Mfo 03-2012

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
FINAL YEAR PROJECT

PROJECT NO: MFO/03/2012
TITLE: DEVELOPMENT OF A MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS IN
ENGINEERING DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING
A final year project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
the degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering
WRITTEN BY:
MOGAKA DAVIDSON ONCHANA
&
MOMANYI GODFREY MARAMBE
F18/1735/2007
F18/1869/2007
SUPERVISED BY: PROF. M. F. ODUORI

May 2012
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND

MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING
DECLARATION
We certify that the information presented in this report, except where indicated and
acknowledged, is our original effort and has not been presented before to the best of our
knowledge.
MOGAKA DAVIDSON ONCHANA
F18/1735/2007
Signature
Date...
MOMANYI GODFREY MARAMBE
F18/1869/2007
Signature
Date...
This project has been submitted with the approval of the supervisor
Project supervisor: Prof. ODUORI, M. F.
Signature
Date of Submission
Copyright 2012 Mogaka & Marambe

i
DEDICATION
To my Dad, Mom (R.I.P), and brother Paul for your continued support. God bless you all.
Mogaka Davidson
To my parents, brothers and sisters who have accorded me with endless support during
my undergraduate studies, to my girlfriend Assumpter with love, to my lecturers in the
department of mechanical and manufacturing engineering for the knowledge they have
imparted in me in my undergraduate studies and from whom I have learnt so much.
Marambe Godfrey
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration...i
Dedicationii
Contents...iii
Acknowledgementsv
Abstractvi
Objectives.........vii
Chapter One....................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2
Standards And Codes .................................................................................................................. 2
Chapter Two ...................................................................................................................................... 3

Review Of Literature On Design, Materials Selection And Manufacturing Processes ......... 3
2.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2
Overview Of The Engineering Design Process .................................................................. 4
2.3
Material Selection ......................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.1
Materials Selection Process ............................................................................................. 7
2.3.2
Factors Influencing Materials Selection ...................................................................... 9
Chapter Three................................................................................................................................. 17
Literature Review On Engineering Materials, Their Properties And Categories ................ 17
3.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 17
3.2
Material Properties .................................................................................................................... 17
3.3
Categories Of Engineering Materials................................................................................... 18
3.3.1
Metallic Materials .............................................................................................................. 19
3.3.2
Non-Metallic Materials .................................................................................................... 24
Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................... 27

4.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 27
4.1.1
Rank Order: Pair Wise Comparison Charts.............................................................. 27
4.1.2
Relative Order: Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) .............................................. 28
iii
4.2
Information Processing ............................................................................................................ 29
Chapter Five .................................................................................................................................... 31

Case Study: Selection Of A Material For A Reverted Two Stage Compound Gear Train... 31
5.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 31
5.1.1
Classification Of Gears...................................................................................................... 31
5.1.2
Gearing Terminology ........................................................................................................ 34
5.1.3
Design Considerations For A Gear Train .................................................................. 35
5.1.4
Modes Of Gear Failure ...................................................................................................... 36
5.2
Reverted Compound Gear Train Design ............................................................................ 36
5.2.1
The Design Constraints.................................................................................................... 38
Chapter Six ....................................................................................................................................... 46

6.1
Material Ranking Indices ......................................................................................................... 46
6.2
Support Information ................................................................................................................. 48
6.3
Materials Selection System ..................................................................................................... 48
6.3.1
Database Structure ............................................................................................................ 49
6.3.2
Material Selection System .............................................................................................. 51
Chapter Seven: Closure ............................................................................................................... 59

7.1
Discussion...................................................................................................................................... 59
7.2
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 61
7.3
Recommendations...................................................................................................................... 61
7.4
References and Appendices.................................................................................................... 62

References ............................................................................................................................ 62
Appendices ........................................................................................................................... 63
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A project such as this could not have been accomplished without the assistance of a
large number of individuals. First and foremost we would like to sincerely thank Prof.
F.M. Oduori our project supervisor, and a senior lecturer at the Department of
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering - University of Nairobi; for the continued
guidance and support he gave us through relevant literature material and helpful
information to undertake this project.
We are grateful to Mr. Enoch Kimanzi for criticizing our work and providing us with
relevant information without which it would be difficult to accomplish our work. We
would also like to extend our hand of appreciation to Prof. S. Mutuli, chairman Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering for his efforts to ensure good
working conditions as well as support through departmental facilities especially the
departmental library.
We would like to acknowledge the staff of East African Foundry Ltd and Kensmetal Ltd
for providing us with meaningful information on engineering materials.
Finally, we would like to thank our families for their support and encouragement.
God bless.
ABSTRACT
The selection of proper materials is fundamental to engineering design. Engineering
materials are many hence a formalized selection process is required to select a reliable
material for a product. The objective of this project was to develop an online material
selection process based on principles of decision theory and implement it as an
information processing routine on a computer system. A case study was undertaken
that involved selection of a material in the design of a reverted two stage compound gear
train. Selection was done in two stages: screening followed by ranking. The first stage
reduces the large material database to a small candidate list which are locally available
and meets the critical property limits such as strength. The second stage involves
ranking the candidate materials using indices formulated from availability, cost and
machinability. Supporting information is then sought and used to narrow down the
ranked materials to a final choice allowing a definite match to be made between design
requirements and material attributes. This material selection system helps the designer
perform the rigorous process of material selection for the gear train at fast speeds thus
saving time and money during design.
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OBJECTIVES
To develop an online materials selection process that will be based on the

principles of decision theory.
To develop a knowledge intensive methodology for screening and ranking

engineering materials.
To implement the materials selection process so developed as an information

processing routine on a computer system.
To document and evaluate the materials selection process so developed by

means of a case study (A Reverted two stage compound gear train)
vii
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The selection of a material for machine part or structural member is one of the most
important decisions the engineering designer has to make. Poor material choice can
lead to failure of a part or system or to unnecessary cost. The process of materials
selection is difficult one and typically involves multiple conflicting material
characteristics as well as large number of constraints.
A good material selection process considers the limiting factors for a particular design
exercise which include material properties, material processing, material cost and
material availability. Through systematic and optimizing approach, one can list all the
limiting factors associated with the design e.g. strength, hardness, cost and availability.
Weighting measure can be used to prioritize on what materials are more important than
others after which all available materials are listed and ranked.
For ranking purposes, indices like cost and availability of the various materials are
computed. After this task a list of the materials meeting the limiting requirements is
produced in which the materials are ranked from the one with the highest composite
index to the one with the least. In this case, the material with the highest composite
index based on cost and availability is taken as the best for the application. Materials for
other engineering applications can be selected in the same way.
With the advent of the internet, utilization of an online material selection process is a
major advancement in the selection of a material for a particular product. The process
gives accurate information at fast speeds thus saving time and money during design.
The computer can play a major role in storing information (database) on materials
properties. In addition a computer code is created using PHP (recursive acronym for
hypertext preprocessor) in which the information in the database can be accessed and
retrieved. Thus entering the machine part specifications in the program, the computer
searches for the qualified materials in the database and displays them to the user.
1.2 STANDARDS AND CODES

