the Act. The
Act prohibit from cutting trees from specified size, age, type or species which has existed at
a location unless with written approval from the relevant authority. It provides the provision
that anyone on conviction can be fine not exceeding one hundred thousand Malaysian
Ringgit, or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or to both.
However, the most important accomplishment by the government is the set up of the
National Landscape Department under the Ministry of Housing and Local Government in
1996. The Department is entrusted with the responsibility of gearing the country towards
achieving a beautiful Garden Nation in line with the countrys vision to become a developed
nation by year 2020 (ILAM, 2007). The department is very committed to the 1989
Langkawi Declaration, the Local Agenda 21, as well as the Rio De Janeiro Earth Summit
which has inevitably manoeuvred the countrys commitment towards environmental
protection and conservation (ibid).
In March 1997, the National Tree Planting Campaign was launched with the aim of 20
million trees to be planted nationwide by year 2020. The annual target was set to achieve
750,000 shaded trees nationwide. To achieve the target, comprehensive programmes are
continuously set by the National Landscape Department to plan and assign the target. The
non-governmental agencies, private companies, individuals and school children nationwide
were also encouraged to take part in this campaign which was coordinated by the local
authorities (ILAM, 2008)
One of the most successful activities of National Tree Planting Campaign is the Millennium
Tree Planting Programme in the year 2000. The programme led by the Prime Minister and
participated by the people of Malaysia all over the country, witnessed the planting of
101,042 trees in one minute. This eventful moment is today recorded in the Guinness
Book of World Records as the most number of trees ever planted in one minute (ILAM,
2007)
In addition, the government has also officially declared the 3rd day of March every year as
National Landscape Day to honour the importance of landscape and plants in the country.
Various activities are also carried out during the National Landscape Day celebration
including the annual national landscape competition, and garden and landscape festivals.
To commemorate Earth Day, on 22 April 2010, Malaysia has launched a nationwide "One
Citizen, One Tree" campaign to plant 26 million trees by year 2014 (The Star Online,
2010). The 26 million trees would be planted in stages and the process would be
monitored by the relevant departments and agencies under the Natural Resources and
Environment Ministry of Malaysia.
The later development indicates that tree planting campaigns are all in the progress of
each municipalities. For instance, the City Hall managed to plant 57,360 trees in year
2010. For the 2011 year, the Federal Territories are targeting to plant 58,000 trees for the
Kuala Lumpur city, Putrajaya and Labuan (Achariam, 2011). Moreover, it is reported that
more than 13 million trees have been planted nationwide in the country until 31 October
2011 (Kosmo! 23 November 2011)
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7.5 The prospects and challenges of urban forestry profession in the

country
The continuous effort from the government of Malaysia suggests that urban forest and
management plays an important role parallel with the development agenda of the country.
The prospect of future urban forestry can be clearly seen as in some cases, the aspect of
management of these trees is still deficient. Some of the urban planting programmes have
also failed with no following of proper management carried out. Managing great numbers
of trees in cities is very demanding that requires extra budget and qualified professionals in
accomplishing the task.
Certainly, there are various challenges that may confront on establishing urban forestry
profession in the country. Among the major challenge is the recognition of the profession
by the government and private sectors. As explained earlier, managing urban forest has
mainly been within the province of other related professions in the country.
Although it is not absolute, urban forestry require interdisciplinary programmes within
forestry colleges with major support coming from horticulture and related areas (Deneke,
1978; Konijnendijka et al., 2006). Thus, the title of "urban forester" should not be limited to
foresters but given to all who apply this management philosophy. Amongst the related
professions that frequently involved in the urban forest and management programmes are
as follows:
Forestry
Collin (2004) defines forestry as the management of forests, woodlands and plantations
of trees while forester is a person who manages woodland and plantations of trees.
Urban forestry was first introduced in North America by the forester and it is agreed as
a specialised branch of forestry. The Society of American Foresters also recognised
urban forestry as a distinct branch of the forestry profession that reason out foresters to
claim as theirs (Shafer and Moeller, 1979)
Landscape architecture
Landscape architecture is generally known as the profession that specialised in
designing the landscape or outdoor environment. The profession is recognised by the
government that involve in development of new projects as well as landscape
maintenance works. In facts, most of the park and recreations units in municipalities
are currently led by landscape architects.
According to Motloch (2006), landscape architecture is a profession that integrates art
and science for the management, planning and design of the entirety of the physical
and cultural landscape, including its vestal wilderness and its growing urbanness.
Thus, this profession deals with the natural and man-made landscapes as their
specialised area of practice. Trees, constituents as the component in landscape, are
amongst the important element for their designing and management programmes.
Landscape management
According to the European Landscape Convention (2000), landscape management
means action, from a perspective of sustainable development, to ensure the regular
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upkeep of a landscape, so as to guide and harmonise changes which are brought

