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DOI 10.1007/s10798-005-3595-x
Springer 2006
MARC DE VRIES
Faculty of Philosophy and Social Sciences Eindhoven University of Technology, 513,
5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT: Technology is frequently considered in terms of its impact on entities
outside its essential nature: as the impact of technology on the environment and society,
but also the impact of human values and needs on technology. By taking particular social
implications of technology into account, the ScienceTechnology relationship can be
extended to the eld of Science, Technology and Society (STS) studies. STS studies are
grounded in socio-technological understanding, that is, systematic knowledge of the
mutual relationship between technical objects, the natural environment and social practice. Because technology is a key element of STS, it is expected that the philosophy of
technology will have implications for STS studies. The dynamic nature of technology as
such leaves its own philosophy in a tentative or exible state. However, the implications of
the philosophy of technology, being in a development phase at the moment with changes
in emphasis occuring, for STS studies ought to be determined continuously. The aim of
the article is to identify and discuss possible implications of the the philosophy of technology for STS. In order to deduce these implications, the relevant theoretical framework
underpinning the article will be discussed in broad outlines. Seeing that the philosophy of
technology is such a wide eld a delineation of the eld needs to be done. Mitchams
proposed preliminary framework is taken as point of departure for the article. Technology as knowledge (epistemology/theory of knowledge) and technology as activity (design
methodology) will be discussed as two key aspects of the modern philosophy of technology which could provide implications for STS. A theory of knowledge usually includes
methodology, but seeing that Mitcham classied methodology as one of the modes in
which technology is manifested, it is dealt with separately. The epistemology and methodology of technology will each be discussed from a philosophical, historical and practicebased methodological perspective. Some implications of the philosophy for STS are
identied and discussed.
Keywords: design methodology, epistemology of technology, philosophy of technology,
Science, Technology and Society (STS) studies, technology education
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gearing we hope that students will see the relationship among the
direction of rotation, change of speed, and torque (McCormick
1997, p. 143). Conceptual knowledge that can be regarded as knowledge
of apparatus or systems (Gott 1988; in McCormick 1997, p. 148) is
clearly knowledge of technology as artefacts (Mitcham). Conceptual
knowledge relevant to technology therefore includes ... that drawn from
other subjects, such as science, and that unique to technology
(McCormick 1997, p. 153).
Procedural knowledge is frequently referred to as tacit, personal or
implicit knowledge. Design, modelling, problem solving, systems approaches, project planning, quality assurance and optimisation are all
candidates for technological procedural knowledge ... (McCormick
1997, p. 144). In contrast with conceptual knowledge, procedural
knowledge cannot be taught: Technical know-how can be gained by
thorough practice only (Ropohl 1997, p. 69).
A theory of knowledge usually includes methodology (Van der Walt
et al. 1985, p. 192), but seeing that Mitcham classied methodology as
one of the modes in which technology is manifested, it is dealt with
separately. Technology as activity (methodology), in particular, provides
insights in the procedural knowledge in technology.
In the literature one nds examples of considerations of the epistemology of technology from a philosophical (Ropohl 1997, pp. 6770),
historical (Vincenti 1990, pp. 207225) and practice-based designmethodological perspective (Bayazit 1993; Muller & Pasman 1996; in
Broens & De Vries 2003, p. 6).
Most of what has been published about the nature and classication
of technological knowledge draws from historical studies (Broens & De
Vries 2003, p. 5). An excellent example of the use of case studies in the
context of an epistemological analysis is the historian, Vincenti (1990,
pp. 207225). He developed a more general account of engineering design knowledge consisting of six categories (Table I) that interact intimately based on ve cases in aeronautics (De Vries 2003a, p. 3; Meijers
2000, p. 95). Knowledge, like the structure of design that determines it, is
hierarchical within the categories. The implications of the social context
for the various kinds of knowledge are closely linked to the intersectional
structure of knowledge categories and design hierarchy. Social impact
tends to be largest for fundamental concepts, criteria and specications
at the upper levels of the hierarchy (Vincenti 1990, p. 223).
Practitioners classications of technological knowledge have been
proposed based on reections on their design practice. Such reections
have been developed and published on the nature of the knowledge that
is used in design processes, in the eld of design methodology (De Vries
2003a, p. 3; Bayazit 1993; Muller & Pasman 1996, in Broens & De Vries
2003, p. 6). These reections are presented in Table II.
Simon (1969, in Dorst 1997, p. 12, 50) who linked classic design
methodology with problem solving theories from computer science and
Practical considerations
(derived from experience
in practice mostly
learned on the job)
Quantitative data
Fundamental design
concepts
Subcategories
Categories
Description
TABLE I
Vincentis categories of engineering design knowledge
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PIET ANKIEWICZ ET AL.