A standard is set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve
uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. One of the most important purposes of a
standard is to place a limit on the number of items in the specifications so as to provide
a reasonable inventory of tooling, sizes, shapes, and varieties.
A code is set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture and construction of
something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency,
and performance or quality. However, its important to observe that safety codes do not
imply absolute safety1.
This project and the case study identify materials to Unified Numbering System (UNS)
standards. An ideal case of choice of standards should be based on such factors as the
location where the product is applicable and acceptability of the standard under the
applicable design/construction code. In this case therefore, Kenyan Standards (KS)
would have been preferred.
In order to provide a consistent basis for basic specifications of the materials, only UNS
standards for the materials have been used. In some cases where the materials
common name is available, then the materials common name is given.
Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON DESIGN, MATERIALS SELECTION

AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified need or to solve
a problem. If the plan results in the creation of something having a physical reality, then
the product must be functional, safe, reliable, usable, manufacturable and marketable.
Design establishes and defines solutions to, and pertinent structures, for problems not
solved before, or new solutions to problems which have previously been solved in a
different way (Dieter, George., 1983).
Design is an innovative highly iterative, and a decision making process. Decisions
sometimes have to be made with too little information, occasionally with just the right
amount of information, or with an excess of partially contradictory information. These
decisions are made tentatively, with the right reserved to adjust as more becomes
known.
A designers personal resources of creativeness, communicative ability, and problem
solving skill are intertwined with knowledge of technology and first principles.
Engineering tools (such as mathematics, statistics, computers, graphics and languages)
are combined to produce a plan that, carried out, produces a product that is functional
safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable, regardless of who
builds it or who uses it.
The selection of proper materials is a key step in the design process because is a crucial
decision that links computer calculations and lines on an engineering drawing with a
real or working design. The enormity of this decision process can be appreciated when
its realized that there are over forty thousand metallic alloys and probably close to that
number of non-metallic engineering materials, currently in use (Ashby, M., 1999)
Improper selection of a material, may lead not only to failure of the material but also to
unnecessary cost. Selecting the best material for a part involves more than selecting a
material that has the properties to provide the necessary service performance; the
processing of the material into a finished part also has a key role to play. This is because
the properties of the part may be altered by processing resulting to a change in the
service performance of the part.
2.2 OVERVIEW OF THE ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS

There is no particular step categorization or step nomenclature universally accepted,
but generally the complete design process is outlined in below:
Recognition of need
Problem definition
Conceptual design
Preliminary design
Detailed design
Iteration
Production
Fig. 2.1: Phases in Engineering Design Process (Adapted from: Madara Ogot & Gul Kremer,
Engineering Design: A Practical Guide).
It must be emphasized that engineering design is an iterative process requiring the
repetition of most steps based on what is learned at a later stage. The primary iterations
occur between the conceptual design and preliminary design steps.
2.2.1 Recognition of need

The need for a product typically arises from these three distinct scenarios.
The need to design a new product or process that will solve a particular problem
or need where none exists.
The need to redesign: to design a product or process that improves on an
existing one. Improvements include lower cost, highier efficiency, lower
pollution and better ergonomics.
The need for technology-push product or process: to design a new product or
process and generate need for it. For example , a company develops a new
technology and then seeks a market to apply it.
4
2.2.2 Problem definition

Its a crucial part in the design process and includes;
Condensed formal problem statement clearly stating objective of the design
process.
Listing of technical and non-technical design constraints.
Breakdown of the problem into smaller manageable sub-problems.
Compilation and ranking of customer needs. What exactly does the customer
expect in final product or process?
Definition of criteria to be used to evaluate the design.e.g testing of prototypes
developed in preliminary design step.
2.2.3 Conceptual design

A concept is a very preliminary description of the form, required principles and
technology for the solution. This stage is divided into two phases: external and internal
searches. An internal search entails the design team developing several concepts from
which the best suited to the need is selected. The stage is creative, inventive and most
difficult in engineering design process. The external search includes performing
literature searches, looking at previous patents, talking with experts, and benchmarking
similar product. The conclusion of this stage results in the generation and selection of
few promising concepts that warrant further development.
2.2.4 Preliminary design and evaluation

Feasible concepts are further developed by evaluating; leading to selection of one
concept. Selection is based on all design criteria specified during problem definition, as
well as cost estimates. System and component design requirement that will dictate the
detailed design specifications are established. During this stage, working prototypes
(where appropriate) are constructed and evaluated. Based on test results, parts of the
design or the entire design may need to be redone (iteration).
2.2.5 Detailed design

This stage of the design processes develops part geometry, technical drawings, and
tolerances. During this stage:
All hitherto undefined system specifications and design requirements are
defined such as operating parameters, test requirements, design life, material
requirements, and reliability requirements.
Detailed manufacturing drawings are produced.
Detailed assembly drawings are generated.
Testing is performed to evaluate components, validate computer models and the
design itself. Evaluation ensures all the conclusions reached during preliminary
testing stage are accurate. If errors are found or if components do not meet
anticipated design requirements, a redesign is initiated (Iteration).
5
2.2.6 Production
Prior to production, production process planning is carried out. This involves
Design drawings and specifications interpretation.
Production processes and machines selection.
Stock material selection.
Determination of production sequence of operations.
Determination of processing time.
The implementation involves successful testing of prototypes after which the final
solution is developed and preceded with full production.
2.2.7 Design Reviews

Design review (DR) is system that involves gathering and evaluating objective
knowledge about the product design quality and the concrete plans for making it a
reality , suggesting improvements at each point, confirming that the process is ready to
proceed to the next phase.-JUSE2 Design Review Committee, 1976 (Ichida, 1996).
Design review ensures design meets all requirements, and product quality is within cost
and time constraints. DRs should include:
Collecting and compiling relevant information.
Defining quality target.
Evaluating product and process designs and supporting operations.
Proposing improvements.
Defining subsequent actions and confirm readiness for the next stage.
2.3 MATERIAL SELECTION

Selecting materials usually begins in the preliminary design stage. The problem of
material selection usually involves the selection of materials for a new product or new
design, and re-evaluation of an existing product or design to reduce cost, increase
reliability and improve performance. In selecting the appropriate material one must
consider:
1. Material properties which affects the part perfomance.
2. Material processing which affects manufacturing costs and therefore the final
part cost.
3. Material cost.
4. Availability. Is the material available in desired quantity and time frame?
5. Regulatory properties; Code acceptance and repairability
The relative importance of the above factors depends on the applications. For example
in military and aerospace applications, pushing the materials properties to the limits
takes precedence over cost. For consumer products, lowering cost typically plays the
2
Japanese union of scientists and engineers.

