ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Energy Utilisation

Lecture Notes (Part 1)

August 2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1

ILLUMINATION
..........................................................................................................................................
1
1.1

1.2

Nature of Light
1
1.1.1

Electromagnetic Waves
1

1.1.2

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

1

1.1.3

Reflection
1

1.1.4

Refraction
1

1.1.5

Diffusion
1

Units of Light Measurement

1
1.2.1

1.3

Definitions
1

Electric Lamps
1
1.3.1

Standard Incandescent
1

1.3.2

Reflector Lamps
1

1.3.3

Tungsten Halogen Lamps

1

1.3.4

Discharge Lamps
1

1.3.5

Low Pressure Sodium Lamps

1

1.3.6

High Pressure Sodium Lamps

1

1.3.7

Mercury Vapour Lamps

1

1.3.8

Metal Halide Lamps

1

1.3.9

Compact Source Iodide Lamps

1

1.3.10 Run-Up Time

1
1.4

1.5

Light Emitting Diodes

1
1.4.1

Illumination Applications
1

1.4.2

Advantages of Using LEDs

1

1.4.3

Disadvantages of Using LEDs

1

Fluorescent Tubes
1
1.5.1

Principles of Operation
1

1.5.2

Mechanism of Light Production

1

1.5.3

Electrical Aspects of Operation

1

1.5.4

Methods of Starting a Fluorescent Lamp

1

1.5.5

Advantages over Incandescent Lamps

1

1.5.6

Disadvantages
1

Note:

1.6

Light Loss Factors

1

1.7

Calculating Illuminance at a Point

1

1.8

Control Gear
1

1.9

1.8.1

Ballasts
1

1.8.2

Dimmers
1

Starting
1
1.9.1

Instant Start
1

1.9.2

Rapid Start
1

ii

1.9.3
1.10

Programmed Start
1

Lighting Designs for Interiors

1
1.10.1 Recommended Task Illuminance
1
1.10.2 CIBSE Code
1
1.10.3 Photometric Data
1
1.10.4 Light-Output Ratio
1
1.10.5 Luminous Intensity and Polar Curves
1
1.10.6 Utilization Factors and Room Index
1
1.10.7 Spacing to Mounting Height Ratios
1
1.10.8 Discomfort Glare
1
1.10.9 Designing an Installation
1

1.11

Emergency Lighting
1

1.12

Terminologies
1

ENERGY AUDIT
..........................................................................................................................................
1
2.1

Forms of Energy Consumption

1

2.2

General Objectives
1

2.3

Specific Objectives
1

2.4

Energy Audit Methodologies

1
2.4.1

Preliminary Energy Auditing

1

2.4.2

Detailed Energy Audit

1

iii

2.4.3

Energy Audit Approach and Implementation Plan

1

2.4.4

Data Collection
1

2.4.5

Observation Measurement and Trails

1

2.4.6

Data Analysis and Findings

1

2.4.7

Techno-Economic Evaluation of Measures

1

2.4.8 Detailed Report Preparation and Presentation to the Concerned

Personnel and Management
1
2.5

2.6

Data Collection
1
2.5.1

Date installed
1

2.5.2

Check the Illuminance

1

2.5.3

Light Source and Luminaire Type

1

2.5.4

State Of Decoration
1

2.5.5

Check the Installation and Wiring

1

2.5.6

Check Purchasing Records

1

2.5.7

Installation Efficiency Check

1

2.5.8

Check Area Occupancy / Switching Flexibility

1

Energy Conservation Opportunities

1
2.6.1

Delamping
1

2.6.2

Specula Reflector with Delamping

1

2.6.3

Lens/Louver Upgrade
1

2.6.4

Task Lighting with Delamping

1

iv

2.7

2.8

2.9

2.6.5

Group Relamping and Cleaning With Delamping

1

2.6.6

Incandescent Upgrade
1

2.6.7

High Intensity Discharge Upgrade

1

Energy Management
1
2.7.1

Importance of Energy Management

1

2.7.2

Steps Taken In a Successful Energy Management

1

Energy Management in Lighting by Control Devices

1
2.8.1

Occupancy Sensors
1

2.8.2

Scheduling Controls
1

2.8.3

Electronic Ballast
1

Lighting and Light Sources

1
2.9.1

Factors Considered In Selecting Light Sources

1

2.9.2

Common Type Of Lamps

1

2.9.3 Qualitative Comparison of Incandescent, Fluorescent and HID Light

Sources
1
2.10

Power Factor
1
2.10.1 Improving Power Factor
1
2.10.2 The Advantages of PF Improvement by Capacitor Addition
1
2.10.3 Cost Benefits of PF Improvement
1

1 ILLUMINATION
Illumination is the distribution of light on a horizontal surface. The purpose of all lighting is to produce
illumination. Lighting refers to either artificial light sources such as lamps or to natural illumination of
interiors from daylight. Lighting represents a major component of energy consumption, accounting for a
significant part of all energy consumed worldwide. In major cities, light pollution is of growing concern.
Artificial lighting is provided today by electric lights, but previously by gas lighting, candles or oil lamps.
Proper lighting can enhance task performance or aesthetics; while there can be energy wastage and
adverse health effects of lighting. Indoor lighting is a form of fixture or furnishing, and a key part of
interior design.
1.1

Nature of Light

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation. It is basically the same thing as the radiations used in radio
and television, as radiant heat and as ultraviolet radiation and the still shorter X-rays, gamma rays etc.
1.1.1

Electromagnetic Waves

Figure 1: Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are energy transported through space in the form of periodic disturbances of electric and
magnetic fields. All electromagnetic waves travel through space at the same speed, c = 2.99792458 x 10 8 m/s,
commonly known as the speed of light. An electromagnetic wave is characterized by a frequency and a
wavelength. These two quantities are related to the speed of light by the equation,

Speed of Light = Frequency x Wavelength

The frequency (and hence, the wavelength) of an electromagnetic wave depends on its source. There is a wide
range of frequency encountered in our physical world, ranging from the low frequency of the electric waves
generated by the power transmission lines to the very high frequency of the gamma rays originating from the
atomic nuclei. This wide frequency range of electromagnetic waves constitutes the Electromagnetic Spectrum.

1.1.2

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Figure 2: Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum can be divided into several wavelength
(frequency) regions, among which only a narrow band from about 400 to 700 nm
is visible to the human eyes. Note that there is no sharp boundary between
these regions. The boundaries shown in the above figures are approximate and
there are overlaps between two adjacent regions.

Wavelength units: 1 mm = 1000 m; 1 m = 1000 nm.

Radio Waves: 10 cm to 10 km wavelength.

Microwaves: 1 mm to 1 m wavelength. The microwaves are further divided into different

frequency (wavelength) bands: (1 GHz = 109 Hz)

P band: 0.3 - 1 GHz (30 - 100 cm)

L band: 1 - 2 GHz (15 - 30 cm)

S band: 2 - 4 GHz (7.5 - 15 cm)

C band: 4 - 8 GHz (3.8 - 7.5 cm)

X band: 8 - 12.5 GHz (2.4 - 3.8 cm)

Ku band: 12.5 - 18 GHz (1.7 - 2.4 cm)

K band: 18 - 26.5 GHz (1.1 - 1.7 cm)

Ka band: 26.5 - 40 GHz (0.75 - 1.1 cm)

Infrared: 0.7 to 300 m wavelength. This region is further divided into the following bands:
o

Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.5 m.

Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.5 to 3 m.

Mid Wavelength Infrared (MWIR): 3 to 8 m.

Long Wavelength Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 15 m.

Far Infrared (FIR): longer than 15 m.

The NIR and SWIR are also known as the Reflected Infrared, referring to the main infrared component
of the solar radiation reflected from the earth's surface. The MWIR and LWIR are the Thermal Infrared.
Infrared radiation produces heating effects and may be considered simply as radiant heat. In a filament
lamp, light is produced by heating a coil of wire to incandescence (emission of light by a hot object), far
more infrared radiation is produced than visible light, and this is radiated and may be reflected with the
light.

Visible Light: This narrow band of electromagnetic radiation extends from about 400 nm
(violet) to about 700 nm (red). The various colour components of the visible spectrum fall
roughly within the following wavelength regions:
o

Red: 610 - 700 nm

Orange: 590 - 610 nm

Yellow: 570 - 590 nm

Green: 500 - 570 nm

Blue: 450 - 500 nm

Indigo: 430 - 450 nm

Violet: 400 - 430 nm

Because the human eye is more sensitive to yellow and green light in the middle of the spectrum, more
power must be expended to produce the same effect from colours at the ends of it. This is why the
monochromatic low-pressure sodium lamps which emit all their visible energy in two narrow bands in
the yellow region are more efficient in terms of light output than fluorescent tubes imitate natural day
light pretty closely and emit approximately equal packets of energy in each spectral band.