about by social, economic and environmental processes. As a result, landscape
managers are professionals that specialised in managing the landscapes including
trees as part of the components, in dealing with the social, economic and
environmental processes.
Landscape managers carry a broader sense of
management concept that concern with land sustainability.
However, the government is yet to recognise the profession while no under graduate
programme of landscape management offered by any local universities presently.
Park and Amenity Management
Collin (2004) gives a simple definition of park as an area of open land used as a place
of recreation. In addition, Molnar and Rutledge (1986) define recreation areas as an
active sport-oriented facility that includes playgrounds, hard-surface court areas, and
team sport fields.
The park and amenity management graduates are a professional park managers that
will serve the public, private and the non-governmental organisations in the parks and
recreation industry both in the built and natural environment (UiTM homepage,
retrieved 16 March 2010). Therefore, park managers are those who are specially
trained in managing the urban or natural parks. Trees may constitute as part of the
park elements that should also within the management jurisdiction of park managers.
Horticulture
According to Ness (2003), horticulture is the branch of agriculture that is connected with
the production of plants that are directly used by people for food, medicine, and
aesthetic purposes. The horticulturist who is specialised in all aspect of horticulture
science of cultivating plants in spaces for public use and enrichment (University of
Delaware, retrieved 16 March 2010). Consequently, horticulturists are more concern
on the production and management of plants for human use including for aesthetical
purposes. It indicates that the graduate of this profession is also encompassing woody
plants and trees in the urban areas as their area of expertise.
Arboriculture
Draper and Richards (2009) define arboriculture as the science and culture of the
growth, planning, management, care and maintenance of trees primarily for amenity
and utility purposes. Certified arborist is a specialist in the care of individual trees and
they are knowledgeable about the needs of trees and are trained and equipped to
provide proper care (ISA, 2005). They are the tree care professionals that gained the
membership from International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) through formal
examination after they met all the requirements. These requirements include certain
period practical working experience in arboriculture, and/or hold a degree in the field of
arboriculture; horticulture; landscape architecture; or forestry. Therefore, It is also an
advantage if the practicing urban forester is also a certified arborist.
Of course, the list is not definite. The land use planner, ecologist, the wildlife manager, the
event manager, environmentalist etc. may also claim their role in urban forestry
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programmes. Perhaps, the right urban forester will only be recognised by the government
and private sectors in the country once the curriculum established as one of the local
university programme. As for present, the practice should be accepted as long as they
practice these four major areas of interest in urban forest management, as proposed by
Shafer et al. (1979):
The human benefits from urban forests;
The basic biological processes where urban forests influences the urban environment;
The methods to breed, select, establish, maintain, and protect urban forest resources;
and
The strategies to integrate sound urban forestry planning and management into the
urban planning and development process.
The challenges in establishing urban forestry profession may not come to the end even if
the government recognised the field and profession. Despite, the country also has to deal
with the question whether it has produced enough graduates in this profession to seriously
engage with the field. The next question is then to deal with what as it appears to be the
overlapping role and authority amongst these professions.
7.6
Conclusion
Although the profession of urban forestry is less known in the country, there is a strong
indication that the profession should be well-accepted in the country in the future. The
government has shown strong interest in the field with their various commitments to
support the importance of urban trees in cities. The present global issues such as green
house effect, urban heat island or global warming have rise the need to plant more trees as
well as managing them in a most appropriate way. There are various issues and
challenges in establishing the profession in the country but to gain the recognition of the
profession is perhaps to be the most challenging factor.
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INTRODUCTION TO URBAN FOREST AND

Abd. Haris bin Shamsuddin

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

the use of the content within this document.

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

INTRODUCTION TO URBAN FOREST AND MANAGEMENT

Urban forest and urban forestry

The benefits of urban forest

Urban environmental issues

Urban forest management

Urban forest management tasks

General issues in managing urban forests

The development and prospects of urban forestry

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

Urban forest and urban forestry

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

Urban forest and urban woodland

Urban forest and urban park

Urban forest and community forest

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

means, community forest is situated within and surrounding of population areas. It

Urban forest and green space

Setting - planted or naturally grown

All other area that associated with woody plants such

What represents the urban forest?

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

The Scope of Urban Forestry

Outdoor recreation aesthetic and human

The scope of management in urban forestry

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

Planning and design strategies of urban forest

Environment and ecosystem management

Tree planting and care

Financial and economy benefits

Urban forest management

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

2.0 The Benefits of Urban Forest

The environmental benefits of urban forest

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

The psychological benefits of urban forest

The effects of trees on psychological aspects are listed as follows:

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

Psychologically, urban forest environments provide aesthetic surroundings,

Architectural and Aesthetical benefits urban forest

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

The social benefits of urban forest

The recreational benefits of urban forest

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

relaxing, reading, jogging, musical exercise, picnicking, cycling or skateboarding. Where

The economy benefits of urban forest

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

The ecological benefits of urban forests

The educational benefits of urban forest

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)

3.0 Urban Environmental Issues

Green house effect and urban heat island

Greenhouse effect and urban heat island

LAS682 (Urban Forest and Management)