6
leading role. For an engineering project on a tight schedule, material availability is

important.
2.3.1 MATERIALS SELECTION PROCESS
Usually, a problem of material selection involves either selection of materials for new
product or design; or re-evaluation of an existing design/product to increase reliability,
reduce cost and improve performance. Materials selection process, being a problem
solving process, is achieved through the following steps:
1. Determination of required critical properties from the design operating
conditions and enviroment. Material selection occurs at every step of design
process. At conceptual stage a wider spectrum of materials should be considered
to inspire more innovative designs. In the material screening process , material
properties considered will depend on possible failure modes likely to be
encountered during service, as well as other desired characteristics. By
establishing all the possible failure modes for each particular component and
matching them with the associated material properties, a list of material
properties for the screening process can be established. Table 2.1 below lists
some of common failure modes and associated influencing material properties.
Table 2.1: Adapted from Engineering Design by Madara Ogot., Gul Kremer
Mode of failure
US
Fatigue(High cycle)
Fatigue(Low cycle)
Yielding
Buckling
Wear
Thermal fatigue
Creep
Gross deformation
YS
CS
SS
KEY
US-Ultimate strength
YS-Yield strength
CS-Compressive yield strength
SS-Shear yield strength
FP-Fatigue properties
FP
CR
HD
CE
E- Modulus of elasticity
CR-Creep rate
HD-Hardness
CE-Coeffient of expansion
2. Screening of large material database for candidate materials that meet the
critical material properties is determined in steps. These critical properties
can be divided into three groups
a) Non-discriminating parameters are those that must be met if material is to be
used at all. Examples include availability and corrosion resistance.
7
b) Go/no-go parameters. These are minimum or maximum property values

which candidate materials must meet. Excess or under values of these fixed
parameters dont make up for other deficiencies in other properties.
Examples include cost and strength.
c) Discriminating parameters. These are minimum or maximum property values
which candidate materials must meet, and where any excess or under values
can make up for other deficiencies in other areas. Includes cost, density and
strength.
Depending on material application, a characteristic that is considered a
go/no-go parameter for one application may be considered discriminating or
non-discriminating parameter in another. For example in aerospace
applications cost is a discriminating parameter, whereas in consumer
products, cost is a go/no-go parameter.
3. Selecting the final material based on a trade-off of discriminating
parameters. This is done using desicion tools such as pairwise comparison
charts(ranking method), analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and decision matrices.
These tools will be discussed later in the decision making section.
All materials
Non-discriminating parameters
go/no-go parameters
discriminating parameters
Final material
Fig. 2.2: Three general steps in material selection
2.3.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING MATERIALS SELECTION

There are several important factors that need to be considered during material
selection. These are commercial properties (Cost and Availability), material
properties(mechanical , physical, and environmental resistance), material processing,
and regulatory properties.
2.3.2.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