Ultraviolet: 3 to 400 nm

The areas of radiation on each side of the visible spectrum are important to the lamp maker. UV has the
property of exciting fluorescence in certain phosphors i.e. when irradiated with UV they produce visible
light.

1.1.3

X-Rays and Gamma Rays

Reflection

Reflected waves are simply those waves that are neither transmitted nor absorbed, but are reflected from the
surface of the medium they encounter. When a wave approaches a reflecting surface, such as a mirror, the wave
that strikes the surface is called the incident wave, and the one that bounces back is called the reflected wave
(refer to figure 3). An imaginary line perpendicular to the point at which the incident wave strikes the reflecting
surface is called the normal, or the perpendicular. The angle between the incident wave and the normal is called
the angle of incidence.
The angle between the reflected wave and the normal is called the angle of reflection. Figure 3- Reflection of a
wave.

Figure 3: Reflection
If the surface of the medium contacted by the incident wave is smooth and polished, each reflected
wave will be reflected back at the same angle as the incident wave. The path of the wave reflected from
the surface forms an angle equal to the one formed by its path in reaching the medium. When light falls
on a surface some of it is absorbed.
1.1.4

Refraction

Refraction is the bending of a wave when it enters a medium where it's speed is different. The
refraction of light when it passes from a fast medium to a slow medium bends the light ray toward the
normal to the boundary between the two media. The amount of bending depends on the indices of
refraction of the two media and is described quantitatively by Snell's Law.
Refraction is responsible for image formation by lenses and the eye.
As the speed of light is reduced in the slower medium, the wavelength is shortened proportionately. The
frequency is unchanged; it is a characteristic of the source of the light and unaffected by medium
changes.
1.1.5

Diffusion

Diffused light is light that is spread out and coming from many sources. When light is reflected from a
mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. When light is reflected from a piece of plain
white paper; however, the reflected beam is scattered, or diffused, as shown in figure 2-6. Because the
surface of the paper is not smooth, the reflected light is broken up into many light beams that are
reflected in all directions. Figure 2-6. - Diffusion of light.

1.2

Units of Light Measurement

Talking about light means talking about a specific portion of the whole electromagnetic spectrum from
radio waves with a wavelength of some meters to x-ray radiation with less than a nm wavelength.
Divided in three parts - Ultraviolet, Visible and Infrared - light covers a range from round about 100nm
to some m.
For the visible part of the spectrum (400nm - 700nm) a separate set of parameters is defined.
- Luminous Flux [lumens]
- Luminous Intensity [lm/sr = candela]
- Illuminance [lm/m = lux]
- Luminance [cd/m]
The human eye does not only have the capability to detect intensities but does also endue (give
quality) of a sensitivity for colour, various colorimetric values are defined and must be detected by light
measurement systems.
1.2.1

Definitions

Candela; amount of light emitted in a given direction by a source of one candle power.

Flux; illumination produced over an area of one square meter by one lumen.

Lumen; amount of light contained in one steradian from a source of one candela at its focus.

Luminance; (measured brightness) lumens emitted by a luminous surface of one square metre.

Illumination; the distribution of light on a horizontal surface. The purpose of all lighting is to
produce illumination.

1.3

Electric Lamps

Lamp produce light in three ways; by incandescence, excitation of metallic vapours in an electrical
discharge, and by fluorescence initiated by a discharge in mercury vapour causing radiation in the
ultraviolet region of the spectrum.
Incandescent lamps emit light from an electrically heated filament enclosed in a partially evacuated
glass bulb, which prevents the filament burning away. They are more commonly called light bulbs.
Gas discharge lamps contain a vapour that is made luminous by an electric current passing through
the gas between two electrodes. Fluorescent tubes are the most common type of gas discharge lamp.
All modern lamps consist basically of a coil of tungsten wire enclosed in a glass bulb generally filled
with an inert gas. Tungsten is used because of its high melting point. Most filaments operate at
temperatures in the region of 2700 0C. At this temperature the surface of the filament evaporates slowly
until a point is reached where it cannot support its own weight and fractures. The rate of evaporation is
controlled by the gas filling, usually a mixture of argon and nitrogen. Evaporated tungsten settles on the
inner surface of the glass bulb, discolouring it and reducing the amount of light emitted by the lamp
throughout its life. The filament is coiled to reduce heat losses by convention currents in the gas; coiling
substantially reduces the area exposed to them.
Carbon arc lamps create an electric discharge in the air between the two carbon rods, producing an
intense light. They have mechanisms to adjust the distance between the rods as they burn away.
Incandescent Lighting; Incandescent is the most common type of lighting used in homes. It has
traditionally delivered about 85% of household illumination. Incandescent lamps operate without ballast.
They light up instantly providing a warm light and excellent colour performance. However, incandescent
lamps have a low efficacy compared to other lighting options (10-7 lumens per watt) and a short
average operating life (750-2,500 hours). Incandescent lamps are the least expensive to buy; but
because of their relative inefficiency and short life spans, they are usually more expensive to operate.
There are three most common types of these lamps; standard incandescent, tungsten halogen and
reflector lamps.
1.3.1

Standard Incandescent

Known as the screw-in "A"-type light bulb, standard incandescent lamps are the most common but
the most inefficient light source available. These standard incandescent lamps produce light from a
tiny coil of tungsten wire that glows when it is heated by an electrical current. Larger wattage
incandescent bulbs have a higher efficacy than smaller wattage bulbs. However, a larger wattage lamp
or bulb may not be the most energy- or cost-effective option, depending on how much light is needed.
"Long-life" bulbs, with thicker filaments, are a variation of these A-type bulbs. Although these bulbs last
longer than their counterparts, they are less energy efficient.
1.3.2

Reflector Lamps

This is a type of incandescent lighting with an interior coating of aluminium that reflects light to the front
of the bulb. Designed to spread and direct light over specific areas, they are used mainly for
floodlighting, spotlighting, and down lighting.
There are two types of reflector lamps: parabolic aluminized and ellipsoidal. Parabolic aluminized
reflector lamps (Type PAR) are used for outdoor floodlighting. Ellipsoidal reflector lamps (Type ER)

focus light beams about 2 inches (5 centimetres) in front of its enclosure, projecting light down from
recessed fixtures. Ellipsoidal reflectors are twice as energy efficient as parabolic reflectors for recessed
fixtures.
1.3.3 Tungsten Halogen Lamps
This is a type of incandescent lighting which achieves better energy efficiency than standard,
incandescent A-type light bulbs. Tungsten halogen lamps contain a halogen gas in the bulb, which
reduces the filament evaporation rate and thus increases the lamp life. They also have an inner coating
that reflects heat. Together, the filling and coating recycle heat to keep the filament hot with less
electricity.
These lamps have a very high colour rendition index. They also are considerably more expensive to
buy than standard incandescent lamps, but are less expensive to operate because of their higher
efficacy. The high operating temperature and need for special fixtures limits the use of tungsten
halogens to commercial applications and for use in projector lamps and spotlights.
Incandescent
Lighting Type

Efficacy
(Lumens/Watt)

Lifetime
(hrs)

Colour
Rendition
Index (CRI)

Colour
Temperature
(K)

Indoors/Outdoors

Standard A
Bulb

10-17

7502,500

98100
(excellent)

27002800
(warm)

Indoors/Outdoors

Tungsten
Halogen

12-22

2,0004,000

98100
(excellent)

29003200
(warm to
neutral)

Indoors/Outdoors

Reflector

12-19

2,0003,000

98100
(excellent)

2800 (warm)

Indoors/Outdoors

1.3.4

Discharge Lamps

When an arc is struck in a gas or metallic vapour it radiates energy in characteristic wavebands e.g.
neon gives red light, sodium yellow and mercury vapour four distinct lines in the visible and two in the
UV region of the spectrum.
All modern discharge lamps operate in a translucent enclosure containing the appropriate metals or
metal halides; the initial discharge is usually struck in argon or neon. As the metal or metal halide
evaporates, it takes over the discharge from the starter gas and emits light at its characteristic
wavelengths. Because more light and less heat is radiated by theses lamps, they are more efficient in
terms of lumens per watt than filament lamps, but where a line spectrum is emitted there is a marked
distortion of colours seen under their light.
1.3.5

Low Pressure Sodium Lamps

These are the most efficient lamps in terms of lumens per watt, because the monochromatic yellow
light they produce is in the area near the peak of the eye sensitivity curve. Because only yellow light is
emitted, however, objects are seen in tones of black and yellow only and colours cannot be perceived.
They are extensively used for highway lighting and in situations where no colour discrimination is
necessary.

