Drinking Water Disinfection

Written by: Steven Safferman, Ph. D., P.E.

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Drinking Water Disinfection

Educational Objectives
Upon completion of this operator education course, the operator should understand the definition of a pathogen, the need to disinfect drinking water, the role of indicator organisms, the characteristics of various disinfectants, the purpose of residuals in the distribution system, and byproducts from disinfection.

l. Abstract
This operator education course describes the purpose of
drinking water disinfection and the desirable properties of a
disinfectant. Pathogens and indicator organisms are defined
and various disinfectants and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. Finally, disinfectant residuals, byproducts, and regulations are covered.

ll. Keywords & Definitions

Take a glance through this list and be sure to read carefully
any terms or abbreviations with which you are not familiar.
Disinfectant: An agent, such as heat, radiation, or a
chemical, that destroys, neutralizes, or inhibits the growth of
disease-carrying microorganisms.
Pathogen: Any microorganism that causes disease, such as
bacterium, cysts, virus, protozoa, or fungus.
Indicator Organism: An individual form of life (such as a
plant, animal, bacterium, protist, or fungus) that demonstrate
the presence, absence, or concentration of another substance
or condition.
Contact Time: The period of seconds, minutes, or hours
that objects or substances to come together.
Disinfectant Residual: To prevent the re-growth of pathogens and to disinfect any material that enters the distribution
system through breaks or leaks in systems carrying drinking
water from surface water or groundwater under the direct
influence of surface water; a concentration of 0.2 mg/L free
chlorine is required at the tap.
Disinfection Byproduct: A secondary result; a side effect
of the disinfection process; unintentionally produced when
drinking water is disinfected - by weight trihalomethanes
(THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) are the two most common disinfection byproducts.

lll. Introduction
Drinking water is disinfected to deactivate disease causing
microorganisms and pathogens. Historically, chlorine has
2

been the disinfectant of choice in the United States. However,

free chlorine can synthesize a number of undesirable byproducts and is not effective against some pathogens.
Although the deactivation of pathogens is often thought
to occur only during disinfection, several units must work in
harmony, including filtration and/or coagulation/flocculation.
The combination of these units can directly remove pathogens
as well as turbidity, colloidal particles that can shelter viruses
and bacteria from the disinfectant. The combination is particularly important for the removal of larger microbes like
protozoa and cysts. Several catastrophic pathogen problems
have been correlated to poorly operating coagulation/flocculation and filtering systems. This Contact Hour, however,
focuses exclusively on disinfection.
Pathogens
Pathogens are disease causing microorganisms and include
specific strains of the following:
Bacteria: Single cell microorganisms that are the lowest
form of life capable of living on their own.
Cysts: The dormant state of bacteria.
Viruses: Smallest biological structure known to contain
all the genetic material needed to reproduce, but a host is
required for reproduction.
Protozoa: Single celled organisms that are the lowest
form of animal life.
Although most strains of microorganisms are not pathogens, thousands are and many mutate regularly. Few practical
laboratory techniques exist to determine if a water supply
is free from pathogens. Therefore, indicator organisms historically have been used to predict the presence or absence
of pathogens. Indicator organisms should have the following
properties:
Present when the pathogen is present
Not present when the pathogen is not present
Safe to handle
Present in all types of water
Easy to measure
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The coliform family of bacteria is used as indicator organisms because they meet many of the above conditions.
Fecal coliforms such as Escherichia coli are present in the
intestinal tract of humans and other warm-blooded animals
and are excreted in large numbers in feces. The presence of
fecal coliforms is an indicator that waste from warm-blooded
animals is present. However, pathogens may or may not be
present and cysts and protozoa can be present even when fecal
coliforms are absent. According to the Safe Drinking Water
Act (SDWA), drinking water must contain less than 1 coliform colony per 100 mL of water.

lV. Disinfectants
Disinfectants can act by different mechanisms such as damaging the cell wall of the pathogen, altering the permeability
of the cell wall or reacting with the pathogens enzymes. In
addition to deactivating pathogens, a disinfectant should have
the following properties.
Not toxic to higher organisms
Fast acting
Safe to work with
Safe to store
Soluble in water
Inexpensive
Leaves a residual to protect the distribution system from
re-growth
Does not threaten the environment
Does not produce toxic byproducts
The following chemicals can be used to disinfect drinking
water.
Free Chlorine
Combined Chlorine
Ozone
Iodine
Hydrogen Peroxide
Alcohols
Metals
Physical processes that can be used in drinking water
disinfection include the following:
Heat
Ultraviolet Radiation
Reverse Osmosis
Although all of these technologies are available, only
chlorine, ozone, and ultraviolet radiation are used for drinking water disinfection with any frequency and ultraviolet radiation is typically only used for small or individual systems
such as those at shopping centers or homes.