2.3.2.1.1
Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties of materials are those related to its ability to withstand external
mechanical forces such as tensile forces, compression forces, twisting, bending, and
sudden impact.
A. Strength
Strength is a measure of how a material withstands a heavy load without breaking.
Material strength information is used in engineering design in order to prevent the
failure of a product component by rapture. Following are parameters of strength:
Elastic Limit: This is the force required to produce permanent deformation.
Yield Point: This refers to the level of the load at which strain continues at a
constant stress.
Yield Strength: The amount of tensile force required to just cause a well-defined
permanent deformation in a material.
Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS): This is the maximum strength of a material and
corresponds to the maximum load stress a structural member can withstand
before fracture.
Compressive Strength: This is the ability of a material to resist a gradually applied
compressive load.
Yield strength and tensile strength are the most significant values in many engineering
applications. Appreciable permanent deformation occurs before the stress reaches the
UTS value. Therefore, to guard against permanent deformation in engineering
components, information on elastic limit of the candidate materials should be used in
design. For ductile materials, yield point information should be used instead of elastic
limit value. For this project, yield strength and compressive strength of materials have
been used as screening properties in the materials selection process.
B. Rigidity
This is the resistance of a material to deflection under a bending force. Its specified by
the elastic modulus of a material .Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of the applied stress
to the corresponding strain in the elastic limit of a material. The higher the value of the
elastic modulus the more rigid the material is.
C. Resistance to fatigue:
Fatigue is defined as the progressive and localized structural damage of a material
under cyclic loading. Thus, fatigue strength, expressed in terms of the fatigue limit or
endurance limit of a material means the stress below which a material will not fail in
fatigue. This value is used in design of parts subjected to repeated alternating stresses
over an extended period of time. Since the strength of a material under cyclic loading is
less than the strength of the same material under static loading, resistance to fatigue
forms the basis for the design of components that are subjected to cyclic loading.
D. Ductility
Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at
fracture. A material that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture
is termed brittle.
E. Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically
and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. The associated property is the
modulus of resilience, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a
material from an unloaded state up to the point of yielding.
F. Toughness
Toughness is a mechanical term that is used in several contexts; basically, it is a
measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture. Specimen geometry
as well as the manner of load application are important in toughness determinations. A
related property is fracture toughness which is indicative of a materials resistance to
fracture when a crack is present
G. Hardness
Another mechanical property that may be important to consider is hardness, which is a
measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a
scratch. Quantitative hardness techniques have been developed over the years in which
a small indenter is forced into the surface of a material to be tested, under controlled
conditions of load and rate of application. The depth or size of the resulting indentation
is measured, which in turn is related to a hardness number; the softer the material, the
larger and deeper the indentation, and the lower the hardness index number.
H. Damping capacity
The damping capacity of a material is defined as energy dissipated as heat by a unit
volume of the material during a completely reversed cycle of stress. It is related to
internal friction in the material and depends on maximum stress. The critical value
suggested for engineering design is the value at the endurance limit. High damping
capacity is desirable in most machine parts to reduce accumulation of harmful resonant
stresses, vibration, and to decrease noise in machine tools.
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I. Friction
Surface friction is an energy dissipative process which takes place with relative
tangential displacement of contacting solids in zones of real contact between them,
formed by the action of an external load. It is that component of the load which resists
lateral (tangential) motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers or material elements in contact.
Friction is described by a ratio of friction force to normal load, termed the coefficient of
friction, . This value depends not only on the surface finish but also on the contacting
materials. It thus occurs that, in the process of engineering design, decisions must
always be made as to which materials and what processes can be used according to the
friction requirements of the component.
J. Formability
Formability can be defined as the relative ease with which a metal can be shaped
through plastic deformation while avoiding machining operations. Usually, shaping of
the component is achieved by stretching it using mechanical force. Formability
determines the amount the material in question can be stretched or drawn without
necking and failing3 . Forming limit is thus defined as the extent to which the metal can
be stretched before failure occurs.
2.3.2.1.2
Mechanical failure modes
A. Fracture
Fracture refers to the local separation of an object or material into two or more pieces
under the action of stress. Fracture toughness is a property which describes the ability
of a material containing a crack to resist fracture, and is one of the most important
properties of any material for virtually all design applications.
B. Fatigue
Fatigue is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material
is subjected to cyclic loading. It occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading
and unloading. If the loads are above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin
to form at the surface. Eventually a crack will reach a critical size, and the structure will
suddenly fracture.
C. Wear
Wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from its "derivative" and original
position on a solid surface performed by the action of another surface. It is related to
interactions between surfaces and more specifically the removal and deformation of
material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite surface.
D. Creep
Creep is a slow or progressive deformation of a material with time under constant
3
Ashby, M.F., 1999
11
stress. It is triggered via thermal activation and is more severe in materials that are
subjected to heat for long periods near the melting point.
E. Corrosion
Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineering material into its constituent atoms due
to chemical reactions with its surroundings. It involves electrochemical oxidation of
metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen. A well-known example of
electrochemical corrosion is formation of an oxide iron due to oxidation of the iron
atoms in solid solution.Effects of corrosion are magnified by stress concentration and
cyclic loading.
F. Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which various metals, most importantly highstrength steels, become brittle and fracture following exposure to hydrogen. It results
from unintentional introduction of hydrogen into susceptible metals during forming or
finishing operations
2.3.2.1.3
Physical properties
A. Density
Density is commonly defined as mass per unit volume. It is the weight of a material per
unit volume and is measured by weighing it in air and in a fluid of known density.
Different engineering applications demand different density requirements from
materials. Low density materials may be preferred in some applications like in aircraft
components (fuel economy). On the contrary, weight is found to be advantageous in
some cases such as while making foundations and flywheels.
B. Electrical properties
Typical electrical properties include;
Resistivity which is the measure a materials ability to resist the flow of
electricity. The higher its value, the higher the resistance of the material.
Resistivity changes with temperature.
Dielectric strength. Materials can be categorised in terms their electrical
properties as conductors, semiconductors or insulators. For an insulator, the
dielectric strength is the voltage required to break down the insulation ( i.e.,
allow electrical conduction ) through a unit thickness of the material.
C. Thermal properties
Typical thermal properties include
Thermal conductivity- Measure of the rate at which heat can be conducted
through a material. Its measured with the coefficient of thermal conductivity, k.
12
The higher the coefficient, the better the thermal conductivity. For cases where
thermal insulation is required, materials with low thermal conductivity are used.
Specific heat- is the amount of thermal energy required to increase a unit mass of
a materials temperature by 1 degree.
Coefficient of thermal expansion- it gives a measure of an objects change in
length per degree change in temperature.
2.3.2.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The manufacturing process influences amount of material wasted, surface defects of the
product, cost and to some extent material properties of finished products. The material
manufacturing process selected is determined largely by its cost and properties of the
material to be used. Typical material processes considered during material selection
process are:
A. Machining
Machining operations can be classified as the ones in which material is removed in chip
form by means of a cutting tool or an abrasive wheel or block. Some of the machining
operations include: turning, grinding, drilling, boring, reaming, milling, planing, shaping
and broaching.
The designer differentiates the machining processes mainly on the basis of the cost to
achieve a certain shape, accuracy and surface finish. The processes are usually costly
and produce scrap and should therefore be avoided if possible. The designer will specify
abrasive methods when he/she seeks high accuracy and surface finish or when the
material is too hard for other cutting tools.
B. Casting
Metal casting is the process by which a metal or metal alloy is poured into a mould and
hardened in the shape of the mold cavity. The casting process involves:
Melting the metal.
Pouring the molten metal into the mold.
Allowing the metal to cooland solidify.
Removing the finished part from the mold.
This manufacturing process allows the creation of complex parts and can be used to
make small or large parts. In addition, it is well suited for mass production. The types of
casting processes available are sand casting, pressure die casting, investment casting
and ingot casting. The choice of any of these processes depend mainly on the material,
size, tolerances involved and more importantly, on the number of pieces to be produced.
C. Forging
Forging involves plastic deformation of material between two dies to achieve the
desired configuration. Depending upon complexity, forging is carried out as open die
forging and closed die forging. In open die forging, the metal is compressed by repeated
blows using a mechanical hammer and its shape is manipulated manually. In closed die
13
forging, the desired configuration is obtained by squeezing the work piece between two
shaped and closed dies. On squeezing the die cavity gets completely filled and excess
material comes out around the periphery of the die as flash which is later trimmed. Both
open and closed die forging processes are carried in hot as well as in cold state. In
forging, favorable grain orientation of metal is obtained.
D. Rolling
Rolling is the most extensively used metal forming process. The material to be rolled is
drawn by means of friction into the two revolving roll gap. The compressive forces
applied by the rolls reduce the thickness of the material or changes its cross sectional
area. The geometry of the product depends on the contour of the roll gap. Roll materials
are cast iron cast steel and forged steel because of high strength and wear resistance. In
rolling the crystals get elongated in the rolling direction. In cold rolling, the crystal more
or less retains the elongated shape but in hot rolling they start reforming after coming
out from the deformation zone.
E. Extrusion
In extrusion, the material is compressed in a chamber and the deformed material is
forced to flow through a die. The die opening corresponds to the cross section of the
required product. It is basically a hot working process; however, for softer materials
cold extrusion is also performed. In direct extrusion metal flows in the same direction as
that of the ram. Because of the relative motion between the heated billet and the
chamber walls, friction is severe and is reduced by using a lubricant. In indirect
extrusion, the metal flows in the opposite direction of the ram. It is more efficient since
it reduces friction losses considerably.
F. Drawing
Large quantities of wires, rods, tubes and other sections are produced by drawing
process which is basically a cold working process. In this process the material is pulled
through a die in order to reduce it to the desired shape and size. In a typical wire
drawing operation, one end of the wire is reduced and passed through the opening of
the die, gripped and pulled to reduce its diameter. By successive drawing operation
through dies of reducing diameter the wire can be reduced to a very small diameter.
Annealing before each drawing operation permits large area reduction.
G. Case Hardening
The purpose of case hardening is to produce a hard outer surface on a specimen of low
carbon steel while at the same time retaining the ductility and toughness in the core.
This is done by increasing the carbon content at the surface by using solid, liquid, or
gaseous carburizing materials. The process consists of introducing the part to be
carburized into the carburizing material for a stated time, and temperature depending
upon the depth of case desired and the composition of the part. The part may then be
quenched directly from the carburization temperature and tempered, or in some cases
it must undergo a double heat treatment in order to ensure that both the core and the
14
case are in proper condition. Some of the more useful case-hardening processes are
pack carburizing, gas carburizing, nitriding, cyaniding, induction hardening, and flame
hardening.
H. Powder Metallurgy
The powder metallurgy process is a quantityproduction process that uses powders
from a single metal, several metals, or a mixture of metals and non-metals. Essentially it
consists of mechanically mixing the powders, compacting them in dies at high pressures
and heating the compacted part at a temperature less than the melting point of the
major ingredient. Waste material and machining operations are reduced significantly.
However, the cost of materials and dies are high. Parts commonly made by this process
are: Oil impregnated bearings, incandescent lamp filaments, cemented carbide tips for
tools and permanent magnet.
I. Plastic Injection Molding
Plastic injection is the most common process for manufacturing plastic products. It
involves:
Heating a polymer to a molten state.
Forcing the molten polymer to flow into a mold.
Cooling and removing the molded part.
This process is suitable for large scale production. In such production scale, the
expenditure on tooling cost is high, and therefore its important that the designer
consults the manufacturer at an early stage in design.
2.3.2.3 COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES (COST AND AVAILABILITY)