1.3.6

High Pressure Sodium Lamps

If the internal vapour pressure of a sodium vapour lamp is increased, the sodium spectrum will broaden
to include colours on both sides of the original yellow lines. Although this will result in a slight reduction
of efficacy, it allows colours to be discriminated. High pressure sodium lamps are rated in sizes from
1kW down to 50W and have taken over from mercury discharge lamps in side streets, industrial and
commercial applications. The efficacy of these lamps is in the order of 100lm/W compared with
150lm/W for low pressure sodium and 45lm/W for mercury lamps.
1.3.7

Mercury Vapour Lamps

These emit a considerable amount of energy in two wavebands in the UV region, the proportion of
visible to invisible radiation being closely related to the gas pressure in the discharge tube. This is used
to excite fluorescence in phosphors coating the inside of the outer bulb to add some of the missing red
to their spectrum.
1.3.8

Metal Halide Lamps

Metal halide lamps use mercury vapour and the halides of a number of chemically active metals which
are released as the temperature in the arc tube increases, producing a virtually continuous spectrum in
which colours ca readily be distinguished and seen with very little distortion. Their main advantage is
that they provide a compact source of light with good colour rendering properties at efficacies in the
order of 80lm/W. They are now available in lower wattages, typically 150W, 70W and even 35W, and
can thus provide high quality white light for commercial interiors or for exterior floodlighting.
1.3.9

Compact Source Iodide Lamps

Two types of metal halide lamps are specially made for floodlighting and are used for lighting football
and sports stadia. One is a double ended tubular lamp, with no outer jacket designed to be used in an
enclosed parabolic floodlighting projector and the other a very compact discharge capsule enclosed in
a parabolic sealed glass reflector. This lamp has superseded the giant carbon arc projectors used in
television studios an, beaus of its light weight and small size is specially suited to outside broadcasts. It
is available in a hot restrike version.
1.3.10 Run-Up Time
All discharge lamps so far referred to have a run up period varying from a few minutes to a quarter of
an hour. They also require time for the vapour to cool and its pressure to drop before they will restrike
after they have been extinguished, except for low pressure sodium lamps which restrike immediately
current is restored. High pressure sodium lamps recover a great deal more quickly than other types.

Summary of the main characteristics of discharge lamps are given in the table below.
Lamp Type

Lumens
Watt

Mercury

50

per Colour
Appearance

Colour
Rendering

Power
Range(W)

Average
(hrs)

Life

Bluish White

Poor

50-1,000

16,000-24,000

Metal Halide- 80
double ended
compact

White

Very Good

70-250

6,000

Metal Halide- 80
double ended

White

Very Good

750-2,000

6,000

Metal Halide- 80
single ended
compact

White

Very Good

70-150

6,000

Metal Halide- 80
elliptical
coated

White

Very Good

250-1,000

14,000

Metal Halide- 85
tubular clear

White

Very Good

250-400

6,000

Low Pressure 140

Sodium

Orange

None

18-180

16,000

Low Pressure 180

Sodium
Economy

Orange

None

26-131

16,000

High Pressure 96
Sodium

Yellow

Very Poor

50-1,000

24,000

High Pressure 100

Sodiumincreased
output

Yellow

Very Poor

50-400

24,000

High Pressure 90
Sodiumimproved
colour

Golden

Good

150-400

12,000-16,000

1.4

Light Emitting Diodes

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits incoherent

narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in the forward direction. This
effect is a form of electroluminescence. The color of the emitted light depends
on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material used, and can
be near-ultraviolet, visible or infrared.[1] Rubin Braunstein of the Radio
Corporation of America first reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide
(GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.[2] Experimenters at Texas
Instruments, Bob Biard and Gary Pittman, found in 1961 that gallium arsenide
gave off infrared (invisible) light when electric current was applied. Biard and
Pittman were able to establish the priority of their work and received the patent
for the infrared light-emitting diode. Nick Holonyak Jr. of the General Electric
Company developed the first practical visible-spectrum LED in 1962.[3]

1.4.1

Illumination Applications

LEDs used as a replacement for incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent lamps
are known as solid-state lighting (SSL) - packaged as a cluster of white LEDs
grouped together to form a light source (pictured). LEDs are moderately efficient:
the average commercial SSL currently outputs 32 lumens per watt (lm/W), and
new technologies promise to deliver up to 80 lm/W. The long lifetime of LEDs
make SSL very attractive. They are also more mechanically robust than
incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent tubes. Currently, solid state lighting is

becoming more available for household use, but is relatively expensive, although
costs are decreasing. LED flashlights however already have become widely
available. Recently a number of manufacturers have started marketing ultracompact LCD video projectors that use high-powered white LEDS for the light
source.
Incandescent bulbs are much less expensive but also less efficient, generating
from about 16 lm/W for a domestic tungsten bulb to 22 lm/W for a halogen bulb.
Fluorescent tubes are more efficient, providing 50 to 100 lm/W for domestic
tubes (average 60 lm/W), but are bulky and fragile and require starter or ballast
circuits that sometimes buzz audibly. Compact fluorescent lamps, which include
a quiet integrated ballast, are relatively robust and efficient, fit in standard light
bulb sockets, and are currently the best choice for efficient household lighting.
Proponents of LEDs expect that technological advances will reduce costs such
that SSL can be introduced into most homes by 2020. However, they are still not
commercially viable for general lighting applications, and so LEDs are found
today in illumination applications where their special characteristics provide a
distinct advantage. This can be seen in the widespread use of LEDs in traffic
signals and indicator lamps for trucks and automobiles.
Due to their monochromatic nature, LED lights have great power advantages
over white lights when a specific color is required. Unlike traditional white lights,
the LED does not need a coating or diffuser that can absorb much of the emitted
light. LED lights are inherently colored, and are available in a wide range of
colors. One of the most recently introduced colors is the emerald green (bluish
green, about 500 nm) that meets the legal requirements for traffic signals and
navigation lights.
There are applications that specifically require light without any blue component.
Examples are photographic darkroom safe lights, illumination in laboratories
where certain photo-sensitive chemicals are used, and situations where dark
adaptation (night vision) must be preserved, such as cockpit and bridge
illumination, observatories, etc. Yellow LED lights are a good choice to meet
these special requirements because the human eye is more sensitive to yellow
light (about 500 lm/watt emitted) than that emitted by the other LEDs.
The first residence lit solely by LED's was the "Vos Pad" in London. The entire flat
is lit by a combination of white and RGB (colour changing) LED's.

1.4.2

Advantages of Using LEDs

LEDs can emit light of an intended color without the use of color filters that traditional lighting
methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

The solid package of an LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent
sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a useable manner.

LEDs are built inside solid cases that protect them, unlike incandescent and discharge
sources, making them extremely durable.

LEDs have an extremely long life span: typically ten years, twice as long as the best
fluorescent bulbs and twenty times longer than the best incandescent bulbs. (Incandescent
bulbs can also be made to last an extremely long time by running at lower than normal voltage,
but only at a huge cost in efficiency; LEDs have a long life when operated at their rated power.)

10

Further, LEDs fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burn-out of incandescent bulbs.

LEDs give off much less heat than incandescent light bulbs with similar light output.

LEDs light up very quickly. An illumination LED will achieve full brightness in approximately
0.01 seconds, 10 times faster than an incandescent light bulb (0.1 second), and many times
faster than a compact fluorescent lamp, which starts to come on after 0.5 seconds or 1 second,
but does not achieve full brightness for 30 seconds or more. a typical red indicator LED will
achieve full brightness in microseconds, or possibly less if it's used for communication devices.

1.4.3

Disadvantages of Using LEDs

LEDs are currently more expensive, in lumens per dollar, than more conventional lighting
technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and
the drive circuitry and power supplies needed.

LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment.
"Driving" an LED "hard" in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating of the LED
package, eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain
long life. This is especially important when considering automotive/military applications where
the device must operate over a large range of temperatures, with government-regulated output.