V. Contact Time

combined and represented as the CT value where the concentration of disinfectant (C) is multiplied by the contact time
(T). A CT value is applicable for a given water and deactivation goal, 99% kill of total coliforms, for example. The two
parameters are inversely related. If a higher concentration
of disinfectant is used, less contact time is needed, and visa
versa. Water quality parameters influencing CT include the
following:
Organic material in the water (quantity and type)
Inorganic material, especially ammonia, in the water
Number and types of microbes
Amount of turbidity
Temperature
pH
The purer the water is to be disinfected, the lower the CT
value. This results in a savings of disinfectant, required contact space, and lower production of disinfection byproducts.

VI. Disinfectant Residucal

The 1989 Surface Water Treatment Rule requires a residual
disinfectant within a distribution system carrying drinking
water from surface water or groundwater under the direct
influence of surface water to prevent the re-growth of pathogens and to disinfect any material that enters the distribution
system through breaks or leaks. A concentration of 0.2 mg/L
free chlorine is required at the tap. When a disinfectant that
does not leave a residual is initially used for pathogen deactivation, a secondary disinfectant like chlorine must be added
to supply the required residual.
Combined available chlorine is the combination of ammonia and chlorine to form chloramines. Providing a chloramine
residual can be advantageous because it is less reactive than
free chlorine and can, therefore, be retained within the distribution system for a longer period of time. This is particularly
useful in remote portions of the distribution system. However,
when ammonia is present in the drinking water, breakpoint
chlorination (discussed in section 10) is required if a free
chlorine residual is desired.

VII. Disinfection by Products

Disinfection byproducts are unintentionally produced when
drinking water is disinfected. By weight, trihalomethanes
(THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) are the two most common disinfection byproducts. THMs are volatile hydrophobic
compounds that are formed when a halogenated oxidizing
agent, usually chlorine, reacts with an organic precursor, usually humic material.
THMs are known human carcinogens. The chemical formula for THMs is:

The time the drinking water and the disinfectant must remain
in contact to achieve disinfection is the contact time. The
required time depends on the disinfectant used, its concentration, and the quality of the water being disinfected. The
contact time and concentration of the disinfectant are often
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The most commonly found disinfection byproducts from

chlorine disinfection are chloroform and bromodichloromethane.

HAAs are acetic acids that are known human carcinogens.

The primary HAAs produced during drinking water disinfection with chlorine are monochloroacetic, dichloroacetic, and
trichloroacetic acid. If bromine is present in the water being
disinfected, monobromoacetic and dibromoacetic acid can
also be produced.
It is believed that another disinfection byproduct of
chlorine is oxygenated polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
(OPAHs). These compounds are suspected endocrine disrupters, compounds that can interfere with the endocrine system
and impact reproduction.
The formation of disinfection byproducts from chlorination can be reduced at the water treatment plant, as listed
below:
The source water should be as clean as possible.
Plant operation can be optimized to remove as much humic material as possible prior to disinfection.
Only chlorinate after the maximum amount of the humic
material has been removed.
Use a disinfectant other than chlorine.
Disinfecting with ozone or ultraviolet radiation does not
produce THMs or HAAs. However, because they do not
produce a residual within the distribution system, a secondary disinfection, typically chlorination must be performed.
Much less chlorine is used for secondary chlorination than for
primary chlorination, reducing the risk of forming byproducts. Although ozone and ultraviolet radiation do not produce
THMs or HAAs, they may produce other disinfectant byproducts, which must be evaluated.
Once disinfection byproducts are formed, there are several ways they can be reduced or removed. THMs are very
difficult to remove but can be volatized through aeration.
However, clean air must be used to prevent contamination
of the drinking water. Alternatively, powdered activated
carbon or granular activated carbon can be used to adsorb
the byproducts. The results, however, are variable. Thus, it
is preferable to avoid the formation of the byproducts rather
than remove them.

VIII. Chlorine
Chlorine compounds were first used to disinfect drinking
water during various epidemics in Europe in the 1850s and
were first used in the United States in 1908. Chlorine disinfection has been common in this country since the 1940s. The
disinfection mechanism is oxidation, which physically destroys the cell wall. Chlorine can be added to drinking water
as chlorine gas, calcium hypochlorite, sodium hypochlorite,
chloroamines, or chlorine dioxide. Table 1 lists details regarding each of these options.

Chlorine has many of the desirable characteristics listed in

Section 6. It is toxic to most pathogens, fast acting, not toxic to
higher life forms if ingested, very soluble in water, relatively
inexpensive and leaves a good residual in the distribution
system. There are, however, a number of disadvantages of using chlorine as a drinking water disinfectant. It is not toxic to
cysts and protozoa, can be toxic to aquatic life, is detrimental
to the environment as it participates in photochemical reactions, forms undesirable disinfection byproducts, and can be
dangerous to work with, as it is highly corrosive and displaces
air. Recent regulations require extensive safety procedures
and engineering controls be put in place when working with
chlorine gas.
The chemical equation for the addition of chlorine gas to
drinking water is shown in Equation 1.