These properties involve aspects of both direct cost of materials and availability of
materials. This is because availability of a material greatly determines its cost. A
material is selected bearing in mind the cost of manufacture using available methods.
Other costs include:
The cost of labour required to produce the finished product from that material.
Cost of indirect materials (processing chemicals and cleaning materials).
Cost of services incurred (electric power, gas, air, water, coal, and fuel).
Tool replacement cost.
Depreciation of plant and machinery.
2.3.2.4 REGULATORY PROPERTIES

A. Code Acceptance
Professional Engineering oganisations provide performance oriented codes, standards
and evaluation procedures by which a product can be tested and evaluated for
compliance.This helps provide a uniform and widely recognised basis for acceptance of
new products.After the new product has been tested to indicate conformance to the
15
code, a technical report is issued describing the new system, the information and the
tests submitted , and the recommended usage.
B. Reparability
This is the ability of the of the damaged or failed equipment, machine or system to be
restored to acceptable operating condition within a specified time. This property should
be taken into account to avoid losses that would be suffered if replacement was to be
done for whole component or equipment. The spare parts should be available and
affordable.
16
CHAPTER THREE
LITERATURE REVIEW ON ENGINEERING MATERIALS, THEIR

PROPERTIES AND CATEGORIES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Many at times, a materials problem is really one of selecting that material which has the
right combination of characteristics for a specific application. This necessitates that the
engineering designers have some familiarity with the general characteristics of a wide
variety of materials.
Engineering materials are classified on the basis of their chemical, physical and
mechanical properties. They include metallic materials (metals and their alloys) and
non-metallic materials (polymers, ceramics and composites).
3.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

A material property is the measured magnitude of its response to a standard test
performed according to a standard procedure in a given environment. An
understanding of material properties and behavior puts a designer in a position to
choose a proper material for a given product. Material properties are usually formalized
through specifications namely,
Performance specifications which delineate the basic functional requirements of
the product and sets out the basic parameters from which the design can be
developed.
Product specifications which define conditions under which components of the
designs are purchased or manufactured.
3.2.1 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Mechanical properties of materials are those related to its ability to withstand external
mechanical forces such as tensile forces, compression forces, twisting (torque), bending
and sudden impact. They include; strength and rigidity, resistance to fatigue, resilience
and toughness, hardness, ductility, damping capacity, friction, and formability. These
were discussed in detail in chapter 2.
3.2.1.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FAILURE MODES AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
In most modes of failure two or more mechanical properties interact to control the
material behavior. In addition, the service conditions met by the material in general use
are more complex than the test conditions under which the material properties are
usually measured.
The service condition may consist of a complex superposition of environments such as
fluctuating stress (fatigue) at high temperature (creep) in a highly oxidizing atmosphere
17
(corrosion). Specialized simulation tests are developed to screen materials for

complex service conditions.
3.3 CATEGORIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Engineering materials can be classified into two major categories: Metallic materials
and Non- metallic material. These are further subdivided into various classes as
illustrated in the diagram below:
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Non-Metals
Metal & Alloys
Ferrous
Steels
Composites
Non Ferrous
Cast irons
Titanium
Copper
Nickel
Ceramics
Magnesium
Polymers
Aluminium
Carbon steels
Alloy steels
Low Carbon
High Carbon
HSLA
High alloy Stainless
Medium Carbon
Austenitic
Ferritic
Martensitic
Duplex
Note: HSLA High Strength Low Alloy