1.5

Fluorescent Tubes

A fluorescent lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor in argon or
neon gas, resulting in a plasma that produces short-wave ultraviolet light. This light then causes a
phosphor to fluoresce, producing visible light.
Unlike incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps always require a ballast to regulate the flow of power
through the lamp. In common tube fixtures (typically 4' or 8' in length), the ballast is enclosed in the
fixture. Compact fluorescent light bulbs may have a conventional ballast located in the fixture or they
may have ballasts integrated in the lamps, allowing them to be used in lamp holders normally used for
incandescent lamps.
A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also known as a compact fluorescent light bulb or an energy
saving lightbulb, is a type of fluorescent lamp that screws into a regular light bulb socket or plugs into
a small lighting fixture.In comparison to incandescent light bulbs, CFLs have a longer rated life and use
less electricity. In fact, CFLs save enough money in electricity costs to make up for their higher initial
price within about 500 hours of use.
1.5.1

Principles of Operation

The main principle of fluorescent tube operation is based around inelastic scattering of electrons. An
incident electron (emitted from the coils of wire forming the cathode electrode) collides with an atom in
the gas (such as mercury, argon or krypton) used as the ultraviolet emitter. This causes an electron in
the atom to temporarily jump up to a higher energy level to absorb some, or all, of the kinetic energy
delivered by the colliding electron. This is why the collision is called 'inelastic' as some of the energy is
absorbed. This higher energy state is unstable, and the atom will emit a photon to allow the atom's
electron to revert to a lower, more stable, energy level. The photons that are released from the chosen
gas mixtures tend to have a wavelength in the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. This is not visible to the

11

human eye, so must be converted into visible light. This is done by making use of fluorescence. This
fluorescent conversion occurs in the phosphor coating on the inner surface of the fluorescent tube,
where the ultra-violet photons are absorbed by electrons in the phosphor's atoms, causing a similar
energy jump, then drop, with emission of a further photon. The photon that is emitted from this second
interaction has a lower energy than the one that caused it. The chemicals that make up the phosphor
are specially chosen so that these emitted photons are at wavelengths visible to the human eye. The
difference in energy between the absorbed ultra-violet photon and the emitted visible light photon goes
to heat up the phosphor coating.
1.5.2

Mechanism of Light Production

A fluorescent lamp bulb is filled with a gas containing low pressure argon (or more rarely argon-neon or
sometimes even krypton) and mercury vapor. The inner surface of the bulb is coated with a fluorescent
paint made of varying blends of metallic and rare-earth phosphor salts. The bulb's cathode is typically
made of coiled tungsten which is coated with a mixture of barium, strontium and calcium oxides
(chosen to have a relatively low thermionic emission temperature). When the light is turned on; the
electric power heats up the cathode enough for it to emit electrons. These electrons collide with and
ionize noble gas atoms in the bulb surrounding the filament to form a plasma by a process of impact
ionization. As a result of avalanche ionization, the conductivity of the ionized gas rapidly rises, allowing
higher currents to flow through the lamp. The mercury, which exists at a stable vapour pressure
equilibrium point of about one part per thousand in the inside of the tube (with the noble gas pressure
typically being about 0.3% of atmospheric pressure (1 atm)), is then likewise ionized, causing it to emit
light in the ultraviolet (UV) region of the spectrum predominantly at wavelengths of 253.7 nm and 185
nm. The efficiency of fluorescent lighting owes much to the fact that low pressure mercury discharges
emit about 65% of their total light at the 254 nm line (also about 10-20% of the light emitted in UV is at
the 185 nm line). The UV light is absorbed by the bulb's fluorescent coating, which re-radiates the
energy at lower frequencies (longer wavelengths) (see stokes shift) to emit visible light. The blend of
phosphors controls the color of the light, and along with the bulb's glass prevents the harmful UV light
from escaping.
1.5.3

Electrical Aspects of Operation

Fluorescent lamps are negative resistance devices. This means that as more current flows through
them and more gas is ionized, the electrical resistance of the fluorescent lamp drops, allowing even
more current to flow through them. Connected directly to a constant- voltage mains power line, a
fluorescent lamp would rapidly self-destruct due to the unlimited current flow. Because of this,
fluorescent lamps are always used with some sort of auxiliary device, commonly called a ballast, to
regulate the current flow through the tube.
While the ballast could be (and occasionally is) as simple as a resistor, substantial power is wasted in a
resistive ballast so ballasts usually use a reactance (inductor or capacitor) instead. For operation from
mains voltage, the use of simple inductor (a so-called "magnetic ballast") is common. In countries that
use 120 V AC mains, the mains voltage is insufficient to light large fluorescent lamps so the ballast for
these larger fluorescent lamps is often a step-up autotransformer with substantial leakage inductance
(so as to limit the current flow). Either form of inductive ballast may also include a capacitor for power
factor correction.
More sophisticated ballasts may employ transistors or other semiconductor components to convert
mains voltage into high-frequency AC while also regulating the current flow in the lamp. These are
referred to as "electronic ballasts".

12

Fluorescent lamps which operate directly from mains frequency AC will flicker at twice the mains
frequency, since the power being delivered to the lamp will drop to zero twice per cycle. This means
that the light will flicker at the rate of 120 times per second (Hz) in countries which use 60-cycle-persecond (60 Hz) AC, and 100 times per second in those which use 50 Hz. This same principle applies to
the occasional hum one hears from fluorescent lamps, which is primarily caused by the ballast. Both
the annoying hum and flicker are eliminated in lamps which use a high-frequency electronic ballast,
such as the increasingly popular compact fluorescent bulb.
Although most people cannot directly see 120 Hz flicker, some people report that 120 Hz flicker causes
eyestrain and headache. Dr. J. Veitch has found that people have better reading performance using
high-frequency (20-60 kHz) electronic ballasts than magnetic ballasts (120 Hz). [3]
In some circumstances, fluorescent lamps operated at mains frequency can also produce flicker at the
mains frequency (50 or 60 Hz) itself, which is noticeable by more people. This can happen in the last
few hours of tube life when the cathode emission coating at one end is almost run out, and that cathode
starts having difficulty emitting enough electrons into the gas fill, resulting in slight rectification and
hence uneven light output in positive and negative going mains cycles. Mains frequency flicker can
also sometimes be emitted from the very ends of the tubes, as a result of each tube electrode
alternately operating as an anode and cathode each half mains cycle, and producing slightly different
light output pattern in anode or cathode mode. (This was a more serious issue with tubes over 40 years
ago, and many fittings of that era shielded the tube ends from view as a result.) Flicker at mains
frequency is more noticeable in the peripheral vision than it is in the centre of gaze.
1.5.4

Methods of Starting a Fluorescent Lamp

The mercury atoms in the fluorescent tube must be ionized before the arc can "strike" within the tube.
For small lamps, it does not take much voltage to strike the arc and starting the lamp presents no
problem, but larger tubes require a substantial voltage (in the range of a thousand volts). In some
cases, that is exactly how it is done: instant start fluorescent tubes simply use a high enough voltage to
break down the gas and mercury column and thereby start arc conduction. These tubes can be
identified by the facts that
1. they have a single pin at each end of the tube and
2. the lamp holders that they fit into have a "disconnect" socket at the low-voltage end to ensure that
the mains current is automatically removed so that a person replacing the lamp can not receive a
high-voltage electric shock.
In other cases, a separate starting aid must be provided. Old fluorescent designs ( preheat lamps) used
a combination filament/cathode at each end of the lamp in conjunction with a mechanical or automatic
switch (see photo) that would initially connect the filaments in series and thereby "preheat" the
filaments prior to striking the arc. Because of thermionic emission, the filaments would readily emit
electrons into the gas column, creating a glow discharge near the filaments. Then, when the starting
switch opened up, the inductive ballast would create a voltage surge which would (usually) strike the
arc. If so, the impinging arc then kept the filament/cathode warm. If not, the starting sequence was
repeated. If the starting aid was automatic, this often led to the situation where an old fluorescent lamp
would flash time and time again as the starter repeatedly tried to start the worn-out lamp. More
advanced starters would "trip out" in this situation and not attempt another start until manually reset.
Newer lamp and ballast designs (known as rapid start lamps) provide true filament windings within the
ballast; these rapidly and continuously warm the filaments/cathodes using low-voltage AC.
Unfortunately, there is no inductive voltage surge produced so the lamps must usually be mounted near

13

a grounded (earthed) reflector to allow the glow discharge to propagate through the tube and initiate
the arc discharge. Electronic ballasts often revert to a style in-between the preheat and rapid-start
styles: a capacitor or other electronic circuit may join the two filaments, providing a conduction path that
preheats the filaments but which is subsequently shorted out by the arc discharge. Generally this
capacitor also forms, together with the inductor that provides current limiting in normal operation, a
resonant circuit, increasing the voltage across the lamp so that it can easily start. Some electronic
ballasts use programmed start: the output AC frequency is started above the resonance frequency of
the output circuit of the ballast, and after the filaments are heated the frequency is rapidly decreased. If
the frequency approaches the resonant frequency of the ballast, the output voltage will increase so
much that the lamp will ignite. If the lamp does not ignite an electronic circuit stops the operation of the
ballast.
1.5.5