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Hypochlorous acid is a much stronger drinking water disinfectant than the hypochlorite ion. Thus, it is more efficient
to disinfect water at a pH less than 7. However, it is typical to
discharge water at a slightly higher than natural pH to prevent corrosion and leaching of material from the distribution
system.
There are two hypochlorite salts that are available for
disinfection, calcium hypochlorite and sodium hypochlorite.
Calcium hypochlorite is commonly used for swimming pools
and is available with approximately 70% available chlorine.
Equation 2 shows the breakdown of calcium hypochlorite
to form the hypochlorite ion.

ammonia may be added. The reaction products depend on

the water pH, temperature, contact time, and initial ratio of
chlorine to ammonia. Equations 5 7 are the chemical equations for the formation of monochloramine, dichloramine, and
trichloramine, as shown below.

Equation 3 below shows the relationship between the hypochlorite ion and hypochlorous acid.

At pH 4.5 8.5 both monochloramine and dichloramine

are formed. Monochloramine is formed at a pH greater than
8.5 and trichloramine is formed at a pH less than 4.5.
The formation of chloramines follows the curve shown in
Figure 1.
Sodium hypochlorite may be used in drinking water treatment. It is typically available with 5 15% available chlorine.
Equation 4 shows the breakdown of sodium hypochlorite to
form the hypochlorite ion. The relationship between the hypochlorite ion and hypochlorous acid has been previously shown
in Equation 3.
Equation 4 is shown below:

One advantage of disinfecting with these salts is that the

environmental regulations for their use are far less stringent
than those for other forms of chlorine.
Chlorine reacts with ammonia in the drinking water to
form chloramines. Chloramines are weak disinfectants, but,
compared to free chlorine, they are more stable and last longer
in the distribution system. Therefore, they are often used in
conjunction with another disinfectant, not to deactivate the
pathogens but to provide a residual in the distribution system.
They also have the advantage of not forming THMs. If the
drinking water does not contain enough ammonia to form
the desired concentration of chloramines, gaseous anhydrous
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Initially chloramines, combined chlorine, are produced

but higher doses of chlorine increase the chlorine nitrogen
ratio and result in ammonia oxidation and ultimately free
chlorine. This process is known as breakpoint chlorination
with the point on the graph at which free chlorine is produced
known as the breakpoint.
Breakpoint chlorination could be practiced if enough
ammonia and chlorine were present. Additional possible outcomes when chlorine is added to drinking water containing
ammonia include: (1) chloramines are formed and (2) a weak
disinfectant is formed.
Chlorine dioxide is used as a disinfectant and to remove
taste and odors. It has only limited use as a disinfectant in the
United States due to its high cost and the potential to form
5

chlorate and chlorite residuals, which are toxic. Chlorine dioxide gas is produced on-site by mixing sodium chlorite and
chlorine as shown in Equation 8.

is usually followed by secondary disinfection. For example,

ozonation followed by chlorination.
Ozone can be produced from pure oxygen or from oxygen
in the air by subjecting the dry air stream to a high voltage and
a high-density electrical current.

X. Ultraviolet Radiation

One advantage of chlorine dioxide is that it produces a

minimum of disinfectant byproducts and produces a stable
residual for the distribution system.

IX. Ozone
Ozone (O3) is used extensively for drinking water disinfection in Europe and is used to oxidize taste and odor causing
compounds in this country.

The use of ultraviolet (UV) radiation for the disinfection of

drinking water is primarily confined to small, under-thecounter type systems. It does not leave a residual, which is
acceptable for an under-the-counter system, and does not
deactivate some pathogens, although it is effective for most
bacteria and viruses. It is, however, safe and easy to work with
and is believed to produce a minimum of byproducts.
Low-pressure mercury lamps are generally used to expose
ultraviolet light to thin sheets of water. Wavelengths of 2,000
3,000 angstroms are typically used with 2,650 angstroms
being the ideal wavelength to deactivate most bacteria, fungi,
and some viruses. The water being treated must be free of
turbidity as the turbidity can shield the viruses and bacteria
from the radiation.