Fig. 3.2: Categories of engineering materials
18
3.3.1 METALLIC MATERIALS

These consist of metals and metal alloys. In this category we have ferrous and non
ferrous metals. They have vast application due to their good electrical and thermal
conductivity. They can be classified into ferrous and non ferrous metals.
3.3.1.1 FERROUS ALLOYS
Ferrous alloys contain iron as the prime constituent. Their widespread use is accounted
for by three factors:
Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities within the earths crust
Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using relatively economical
extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques.
Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that they may be tailored to have a
wide range of mechanical and physical properties. The principal disadvantage of
many ferrous alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.
STEELS
3.3.1.1.1
Steels are ironcarbon alloys that may contain appreciable concentrations of other
alloying elements. The mechanical properties are sensitive to the content of carbon,
which is normally less than 1.0 wt%. Steels are classified according to carbon
concentration, namely, into low, medium, and high carbon types.
A. Low-Carbon Steels
Have carbon content of less than 0.25 wt%. Microstructures consist of ferrite and
pearlite constituents. As a consequence, these alloys are relatively soft and weak, but
have outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, they are machinable, weldable. A
sub group of low-carbon alloys are the high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels. They
contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium, nickel, and molybdenum in
combined concentrations as high as 10 wt%, and possess higher strengths.
B. Medium-Carbon Steels
Have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be
heat treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then tempering to improve their
mechanical properties. They are most often utilized in the tempered condition, having
microstructures of tempered martensite. The plain medium-carbon steels have low
hardenabilities and can be successfully heat treated only in very thin sections and with
very rapid quenching rates.
C. High-Carbon Steels
Have carbon contents between 0.60 and 1.4 wt%. They are the hardest, strongest, and
yet least ductile of the carbon steels. Used in a hardened and tempered condition and, as
such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge. The tool
and die steels are high-carbon alloys, usually containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten,
19
and molybdenum. These alloying elements combine with carbon to form very hard and
wear-resistant carbide compounds.
3.3.1.1.2
STAINLESS STEELS
The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion. Their predominant alloying
element is Chromium with a concentration of at least 11 wt%. Corrosion resistance may
also be enhanced by nickel and molybdenum additions. They are divided into three
classes:
Ferritic steels: contain 12-27% chromium.
Martensitic steels: contain 12% chromium and no nickel.
Austensitic steels: contain 18% chromium and 8% nickel
CAST IRONS
3.3.1.1.3
Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon content above 2.14 wt %.
However, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and, other alloying
elements. They are easily melted and amenable to casting. Cast irons are grouped into:
A. Gray cast Iron
The carbon content varies between 2.5 - 4.0 wt %, with Silicon content varying between
1.0 - 3.0 wt%. The graphite exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn flakes), which
are normally surrounded by ferrite or pearlite matrix. Its weak and brittle in tension as
a consequence of its microstructure; the tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and
pointed, and may serve as points of stress concentration when an external tensile stress
is applied. Strength and ductility are much higher under compressive loads. They are
very effective in damping vibration energy.
B. Ductile (or Nodular) Iron
It is formed by adding a small amount of magnesium and/or cerium to the gray iron
before casting. Graphite forms as nodules or sphere-like particles instead of flakes. The
matrix phase surrounding these particles is either pearlite or ferrite, depending on heat
treatment. It is normally pearlite for a cast piece. However, heat treatments for several
hours at about 700 0C will yield a ferrite matrix .Castings are stronger and much more
ductile than gray cast iron. Ductile cast iron has mechanical characteristics approaching
those of steel.
C. White cast Iron and Malleable cast Iron
White cast iron contains low-silicon (less than 1.0 wt% Si) and undergoes rapid cooling
rates. Carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. It is extremely hard but also very
brittle, to the point of being virtually unmachinable. White iron is used as an
intermediary in the production of malleable iron. Heating white iron at temperatures
between 800- 9000C for a prolonged time period and in a neutral atmosphere (to
prevent oxidation) causes a decomposition of the cementite, forming graphite, which
20
exists in the form of clusters or rosettes surrounded by a ferrite or pearlite matrix,