Advantages over Incandescent Lamps

Fluorescent lamps are more efficient than incandescent light bulbs of an equivalent brightness. This is
because more of the consumed energy is converted to usable light and less is converted to heat,
(allowing fluorescent lamps to run cooler). An incandescent lamp may convert only 10% of its power
input to visible light. A fluorescent lamp producing as much useful visible light energy may require only
1/3 to 1/4 as much electricity input. Typically a fluorescent lamp will last between 10 and 20 times as
long as an equivalent incandescent lamp. Where lighting is used in air-conditioned spaces, all the lamp
losses must also be removed by the air conditioning equipment, resulting in a double penalty for losses
due to lighting.
The higher first cost of a fluorescent lamp is more than compensated for by lower energy consumption
over its life. The longer life may also reduce lamp replacement costs, providing additional saving
especially where labor is costly. Therefore it is widely used by businesses worldwide, but not so much
by households.
1.5.6

Disadvantages

1. Fluorescent lamps require a ballast to stabilize the lamp and to provide the initial striking voltage
required to start the arc discharge; this increases the cost of fluorescent Luminaires, though often
one ballast is shared between two or more lamps.
Conventional lamp ballasts do not operate on direct current. If a direct current supply with a high
enough voltage to strike the arc is available, a resistor can be used to ballast the lamp but this leads to
low efficiency because of the power lost in the resistor. Also, the mercury tends to migrate to one end of
the tube leading to only one end of the lamp producing most of the light. Because of this effect, the
lamps (or the polarity of the current) must be reversed at regular intervals.
2. Fluorescent lamps operate best around room temperature (say, 68 degrees Fahrenheit or 20
degrees Celsius). At much lower or higher temperatures, efficiency decreases and at low
temperatures (below freezing) standard lamps may not start. Special lamps may be needed for
reliable service outdoors in cold weather.
3. Because the arc is quite long relative to higher-pressure discharge lamps, the amount of light
emitted per unit of surface of the lamps is low, so the lamps are large compared with incandescent
sources. This affects design of fixtures since light must be directed from long tubes instead of a
compact source. However, in many cases low luminous intensity of the emitting surface is useful
because it reduces glare.
4. Fluorescent lamps do not give out a steady light, instead they flicker (fluctuate in intensity) at a rate
that depends on the frequency of the driving voltage. While this is not easily discernable by the
14

human eye, it can cause a strobe effect posing a safety hazard in a workshop for example, where
something spinning at just the right speed may appear stationary if illuminated solely by a
fluorescent lamp. It also causes problems for video recording as there can be a 'beat effect'
between the periodic reading of a camera's sensor and the fluctuations in intensity of the fluorescent
lamp. Incandescent lamps, due to the thermal inertia of their element, fluctuate less in their intensity,
although the effect is measurable with instruments. This is also less of a problem with compact
fluorescents, since they multiply the line frequency to levels that are not visible. Installations can
reduce the stroboscope effect by using lead-lag ballasts or by operating the lamps on different
phases of a polyphase power supply.
5. Many people find the color spectrum produced by some fluorescent lighting to be harsh and
displeasing. It is common for a healthy person to appear with a sickly bluish skin tone under
fluorescent lighting. This is due in part to the presence of prominent blue and green lines emitted
directly by the mercury arc and in part to the type of phosphor used. Many pigments appear a
slightly different color when viewed under fluorescent light versus incandescent. This is mainly the
case with fluorescent lamps containing the older halophosphate type phosphors (chemical formula
Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl):Sb3+,Mn2+), usually labeled as "cool white". The bad color reproduction is due to the
fact that this phosphor mainly emits yellow and blue light, and relatively little green and red. To the
eye, this mixture looks white, but light reflected from surfaces has an incomplete spectrum. More
expensive fluorescent lamps use a triphosphor mixture, based on europium and terbium ions, that
have emission bands more evenly distributed over the spectrum of visible light. These phosphors
give a more natural color reproduction to the human eye.
6. Unless specifically designed and approved to accommodate dimming, most fluorescent light fixtures
cannot be connected to a standard dimmer switch used for incandescent lamps. Two effects are
responsible for this: the waveshape of the voltage emitted by a standard phase-control dimmer
interacts badly with many ballasts and it becomes difficult to sustain an arc in the fluorescent tube at
low power levels. Many installations require 4-pin fluorescent lamps and compatible controllers for
successful fluorescent dimming; these systems tend to keep the cathodes of the fluorescent tube
fully heated even as the arc current is reduced, promoting easy thermionic emission of electrons
into the arc stream.
7. The disposal of phosphor and the small amounts of mercury in the tubes may also be an
environmental problem, compared to the disposal of incandescent lamps. For large commercial or
industrial users of fluorescent lights, recycling services are beginning to become available.
Note:
Energy saving lamps which can replace the standard lamps can reduce power demand and energy
use by about 15%. They will also decrease light levels about 3-10%. These lamps can only be used
with ballasts designed and rated for energy saving lamps and should not be used in areas in which the
temperature falls below 60 0F. Fixtures subject to direct discharge from air conditioning vent are not
good candidates for energy saving fluorescent tubes.

1.6

Light Loss Factors

Light Loss Factor, LLF, is a correction factor used to account for the difference between laboratory test
results and real world degradation of the lighting system over time. Some of the factors are nonrecoverable while others are recoverable.

15

Non-recoverable factors are not controlled by maintenance practices. They exist initially and change
insignificantly throughout the life of the system. Examples include: luminaire ambient temperature
factor, heat extraction thermal factor, voltage-to-luminaire factor, ballast factor, ballast-lamp photometric
factor, equipment operating factor, lamp position (tilt) factor, and luminaire surface depreciation factor.
Recoverable factors include: lamp lumen depreciation, luminaire dirt depreciation, room surface dirt
depreciation, lamp burnout factor.
LLF accounts for the decline in light output over time and the maintenance procedures and is the
product of:
LLF = LLD x LFF x LDD x RDD
LDD and RDD are part of the maintenance factor (MF = LDD x RDD) and related to the Luminaire dirt
depreciation (LDD) and the room surface dirt depreciation (RSDD).
The lamp failure factor LFF, is a result of failed lamps not being replaced immediately and dependant
on the maintenance procedures. Lamp lumen depreciation LLD takes into account the depreciation in
lamp output during its life and is obtained from manufacturers catalogues (a typical figure used being
0.92).
ss fa (LLF) is a vital performance. As lamps age and luminaires are
1.7

Calculating Illuminance at a Point

1.8

Control Gear

All arc lamps require a current limiting device to prevent them taking more and more current until they
destroy themselves. A new era is taking place in the control gear used in fluorescent lamps- the use of
electronics.
1.8.1

Ballasts

Electrical ballast (sometimes called control gear) is a device intended to control the amount of current
flowing in an electric circuit.
Ballasts vary greatly in complexity. They can be as simple as a series resistor as commonly used with
small neon lamps. For higher-power installations, too much energy would be wasted in a resistive
ballast, so alternatives are used that depend upon the reactance of inductors, capacitors, or both.
Finally, ballasts can be as complex as the computerized, remote-controlled electronic ballasts used
with fluorescent lamps.
Ballasts are most commonly needed when an electrical circuit or device presents a negative
resistance to the supply. If such a device were connected to a constant-voltage power supply, it would
draw an ever-increasing amount of current until it was destroyed or caused the power supply to fail. To
prevent this, a ballast provides a positive resistance or reactance that limits the ultimate flow of current
to an appropriate level. In this way, the 'ballast' provides for the proper operation of the negative
resistance device. Examples of such negative-resistance devices are gas discharge tubes and lamps.
Ballasts can also be used simply to deliberately reduce the current flow in an ordinary, positiveresistance circuit. Prior to the advent of solid-state ignition, automobile ignition systems commonly
included a ballast resistor to regulate the voltage applied to the ignition system.

16

An Electronic Lamp Ballast uses solid state electronic circuitry to provide the proper starting and
operating electrical condition to power one or more fluorescent lamps and more recently HID lamps.
Electronic ballasts usually change the frequency of the power from the standard mains frequency to
20,000 Hz or higher, substantially eliminating the stroboscopic effect of flicker (100 or 120 Hz, twice the
line frequency) associated with fluorescent lighting (see photosensitive epilepsy). In addition, because
more gas remains ionized in the arc stream, the lamps actually operate at about 9% higher efficiency
above approximately 10 kHz. Lamp efficacy increases sharply to about 10 kHz and continues to
improve until approximately 20 kHz*(IES Lighting Handbook 1984). Because of the high frequency of
operation, electronic ballasts are generally smaller, lighter, and more efficient (and thus run cooler) than
line frequency magnetic ballasts.
In addition, the higher operating frequency means that it is often practical to use a capacitor as the
current-limiting reactance rather than the inductor required at line frequencies. Capacitors tend to be
much lower-loss devices than inductors, allowing them to more-closely approach an "ideal reactance".
Electronic ballasts are often based on inverter/converter style switched-mode power supplies, first
rectifying the input power and then chopping it at a high frequency. Advanced electronic ballasts may
allow dimming via pulse-width modulation and remote control and monitoring via networks such as
LonWorks, DALI, DSI or simple analog control using a 0-10V DC brightness control signal.