XII. Other Drinking Water Disinfection Technologies

Ozone is a powerful oxidizer that reacts rapidly with both

organic and inorganic compounds. Ozone was first used to
disinfect drinking water in France in the early 1900s and
was first used in the United States in the 1940s. There were,
however, few ozone plants in the United States until the mid
1980s, and there are now about 40. This technology has been
receiving much more attention as a drinking water disinfectant because of its ability to deactivate cryptosporidian.
(Cryptosporidian is a type of protozoa found in the manure
of cattle and has been responsible for several public health
emergencies when it passed through drinking water treatment
plants untreated. The most famous case in the United States
occurred in Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1993 where Cryptosporidian was thought to be the cause of 400,000 people getting
sick and 100 deaths.)
The other advantages of ozone include that it is fast and
the only known toxic byproduct formed is trace levels of aldehydes. The disadvantages, however, include: expense due
to the need to generate ozone on-site; the requirement that
it be used only in covered reactors where the off-gas can be
collected; environmental risk if it escapes; the need for large
quantities because of its rapid oxidation and that no residual
is formed. Ozone does not leave a residual in the distribution system. Ozone also increases biodegradation of humic
matter. Ultraviolet radiation is another disinfectant that does
not leave a residual in the distribution system. Because of the
lack of residual in the distribution system, ozone disinfection
6

At present, only chlorine and ozone are used for the large-scale
disinfection of drinking water in the United States. Some of
the other technologies listed in Section 6 offer the potential
for future use, however cost can be a deterrent and a greater
understanding of their disinfection byproducts is required.

XIII. Regulations
Per the 1986 SDWA amendments, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was required to develop
the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, which are
also known as primary standards. These protect public health
by limiting the levels of contaminants in drinking water. The
regulated contaminants are biological disinfectants and their
byproducts, inorganic and organic chemicals, and radionuclides. The regulations include Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCL) and Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLG).
The MCLGs are the amount of the contaminant that can be
in the drinking water with no known or expected health risk.
These are non-enforceable goals. MCLs are enforceable and
are the maximum amount of the contaminant that can be present in the drinking water. MCLs are close to MCLGs but take
cost and technology into account.
EPA has also set National Secondary Drinking Water
Regulations or secondary standards. These are non-enforceable guidelines for contaminants that may have aesthetic or
cosmetic impacts. Color, fluoride, and corrosivity are included
as secondary standards.
EPA has developed the Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule under the 1996 SDWA Amendments.
This rule sets MRDLs for chlorine, chloramines and chlorine
dioxide. The purpose of this rule is to permit a disinfectant
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residual within the distribution system while keeping the

concentration of the residual low enough to reduce or prevent
the formation of disinfectant byproducts within the distribution system. The same rule sets maximum contaminant levels
(MCLs) for THMs, HAAs, Chlorite and bromate.
The 1996 amendments to the SDWA also require EPA to
publish a list of contaminants that are known or anticipated to
occur in public drinking water systems and may be harmful.
This list is termed the Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) and is divided into 3 categories; those that
are research priorities, those that need additional occurrence
data, and those which are priorities for rulemaking. The contaminant will be regulated, if research indicates the need, or
removed from the list.

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Online Completion

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Questions
1. Single celled organisms that are the lowest form of animal life include what kind
of pathogen? Choose the best response.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Protozoa
Cysts
Viruses
Bacteria

2. Which of the following is the

primary drinking water disinfectant
used in the United States today?
Choose the best response.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Chlorine
Reverse Osmosis
Ozone
Ultraviolet Radiation

3. Which of the following water treatment

technologies can contribute to the
deactivation of pathogens in drinking
water? Choose all that apply.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Chlorination
Filtration
Coagulation/Flocculation
None of these

4. According to the Safe Drinking

Water Act (SDWA), drinking water must
contain: Choose the best response.
A. less than 1 coliform colony per 100 mL
of water.
B. less than 5 coliform colonies per 100
mL of water.
C. less than 2 coliform colonies per 100
mL of water.

7. Which disinfectants do not leave

a residual in the distribution
system? Choose all that apply.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Ultraviolet Radiation
Ozone
Chlorine
Chloramines

8. Fecal coliforms are an example of

what? Choose the best response.
A.
B.
C.
D.

An indicator organism
A disinfectant byproduct
A disinfectant residual
Protozoa

9. Which of the following are byproducts

associated with the disinfection of
drinking water? Choose all that apply.
A. Oxygenated polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons
B. Trihalomethanes
C. Haloacetic Acids
D. Dihalomethanes

10. Which of the following is NOT a

required characteristic of an indicator
organism? Choose the best response.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Is a human pathogen
Safe to handle
Easy to measure
Present in all types of water

5. Pathogens are disease causing

microorganisms. Single cell microorganisms that are the lowest form of life
capable of living on their own are
called: Choose the best response.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Bacteria
Protozoa
Cysts
Viruses

6. Choose the physical process that

can be used in drinking water
disinfection. Choose all that apply.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Ultraviolet Radiation
Reverse Osmosis
Heat
Chlorination

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Drinking Water Disinfection

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11. A
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