depending on cooling rate. The microstructure of malleable iron is similar to that for
nodular iron hence its relatively high strength and appreciable ductility or malleability.
3.3.1.2 NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
Steel and other ferrous alloys are consumed in exceedingly large quantities because
they have such a wide range of mechanical properties, may be fabricated with relative
ease, and are economical to produce. However, they have some distinct limitations,
chiefly:
Relatively high density,
Comparatively low electrical conductivity, and
An inherent susceptibility to corrosion in some common environments.
Thus, for many applications it is advantageous or even necessary to utilize other alloys
having more suitable property combinations. Alloy systems are classified either
according to the base metal or according to some specific characteristic that a group of
alloys share.
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
3.3.1.2.1
Copper and copper-based alloys, possessing a desirable combination of physical
properties, have been utilized in quite a variety of applications since antiquity.
A. Copper
Unalloyed copper has excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. It is soft, ductile, and
has an almost unlimited capacity to be cold worked. It is highly resistant to corrosion in
diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, seawater, and some industrial
chemicals. The mechanical and corrosion-resistance properties of copper may be
improved by alloying. Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heattreating procedures; consequently, cold working and/or solid-solution alloying must be
utilized to improve these mechanical properties.
B. Copper alloys
Brasses
Zinc is the predominant alloying element. brasses are relatively soft, ductile, and
easily cold worked. Brass alloys having higher zinc content contain both and phases
at room temperature. The phase has an ordered body centred cubic (BCC) crystal
structure and is harder and stronger than phase; consequently, + alloys are
generally hot worked. Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval, and cartridge
brass, muntz metal, and gilding metal.
Bronze
The bronzes are alloys of copper and several other elements, including tin, aluminum,
silicon, and nickel. These alloys are somewhat stronger than the brasses, yet they still
21
have a high degree of corrosion resistance. Generally they are utilized when, in addition
to corrosion resistance, good tensile properties are required.
Beryllium coppers
They possess a remarkable combination of properties: tensile strengths as high as 1400
MPa, excellent electrical and corrosion properties, and wear resistance when properly
lubricated; they may be cast, hot worked, or cold worked. High strengths are attained by
precipitation-hardening heat treatments. These alloys are costly because of the
beryllium additions, which range between 1.0 and 2.5 wt%. Applications include jet
aircraft landing gear bearings and bushings, springs, and surgical and dental
instruments.
3.3.1.2.2
ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
Aluminium and its alloys are characterized by a relatively low density (2700Kg/m3),
high ductility, high electrical- thermal conductivities, and a resistance to corrosion.
Since aluminium has a face centred cubic (FCC) crystal structure, its ductility is retained
even at very low temperatures. The chief limitation of aluminium is its low melting
temperature, which restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used.
Principal alloying elements include copper, magnesium, silicon, manganese, and zinc.
Aluminium alloys are classified as either cast or wrought. Some of the more common
applications of aluminum alloys include aircraft structural parts, beverage cans, bus
bodies, and automotive parts (engine blocks, pistons, and manifolds).Recent attention
has been given to alloys of aluminum and other low-density metals (e.g. Mg and Ti) as
engineering materials for transportation, to effect reductions in fuel consumption. An
important characteristic of these materials is specific strength, which is quantified by
the tensile strengthspecific gravity ratio.
A generation of new aluminum-lithium alloys has been developed recently for use by
the aircraft and aerospace industries. These materials have relatively low densities
(between 25002600 Kg/m3), high specific moduli (elastic modulus specific gravity
ratios), and excellent fatigue and low-temperature toughness properties.
3.3.1.2.3
MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
The most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density (1700 Kg/m3); hence
its alloys are used where light weight is an important consideration (e.g. in aircraft
components).It is relatively soft, and has a low elastic modulus. At room temperature
magnesium and its alloys are difficult to deform. Consequently, most fabrication is by
casting or hot working. It has a moderately low melting temperature. Chemically,
magnesium alloys are relatively unstable and especially susceptible to corrosion in
marine environments. On the other hand, corrosion or oxidation resistance is
reasonably good in the normal atmosphere (due to impurities). Fine magnesium
powder ignites easily when heated in air; consequently, care should be exercised when
handling it in this state.
22
These alloys are also classified as either cast or wrought, and some of them are heat
treatable. Aluminum, zinc, manganese, and some of the rare earths are the major
alloying elements. These alloys are used in aircraft and missile applications.
3.3.1.2.4
TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
Titanium and its alloys are relatively new engineering materials that possess an
extraordinary combination of properties. The pure metal has a relatively low density
(4500 Kg/m3), a high melting point [16680C], and an elastic modulus of 107 GPa.
Titanium alloys are extremely strong, with room temperature tensile strengths as high
as 1400 MPa. Furthermore, the alloys are highly ductile, easily forged and machined.
The major limitation of titanium is its chemical reactivity with other materials at
elevated temperatures. This property has necessitated the development of
nonconventional refining, melting, and casting techniques; consequently, titanium
alloys are quite expensive. In spite of this high temperature reactivity, the corrosion
resistance of titanium alloys at normal temperatures is unusually high; they are
virtually immune to air, marine, and a variety of industrial environments
They are commonly utilized in airplane structures, space vehicles, surgical implants,
and in the petroleum and chemical industries.
3.3.1.2.5
THE SUPER ALLOYS
The super-alloys have superlative combinations of properties. Most are used in aircraft
turbine components, which must withstand exposure to severely oxidizing
environments and high temperatures for reasonable time periods. Mechanical integrity
under these conditions is critical; in this regard, density is an important consideration
because centrifugal stresses are diminished in rotating members when the density is
reduced. These materials are classified according to the predominant metal in the alloy,
which may be cobalt, nickel, or iron. Other alloying elements include the refractory
metals (Nb, Mo, W, and Ta), chromium, and titanium. In addition to turbine applications,
these alloys are utilized in nuclear reactors and petrochemical equipment.
3.3.1.2.6
MISCELLANEOUS ALLOYS NONFERROUS
The discussion above covers the vast majority of non-ferrous alloys; however, a number
of others are found in a variety of engineering applications. These include:
Nickel and its alloys are highly resistant to corrosion in many environments, especially
those that are basic (alkaline). Nickel is often coated or plated on some metals that are
susceptible to corrosion as a protective measure. Monel, a nickel based alloy containing
approximately 65 wt% Ni and 28 wt% Cu (the balance iron), has very high strength and
is extremely corrosion resistant; it is used in pumps, valves, and other components that
are in contact with some acid and petroleum solutions.
23
Lead, tin, and their alloys find some use as engineering materials. Both are
mechanically soft and weak, have low melting temperatures, are quite resistant to many
corrosion environments, and have re-crystallization temperatures below room
temperature. Many common solders are leadtin alloys, which have low melting
temperatures. Applications for lead and its alloys include x-ray shields and storage
batteries. Tin is used as a very thin coating on the inside of plain carbon steel cans (tin
cans) that are used for food containers; this coating inhibits chemical reactions between
the steel and the food products.
Zinc is a relatively soft metal having a low melting temperature and a re-crystallization
temperature. Chemically, it is reactive in a number of common environments and,
therefore, susceptible to corrosion. Galvanized steel is just plain carbon steel that has
been coated with a thin zinc layer; the zinc preferentially corrodes and protects the
steel .Typical applications of galvanized steel are familiar (sheet metal, fences, screen,
screws, etc.). Common applications of zinc alloys include padlocks, automotive parts
(door handles and grilles), and office equipment.
Zirconium and its alloys are ductile and have other mechanical characteristics that are
comparable to those of titanium alloys and the austenitic stainless steels. However, the
primary asset of these alloys is their resistance to corrosion in a host of corrosive media,
including superheated water. Furthermore, zirconium is transparent to thermal
neutrons, so that its alloys have been used as cladding for uranium fuel in water-cooled
nuclear reactors.
3.3.2 NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
These are the materials that do not exhibit metallic characteristics in their properties.
Examples are composites, ceramics, rubbers, plastics and polymers.
3.3.2.1 POLYMERS
These are compounds of high molecular weight derived by the addition of smaller
molecules (monomers) or by the condensation of smaller molecules with the
elimination of water, alcohol and other solvents. There are many different polymeric
materials that are familiar to us and find a wide variety of applications.
Plastics
3.3.2.1.1
They have a wide variety of combinations of properties. Some plastics are very rigid and
brittle; others are flexible, exhibiting both elastic and plastic deformations when
stressed, and sometimes experiencing considerable deformation before fracture. Plastic
materials may be either thermoplastic or thermosetting.
A. Thermoplastics
These are also known as thermo softening plastics. They have very weak Van Der Waals
forces. They are polymers that liquefy on heating and when cooled, they form a very
24
glassy state. They are easily molded and extruded into films, fibers and packaging
materials. E.g. Polyvinylchloride, polyethylene
B. Thermosetting plastics
These are polymers that cure irreversibly. Once cooled and hardened, they return to
their shapes but cannot return to their original form. The curing is by heating or
through a chemical reaction. They can be used for automobile parts, aircraft parts and
tyres. Example are vulcanized rubber and epoxy resins.
3.3.2.1.2
Elastomers
They have a cross linked structure with a looser mesh than thermosets. Thus they have
the ability to be deformed to quite large deformations, and then elastically spring back
to their original form. Their moduli of elasticity are quite small. They are to produce
automobile tyres. Example is Natural poly-isoprene (natural rubber)
3.3.2.1.3
Fibers
Fibers are capable of being drawn into long filaments (100: 1 length-to-diameter ratio).
Fiber polymers are utilized in the textile industry, being woven or knit into cloth or
fabric. While in use, fibers may be subjected to a variety of mechanical deformations:
stretching, twisting, shearing, and abrasion. Consequently, they must have a high tensile
strength (over a relatively wide temperature range) and a high modulus of elasticity, as
well as abrasion resistance.
3.3.2.2 CERAMICS
These are inorganic non-metallic materials made up of two or more elements bonded
together. They can be dense or light in weight but with excellent strength and hardness
properties. Typical properties of ceramics include:
Ceramics are brittle, wear resistant, hard and oxidation-resistant.
They are very strong in compression but very weak in tension due to presence of
minute cracks.
They are also widely applicable in positions involving chemicals because they are
inert.
Ceramics are hard and strong.
Ceramics are divided into four sections of application, namely: Structural application ceramics e.g. bricks, roof and floor tiles.
Refractory applications: These are the ceramics used as kiln linings and gas fire
radiant.
Technical engineering applications: These include fire ceramics used in space
shuttle programmers.
Whiteware applications ceramics: Become white after the high-temperature
firing. E.g. porcelain, pottery, tableware, china, and plumbing fixtures (sanitary
ware).
25
3.3.2.3 COMPOSITES
These are engineering materials made from two or more materials with significantly
different chemical and physical properties and these materials remain separate or
distinct on the microscopic level within a finished structure. The constituent material is
either a matrix or reinforcement.
The matrix, usually a polymer matrix, surrounds and supports the reinforcement by
maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcement; usually fibers, metals, ceramics
and polymers impart their mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
properties. Composites have special properties like: Fire resistance.
Light weight.
Chemical and weathering resistance.
Good electrical properties.
High strength to weight ratio.
Composites fail by: Shock, impact and repeated cyclic loading causing separation of the
layers (de-lamination). Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength
beyond initial onset of failure while others have reserve energy absorbing capacity past
the onset of damage. In comparison with other materials, composites have poor bearing
strength.
26
4
CHAPTER FOUR
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON DECISION MAKING AND
INFORMATION PROCESSING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering design is inherently a decision making process where choices are
constantly being made between alternatives, such as selection of concepts, components,
or the rating of client needs. The tools used in solving these problems depend largely on
the type of data available (deterministic, probabilistic, or uncertain)4.
Numerous methods have been developed to help design teams make the correct choices
by using structured approaches. The two widely used tools include:
i. Rank order: Pairwise comparison charts (PCCs)
ii. Analytic hierarchy process(AHP)
4.1.1 RANK ORDER: PAIR WISE COMPARISON CHARTS
Dym and Little (2003) proposed using of PCCs based on the premise that it is easier to
differentiate between pairs of alternatives e.g. A is better than B or A is similar to B.
PCCs use a matrix structure to compare each alternative individually with every other
(Pair wise comparison). The results from the comparison are summed to obtain an
overall rank order.
PCCs can be generated using the following steps:
1) In a table, the n items to be compared are listed as row and column headings in
an nn matrix. An additional column is added at the end of the matrix to record
the total score for each item.
Table 4.1- Structure of PCCs; Adapted from: Madara Ogot & Gul Kremer, Engineering
Design: A Practical Guide.
Comparison criteria
Evaluated
A
B
C
D
E
F
4Taha,
A
1
1
1
1
1
B
-1
1
-1
1
0
C
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
D
-1
1
1
0
1
E
-1
-1
1
0
1
F
-1
0
1
-1
-1
Total
-5
0
5
-2
0
2
A., 2008
27
Key
A-Size
B-Weight
C-Strength
D-Cost
E-Availability
F-Manufacturability
2) The first row is compared individualy to all other column items. Scores of 1, 0,
and -1 are assigned if the row item is better, similar, or worse, respectively than
the column item.
3) The row scores are totalled, yielding the overall score of thr first alternative.
4) Steps 2 and 3 are repeated for all alternatives.
5) The ranking order for alternatives is compiled. The higher the overall score, the
higher the alternatives rank. From the table above, strength (C) is ranked
highest.
4.1.2 RELATIVE ORDER: ANALYTIC HIERARCHY PROCESS (AHP)
It is used when a relative score is required for a set of qualitative alternatives.AHP
determines by how much each alternative is better (or worse) than the others. It is
based on the fundamental scale which captures individual preferences with respect to
qualitative or quantitative attributes.
Example
Consider two choices of materials all of which meet the basic properties desired for a
particular product. To select one material, the designer specifies three main criteria: its
availability, cost, and the manufacturing process. Giving a weight of approximately 45%
to availability, 35% to cost and 20% to manufacturing process, the designer uses a
systematic analysis to rank these two materials. The table below ranks the three criteria
for the two materials:
Table 4.2: Criteria ranking for the three materials
Index
Estimates
Criterion
Manufacturing
process (20%)
Cost
(35%)
Availability Composite
(45%)
weights
Material
A
Material
B
0.63
0.42
0.33
0.4215
0.37
0.58
0.67
0.5785
The problem involves a single hierarchy (level) with three criteria (manufacturing
process, cost, and availability) and two decision alternatives (Material A and material
B). The ranking of each material is based on computing the following composite
weights:
28
Material A=0.2*0.63+0.35*0.42+0.45*0.33=0.4215
Material B=0.2*0.37+0.35*0.58+0.45*0.67=0.5785
Material B has the highest composite weight, and is therefore the best material choice
for the application.
4.2 INFORMATION PROCESSING