1.8.2

Dimmers

Dimmers are devices used to vary the brightness of a light. By decreasing or increasing the RMS
voltage and hence the mean power to the lamp it is possible to vary the intensity of the light output.
Although variable-voltage devices are used for various purposes, the term dimmer is generally
reserved for those intended to control lighting.
Dimmers range in size from small units the size of a normal light switch used for domestic lighting to
high power units used in large theatre or architectural lighting installations. Small domestic dimmers are
generally directly controlled although remote control systems (such as X10) are available. Modern
professional dimmers are generally controlled by a digital control system like DMX.
In the professional lighting industry changes in intensity are called fades and can be fades up or
fades down. Dimmers with direct manual control had a limit on the speed they could be varied at but
this issue is pretty much gone with modern digital units (although very fast changes in brightness may
still be avoided for other reasons like bulb life).
1.9

Starting

There are three starting methods available for electronic ballasts:

1.9.1

Instant Start

This method starts lamps without heating the cathodes at all by using a high voltage (around 600V). It
is the most energy efficient type, but gives the least number of starts from a lamp as emissive oxides
are blasted from the cold cathode surfaces each time the lamp is started. This is the best type for
installations where lamps are not turned on and off very often.

17

1.9.2

Rapid Start

Applies voltage and heats the cathodes simultaneously. Provides superior lamp life and more cycle life,
but uses slightly more energy as the cathodes in each end of the lamp continue to consume heating
power as the lamp operates.

1.9.3

Programmed Start

More advanced version of rapid start. It applies cathode power first, then after a short delay to allow the
cathodes to preheat, applies voltage to the lamps to strike an arc. Gives the best life and most starts
from lamps. This is the preferred type of ballast for applications with very frequent power cycling such
as vision examination rooms and restrooms with a motion detector switch.
1.10

Lighting Designs for Interiors

1.10.1 Recommended Task Illuminance

1.10.2 CIBSE Code
1.10.3 Photometric Data
1.10.4 Light-Output Ratio
1.10.5 Luminous Intensity and Polar Curves
1.10.6 Utilization Factors and Room Index
1.10.7 Spacing to Mounting Height Ratios
1.10.8 Discomfort Glare
1.10.9 Designing an Installation
1.11

Emergency Lighting

1.12

Terminologies

CU (Coefficient of
Utilization )

The ratio of lumens from a luminaire (fixture) received on the work plane to the
lumens emitted by the luminaires lamps alone.

General Area

The percentage of the area of an individual space type that is considered to be

general and illuminated with general lighting.

HFC Horizontal
Footcandle

Quantity of light (measured in foot candles) on a horizontal surface.

Luminous Efficacy
(LE)

The total lumens emitted by a light source divided by the total lamp power input,
expressed as lumens per watt.

18

LDD (Luminaire Dirt

Depreciation)

An adjustment factor that accounts for the fractional loss of task illuminance due
to luminaire dirt accumulation.

LLD (Lamp Lumen

Depreciation)

An adjustment factor that accounts for the fractional loss of lamp lumens at rated
operating conditions that progressively occurs during lamp operation.

Lens

A glass or plastic element used in luminaires (fixtures) to change the direction

and control the distribution of light rays.

Light Distribution

The way in which light is emitted from a luminaire (fixture); often classified as
direct, semi-direct, diffuse, semi-indirect or indirect.

Light Source

The lighting technology that is applicable to the specific luminaire. Typically:

compact fluorescent - CF, fluorescent - FL, incandescent - INC, metal halide MH, miniature reflector incandescent - MR, parabolic incandescent - PAR,
tungsten halogen - TH.

LLF (Light Loss

Factor)

The fractional remainder of task illuminance due to all combined lumen

depreciations including LDD, LLD, and RSDD.

LPD (Lighting
Power Density)

A measure of electrical power used to provide lighting to a space - expressed in

watts per square foot (or watts per square meter).

RCR (Room Cavity

Ratio)

A number relating the dimensions of an enclosed space ( length, width, height)

that effects the overall coefficient of Utilization of a luminaire within that specific
space. The actual values used in the calculations were: 1 for RCR A, 5 for RCR
B, and 7 for RCR C

Recommended
Light Level

The horizontal light level (expressed in foot candles) that is considered

appropriate for the space or area. These values are generally taken from
published IESNA data where applicable.

Reflectance

The ratio of light reflected from a surface to the light falling on the surface.

RSDD (Room
Surface Dirt
Depreciation)

An adjustment factor that accounts for the fractional loss of task illumination due
to dirt on room surfaces.

Size

The size of a lens covering a luminaire opening typically applied to down

lights.

Source

A reference to the source of the building space-by-space description and square

footage data (typically sets of building plans) from which building space square
footage takeoffs are completed.

Task Area

The percentage of the area of an individual space type that is considered to be

for specific tasks and illuminated with task lighting.

TEF (Total Efficiency

Factor )

A total efficiency factor used in calculating space type LPDs that includes initial
Lamp Efficacy, Light Loss Factor (LLF), and Coefficient of Utilization (CU) and is
expressed in lumens per watt.

19

Weighted Average
Foot candles

The foot candle level considered to be typical over an entire space that accounts
for both general and task foot candle levels and the space to which each is
applied.

Weighted Average
LPD

The allowable LPD value for a building type (i.e. office, fire station, library). This
value is an average of the whole building LPD values for multiple buildings of
this type. This value can be "weighted" in favor of one or more of these
individual buildings if that building exhibits unique characteristics within its
general type and there is data to support its actual share of new construction.
Currently all buildings within a building type are given equal weight.

Light Loss Factor

A factor used in calculating illuminance that takes into account dirt accumulation,
lamp depreciation, temperature and voltage variations, maintenance procedures
and environmental conditions. Total LLF also includes the ballast factor.

Foot Candle

The unit is defined as the amount of illumination the inside surface an imaginary
1-foot radius sphere would be receiving if there were a uniform point source of
one candela in the exact center of the sphere. Alternatively, it can be defined as
the illuminance on a 1-square foot surface of which there is a uniformly
distributed flux of one lumen. This can be thought of as the amount of light that
actually falls on a given surface. The foot-candle is equal to one lumen per
square foot.

2 ENERGY AUDIT
Energy Auditing can literally be compared to financial Auditing. Energy Auditing refers to critically
assessing the Energy consumption of a company, Industry, Institution etc. It is defined as Evaluation of
net energy consumption. Note that Energy Auditing helps us to assess the Energy status of any firm
thus helping us no whether a firm is wasting energy or not.
Energy audit identifies the flow of energy consumed in each step and pinpoint where energy is wasted,
energy audit report revealing the areas of wastage of energy and provides recommendations to the
industry. Some parameters for evaluation may be all or some of the following:

Quantity energy consumption and establish baseline energy information

Efficiency evaluation of energy utility systems

Compare Energy norms with energy consumption levels

Identify and prioritisation of energy saving measures

Analysis of technical and financial feasibility of energy saving measure

Recommend energy efficient technologies and alternate energy sources

20

Check architectural and air conditioning blue prints

Check building and plant operation schedules

Develop and manage training programme for energy efficiency at operating levels

Energy audits have established that Energy savings in the order of 5% to20 % may be possible by
opting for better house keeping, low cost retrofitting measures and use of Energy efficient equipment,
replacement, renovation or upgrading the system.
Energy managers and energy auditors should be able to do the following:

Electricity billing analysis

Analyze utility electricity tariff structure for availing incentives and avoiding penalties through
options like contract demand reduction, pf improvement, time of day and captive power
generation

Identify measures for Maximum Demand optimization through load factor and PF improvement
and automatic controls

Asses transformer loading and losses for possible improvements

Assess distribution loss and identify improvement options

Identify specific problems like high/low voltage at end use, harmonics, voltage imbalance, fault
level, etc. and solutions

2.1

Forms of Energy Consumption

I.

Electricity:-lighting, ironing, cooking, water heating, laundry, fans, refrigeration, radios,

television, etc

II.

Gas for cooking

III.

Charcoal for cooking

IV.