Design instrumentalities
Structured procedures
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Socio-technical Understanding
Functional rules
Technical know-how
Collaborative design
knowledge
Procedural knowledge
Declarative knowledge;
normative knowledge
Normative knowledge
Declarative knowledge
Structural rules
Technological laws
Structural rules
Ropohl (Philosophy)
(Broens & De Vries 2003, p. 6)
Practical considerations
Design instrumentalities
Computational methods
TABLE II
A comparison of dierent classications of technological knowledge according to Rophol, Bayazit, Vincenti and Simon
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PIET ANKIEWICZ ET AL.
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Sub-categories
Practical considerations
(derived from experience
in practice mostly
learned on the job)
Quantitative data
Process knowledge
Fundamental design
concepts
Process knowledge
Knowledge of the relationship between physical
and functional knowledge
Process knowledge
Categories
Sub-categories
Categories
TABLE IV
A comparison of dierent classications of technological knowledge according to Vincenti and De vries
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PIET ANKIEWICZ ET AL.
Design instrumentalities
Structured procedures
Ways of thinking (thinking itself is a mental
process; knowing how to do it is an aspect of the
tacit knowledge)
Judgemental skills (include an ability to way
technical considerations in relation to the demands and constraints of a social context, is
mostly tacit and can be learned only through
practical experience)
Process knowledge
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DISCUSSION
The implications of the philosophy of technology for Science, Technology and Society (STS) studies will now be discussed by viewing it from
an epistemological, historical and methodological perspective.
Implications for STS from an epistemological perspective
From Dorsts account of the process of designing technological artefacts,
deductions can be made from the way the structural description of the
artefact as physical object and the functional description of the object as
intentionally formed artefact are combined during the design process. Pitt (in Kroes & Meijers 2000, pp. xxxxxxi) shows that some
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epistemological models of technology originating from a historical perspective (e.g. Vincenti and Bucciarelli) are unable to explain or understand failure in design and seems to imply that in case of failed projects
the participants are simply not very good engineers. In contrast to the
myth of the engineer as idealised rational problem solver, Pitt proposes
rather taking the decision making process as point of departure in the
analysis of technology. Technology is humanity at work and we have to
look at who made what decision and why? From a design methodological perspective Dorst (1997, p. 206) states that there are design
activities that involve subjective interpretation when the designer
impresses meaning and value upon something in the design task or design solution (the framing action). This kind of design activity can best
be described by the paradigm of reective practice. The meaning and
value the designer impresses upon something relate to the normative
character or prescriptive knowledge of De Vries. It seems therefore that,
except for the knowledge of the relationship between the physical and
functional nature, the physical, functional and process nature knowledge
can be related to the paradigm of reective practice.
According to Dorst (1997, p. 206) there are also design activities in
which the interpretation of the design task or solution is based upon an
impression made by something outside the designer, where the designer
behaves according to the assumptions of the rational problem solving
paradigm (objective interpretation). Thus De Vriess knowledge of the
relationship between the physical and functional nature (that is akin to
knowledge in natural sciences) could be related to the rational problemsolving paradigm.
The implication of the two paradigms and Dorsts dual model for
epistemology (De Vriess physical, functional, relational and process
knowledge) is that specic types of knowledge can be linked to specic
phases of the design process. This implies that certain types of knowledge
belonging to a specic phase can be more applicable or relevant within a
specic paradigm.
In the ITA of Smit and Van Oost (1999, pp. 198, 210218) there must
be a global exploration especially in the second step of TA, as well as a
choice of themes that will be analysed in depth while the players (that are
indicated on the social map) participate in a roundtable discussion. One
can assume that the dierent players have dierent disciplines as background. The implication is that an integration of knowledge is required:
Not only of knowledge that leads to transfer of knowledge, but also of
knowledge that belongs to a discipline, for which there are not yet
players. To determine the background disciplines of the players who are
involved a technological map can be used in the rst step of TA (Smit &
Van Oost 1999, pp. 199210), namely the exploration of technological
development. According to Kroes and Meijers (2000, p. xxvi) when
developing an account of the intentional aspects of technical functions, it
will be necessary to explore the kind of social constraints involved in the
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Prof. Piet Ankiewicz holds an M.Sc. (Physics) and a D.Ed. both from
Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education. He is professor of Technology education at the University of Johannesburg, with
special interest in the philosophical and theoretical foundation of
Technology education, instructional methodology, learning programmes
and learners attitudes towards technology. He teaches and researches in
these areas, and is also appointed Head of the RAU Centre for
Technology education (RAUTEC).
Prof. Estelle de Swardt holds an M.Ed. (Technology education) and a
D.Ed. both from the University of Johannesburg. She is an associate
professor of Technology education at the Rand Afrikaans University and
is presently involved in the training of teachers for Technology education
with a special focus on critical and creative thinking development.
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Prof. Marc de Vries holds an M.Sc. in Physics from the Free University of Technology. At present he is assistant professor of Philosophy
and methodology of technology in the faculty of Technology Management at the Eindhoven University of Technology.
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