Wood

2.2 General Objectives

The objective is to promote and encourage energy efficiency improvement in the industrial sector.
2.3 Specific Objectives
To identify the areas of energy and cost saving
To identify how methods of energy management should be developed
Provide an estimate of potential energy savings with implementation costs and payback period

21

2.4

Energy Audit Methodologies

2.4.1 Preliminary Energy Auditing

Relating energy consumption with production
Evaluating the plant condition
Identifying the major energy consuming systems
Identification of energy wastage
Developing an active plan for energy wastage
Estimate Collection of primary data regarding energy consumption and production
Study plants energy systems and production process to identify saving areas
2.4.2 Detailed Energy Audit
Detailed data collection
Carrying out measurements
Data analysis and findings
Implementation and evaluation of the collected data
Training of employees
Report preparation and presentation to management
2.4.3 Energy Audit Approach and Implementation Plan
Collection of primary data regarding energy consumption, production etc.
Study plants energy systems and production process to identify saving areas etc.
Approximately estimate the saving potential and investments
2.4.4 Data Collection
Specification of major energy consuming equipment
Energy consumption figures of equipment / process / unit
Specify energy consumptions
2.4.5 Observation Measurement and Trails
Observation present operating practices and process parameters
Measurement of process parameters and energy related parameters for all energy sources /
utilities using portable instruments / plants
Conducting test and trials on equipments / utilities to assess performance whenever possible

22

 Review of maintenance practices

Integration and discussion with operators, supervisors, in-changes, etc
Estimation of specific energy consumption of each equipment / section and comparison with
optimum / design or best achievable values
Estimation of efficiency and performance
Identifying the factors contributing to the deviation in specific energy losses
Analysis and remedial measures to reduce energy consumption
2.4.6 Data Analysis and Findings
Change in the process /parameters
Loss reduction
Loss recovery / retrofit (modify with new parts)
Replacement
2.4.7 Techno-Economic Evaluation of Measures
Estimation of energy savings and other related savings
Estimation of cost savings
Estimation of investment required
Evaluation of the payback period / rate of return
2.4.8

Detailed Report Preparation and Presentation to the Concerned Personnel and

Management
All measurements, observations, analysis, findings, and suggestions
Identify suppliers / contractors for suggested measures
Total energy savings potential and total investment required for all the immediate, short term
and long term measures i.e. based on payback period
Classification of measures based on investment (base on budget allocation)
The specific energy values present and proposed after implementation of measures

Identify areas which warrant further detailed study

23

2.5

Data Collection

2.5.1

Date installed

Any installation that is more than 20 years is usually due for rewiring Luminaries that are over ten years
old will probably have deteriorated and in many cases versions of higher efficiency will be available
making replacement a worthwhile investment.
2.5.2

Check the Illuminance

Readings should be taken with a light meter of known accuracy either at every working point or at
centre of a regular grid pattern (which does not coincide with the luminaries spacing grid) through out
the area in the horizontal working plane. The average illuminance is the average of these readings. The
variation in illumination over a task area should not be excessive.
The ratio of minimum luminance to average luminance over the task area should be less than 0.8. The
luminance in the spaces should not be less than 30% of the average.
2.5.3

Light Source and Luminaire Type

The reflectors are likely to have deteriorated with age and absorb a high percentage of the light.
Consideration should be given to changing both lamps and reflectors, using high-pressure sodium, or
tubular fluorescent lamps, discoloration of reflecting and diffusing surfaces of luminaire may have
occurred.
Replacement by new luminaries with more efficient lamps will result in energy saving often with a
higher luminance. In general reflectors or prismatic control enable a give task illuminance with less
energy than diffusers or bare lamps.
2.5.4

State Of Decoration

The condition of the wall, ceiling, and other surfaces within the building should also be considered at
this stage. Redecorating using light shades will improve the reflectance of surfaces and make a
significant contribution to improving the installation efficiency but it must be maintained.
2.5.5

Check the Installation and Wiring

In the case of old fluorescent lamp installation, apart from the deterioration due to dust and dirt, power
factor capacitors may have become open circuited and consequently wattless current will have
increased, thereby increasing the power factor penalty under many tariffs.
2.5.6

Check Purchasing Records

It is useful to check purchasing records and to identify any regular purchases of obsolete/inefficient
products. The regular annual purchase of GLS tungsten filament lamps indicates scope for conversion
to efficient lamp type
2.5.7

Installation Efficiency Check

As a management check on the efficiency of general commercial and industrial lighting

Take measurements of the area in m2

24

Assess installed lighting load in watt.

Divide lighting load by the measured area to obtain the installed load.
The measure the average illuminance (lux)
Any installation with modern efficient equipment will require an installed load of approximately

Industrial lighting

= 2.0 W/m2 for each 100 lux illuminance.

Commercial Lighting

= 2.5 W/m2 for each 100 lux illuminance.

If your check shows an electrical load of 25% or more above these figures, then more detailed
investigation is advised.
2.5.8

Check Area Occupancy / Switching Flexibility

Look at the occupancy pattern for the areas concerned. Is the flexibility of switching and control
systems adequate to ensure that no waste occurs when areas are unoccupied? Is lighting off when
sufficient daylight is available?
2.6

Energy Conservation Opportunities

2.6.1

Delamping

Delamping is the removal of one or more lamps from a luminaire

Two approaches can be used for Delamping.
Uniform Delamping for reducing light levels throughout the space and Task-oriented Delamping to allow
more light directly in the work area and less light in the circulation.
Relocating lamps so that they are centred on each half of the luminaire will improve light output and
distribution, and will result in more acceptable upgrade appearance.
Delamping can be combined with the use of higher output lamps, reflectors, lens upgrade, luminaire
cleaning and task lighting to minimize light out put reduction.
2.6.2

Specula Reflector with Delamping

The luminaire efficiency can be improved up to 17% by removing one or more lamps and installing a
speculum , mirror like reflector in the luminaire behind the lamp. Note that specula reflectors may be
an economical means of restoring the efficiency of the luminary.
2.6.3

Lens/Louver Upgrade

Luminaire efficiency can be significantly improved by replacing inefficient or deteriorated shielding

materials. Clear acrylic lenses provide maximum efficiency and deep cell parabolic louvers provide a
good combination of efficiency and glare control.

25

2.6.4

Task Lighting with Delamping

Significant energy saving and lighting quality improvement can be achieved by providing light sources
at specific task locations while reducing ambient lighting. Compact fluorescent task lighting with
Delamping increases visual comfort, saves energy and provides users with greater control over their
workstation illuminance.
2.6.5

Group Relamping and Cleaning With Delamping

Planned maintenance involves Relamping and cleaning luminaries according to a schedule determined
by lamp life, Lumen depreciation characteristic, and ambient dirt conditions. Note that periodic group
Re-lamping and cleaning will significantly improve luminaire efficiency and reduce maintenance cost.
2.6.6

Incandescent Upgrade

The continued use of standard incandescent lamps is very difficult to justify with the recent advances in
compact fluorescent and halogen lamps. Hence feasible alternatives to incandescent lamps should be
used. However note that though the Compact Fluorescent lamps are energy efficient, they are not point
sources and hence not effective for projecting light Over distances.
2.6.7

High Intensity Discharge Upgrade

The primary method of improving the efficiency of high-intensity discharge systems is replacing the light
source with a higher efficiency system. The retrofit options include reduce reduced-wattage-HID lamps,
retrofit reflectors, High-pressure sodium lamps for mercury Ballasts.
2.7

Energy Management

2.7.1

Importance of Energy Management

Good Energy management is important for the optimum running of any organization. Wasting energy
reduces profitability. Considerable reduction of energy cost can be achieved through good house
keeping measures backed by monitoring and targeting. This means an organization can easily
increase profits by saving energy.
2.7.2

Steps Taken In a Successful Energy Management

Step 1: Make someone responsible

It should be the company policy to use energy efficiently. It is important that someone should be the
energy champion in your organization. The role of this person should be as follows: Act as the firms eyes and ears for energy wastage.
Be responsible for checking the meter reading and fuel bills
Develop a monthly checklist of duties
Step 2: Establish the facts
Note that invoices alone will not provide sufficient information for you to take full control over your
energy costs. You need to take your own meter readings at regular and frequent intervals. This will
enable you to: Identify exceptional consumption and attend to the causes quickly.
Check utility invoices and ensure that you pay only for electricity actually used.

26

Compare current cost and previous costs.

Assess the seasonal pattern of consumption.

Note that how often you take the readings should be determined by how much energy is consumed.
Step 3: Compare your performance
Once you have collected consumption data as in step 2, it can be used to compare
Your performance against typical standards for similar business.
The years performance with last years.
Several sites, processes or buildings in the company with each other.
Note that making these comparisons will help you set up improvement targets and identify where the
greatest scope of energy saving exists.
Step 4: Plan and Organize
Your plan should be:
Have management approval.
Relate actions to particular objectives
Assign action to individuals
Describe the manpower and budget resources that have to be allocated.
Note that a simple policy statement should set out the main objectives with the performance targets that
need to be met to fulfil the objectives.
Step 5: Pay less for your energy
Try to Bargain for a good price from your suppliers.
Reduce peak demand where possible.
Check the tariffs to ensure you are paying the minimum amount for availability and also your
maximum demand against youre agreed availability
Check with your suppliers your load has no unusual characteristics, such as low power factor.
Step 6: Use less Energy
Carry out an energy walk around to assess areas of energy wastage. Make sure that these energy
walks are carried out at different times of the day for example in the Morning, Lunchtime and Evening.
Note where energy is being wasted; due to lack of awareness.
Step 7: Control, Monitor and review
Energy management should be a process of continuous control and improvement and not a one off
effort. You must therefore set up recording and monitoring systems to both check that targets are being
met and identify further cost reduction opportunities offering attractive returns to investment.
2.8

Energy Management in Lighting by Control Devices

2.8.1

Occupancy Sensors

Energy sensors are cost-effective devices that ensure lights are energized only when occupants are
present. Reduction in watts is only 50% of the potential for maximizing energy savings. These sensors
save energy by automatically turning off in spaces that are unoccupied. When the sensor detects

27

motion, a control device is activated which turns on the luminaire. The lights are turned off when no
motion is detected. Note that the two main types of sensor available are:
Passive Infrared sensor which respond to motion between the horizontal and vertical cone of
vision defined by the faceted lens surrounding the sensor.
Ultrasonic sensor which emit and receive high frequency sound waves between 20-40 KHZ,
well above the range of human hearing. The pressure waves reflect off people, objects and
room surfaces and the sensor measure the frequency of the waves that return to the receiver.
These sensors are more sensitive t too movement directly towards or away from the sensor.
2.8.2

Scheduling Controls

Scheduling controls are usually timed switches that go on or off depending on the occupancy of a
particular area. They include the following:
Time Switches whose control enables it to switch on or off at a time that is set. Its common in
business premises which require some form of light when the staffs are not present.
Photoelectric switches which activate an on or off relay by sensing day light. Its saves energy
to use these switches as it automatically goes off when it senses day light with in a room in
which it has been installed.
Time delay switches which are pre-programmed to switch off at a time set after it has been
switched on.
Dimming controls. The dimmer controls are able to dim lamps so that the energy consumption
is reduced hence conserving energy.
2.8.3

Electronic Ballast

The efficiency of Fluorescent tubes increases when working at high frequencies (20 to 30 kHZ) than at
normal 50 HZ. The electronic ballast which is a new innovation in electronic is able to convert
frequencies of 50 HZ from a supply to about 35 HZ. This frequency reduction capability of an electronic
ballast makes it energy efficient than it magnetic counter part. The electronic ballast is hence
recommended for usage in lamps to spur energy conservation. A part from saving energy note that
lamps with the electronic ballast usually start instantly.

2.9

Lighting and Light Sources

There are many options and combinations allowing you to light up your surrounding. For every
purpose, the right choice in light is paramount since lighting accounts for a huge amount of the total
electricity bill more especially for small consumers. As a result, light placement, bulb rating, cost and
savings play a vital role in saving energy.
In commercial, industrial, and retail facilities, usually various light sources are usually used. Its also
clear that each lamp has particular advantages over the other.
2.9.1

Factors Considered In Selecting Light Sources

When selecting the right light source include the following factors are considered;
Life-cycle cost
Colour quality
And the effect required

28

2.9.2

Common Type Of Lamps

Incandescent lamps
Fluorescent lamps
High intensity discharge lamps

Table 2.1 The Lamp Characteristics

Parameters

Incandes Tungsten Fluoresc

cent
halogen ent

CFL

Mercury

Metal

High

Low

Vapour

Halide

Pressu
re

Pressure
-e

sodiu
m

sodium

Wattage

3-1500

10-1500

4-215

5-40

40-1250

32-2000

351000

18-180

System
Efficacy,

6-224

18-33

50-100

50-80

25-50

50-115

40-140

120-180

Average 750-2000
rated life,
hours

20004000

750024000

1000020000

24000+

600020000

1600024000

1200018000

CRI

95+

95+

49-92

82-86

22-52

65-92

21-180

0-18

Life cycle High

cost

high

low

Mode-rate

Moderate

Moderate

low

Low

Comp-act

Comp-act Comp-act Compact

extended

Lumen/w

Fixture
size

Comp-act Comp-act extended

Start to Immediat
full
e
brightnes
s

immediat
e

0-5 sec

0-1min

2-5min

2-5min

4-6 min

10-15
min

Restrike
time

Immediat
e

immediat
e

immediat
e

Immediate

3-10 min

10-20
min

1 min

immediat
e

Lumen
maintena
nce

Good/exc Excellent
ellent

Good

Good

Poor/fair

Good

Good/E Excellent
xcellent

Note that the High intensity discharge lamps can be of the following categories.
Mercury vapour.
Metal halide.
High pressure sodium.
Low pressure sodium.

29

2.9.3

Qualitative Comparison of Incandescent, Fluorescent and HID Light Sources

Table2.2: Qualitative Comparison of Incandescent, Fluorescent and HID Light Sources

Light source

Advantages

Disadvantages

Incandescent general-service

Compact size

Short life

No ballasts

Low efficacy

Good optical control

Radiant-heat effects

Good colour rendering

Low cost
Dimmable
Good lumen maintenance
Tungsten-halogen
incandescent

Compact

Lamp handling is difficult during

maintenance.

life

High cost

Excellent Colour control

Low efficacy

Dimmable No ballast

Radiant-heat effect

Good Colour rendering

Operating temperatures affect lamp

life.

Moderate
Excellent lumen maintenance
Fluorescent

Linear shape

Ballast needed

Moderate cost

Optical control limited

Long life

Ballast may be noisy

Good lumen maintenance

Ambient temperature affects light

output and Colour.

Dimmable
Deluxe and special colours
Can give excellent Colour
rendering.
Improved Colour mercury
(HID)

Moderate efficacy

Starting takes 3-5minutes

Very long life

Does not restart immediately

Good lumen maintenance

Ballast needed are large and may

be noisy.

Burning position not critical

High-pressure sodium (HID)

Dimmable to 25%

Relatively high cost for lamp and

ballast

Very high efficacy

Poor Colour rendering

Long lamp life

Dimmable to 50-60%

30

Excellent lumen maintenance

Ballast large and may be noisy

High cost of lamp and ballast
Starting takes 1-4 minutes
High luminance can cause control
problems

2.10

Power Factor

Most loads connected to the power supply by nature consume active and reactive power. This is
especially true of motors, transformers, induction furnaces, discharge tubes and welding machines. In
industries motors are the major electrical equipment that consume active and reactive power. Motors
are used in driving mills, transport system, lifts and in air conditioning equipment and pump.
This leads to a power factor that is less than unity. Power factor is the ratio of active power P (W) to
apparent power S (VA).
Pf = P (W) / S (VA) = Cos
Power factor is a scientific indicator of the amount of useful and non-useful energy flowing through a
system. A power factor of unity means that the reactive energy is small compared to active energy,
while a low power factor indicates the opposite condition. Table 2.4 below shows power factor values of
the most commonly used equipment and appliances.
Table 2.4: Power factor values of commonly used equipment
Equipment And Appliances

Pf=Cos

Induction Motor Loaded At

0.17

25

0.55

50

0.73

75

0.8

100

0.85

Incandescent Lamps

Fluorescent Lamps (Uncompensated)

0.5

Fluorescent Lamps (Compensated)

0.93

Discharge Lamps

0.4-0.6

It is often desired to keep power factor as near to unity as possible so as to reduce consumer energy
costs and voltage losses along the lines. Improving the power factor of a system requires capacitor

31

banks which act as a source of reactive energy. This arrangement is said to provide reactive energy
compensation.
2.10.1 Improving Power Factor
The solution to improve power factor is to add power factor correction capacitors to the plant power
distribution system. They act as reactive power generators, and provide the needed reactive power to
accomplish kW of work. This reduces the amount of reactive power, and thus total power generated by
the utilities.
2.10.2 The Advantages of PF Improvement by Capacitor Addition
Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the total current in the system from the
source end.

I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in current.

Voltage level at the load end is increased.

KVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and lines up to the capacitors
reduces giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilizing the full capacity of your
electrical system.

2.10.3 Cost Benefits of PF Improvement

While costs of PF improvement are in terms of investment needs for capacitor addition the benefits to
be quantified for feasibility analysis are:

Reduced kVA (maximum demand) charges in utility bill.

Reduced distribution losses (kWh) within the plant network.

Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors.

A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a low power factor.

Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables, switchgears etc for delivering load is
reduced.

32