4.2.1 Hypertext Pre-Processor (PHP)
PHP is a server-side scripting language. A server- side scripting language allows the
user to embed little programs (scripts) into the HTML of a web page. When executed,
such scripts allow the user to control what will actually appear in the browser window
with more flexibility than is possible using straight HTML. Although to some extent PHP
is similar to JavaScript, the key difference between the two is that JavaScript is
interpreted by the web browser once the web page that contains the script has been
downloaded whereas PHP is interpreted by the web server before the page is sent to the
browser. Once interpreted, the results of the script replace the PHP code in the Web
page so that all the browser sees is a standard HTML file. The script is processed
entirely by the server, hence the designation: server-side scripting language.
Some of the merits of PHP include:
Access to server-side resources.
Interpretation of scripts by the Web server thus eliminating browser
compatibility issues.
Reduced load on client.
PHP syntax is similar to that of C, C++, Java, or any other C-derived language.
4.2.2 Definitions
The following definitions are commonly associated with PHP:
a) Constant:- This is an identifier (name) for a simple value and does not change
in the execution of the script. Constant identifiers are always in upper case.
b) Expression:- This is anything that has value. The basic forms of expressions are
constants and variables.
c) Operator:- An operator is anything that you feed with one or more values (or
expressions) which yields another value. Examples of operators are unary
operators operating on one value and ternary operator which select between
two expressions depending on a third one.
d) Open database connectivity (ODBC) is an application programming interface
(API) that allows one to connect to data source.
e) A web server is a computer program that delivers (serves) content, such as
web pages, using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) over the World Wide
Web (WWW). The primary function of a web server is to deliver web pages
which are basically HTML documents to clients (i.e. a web browser). A full
implementation of HTTP also includes a way of receiving content from clients.
This feature is used for submitting web forms, including uploading of files. A
29
f)
g)
h)
i)
client initiates communication by making a request for a specific resource using

HTTP and the server responds with the content of that resource, or an error
message if unable to do so.
Mysql:- Mysql is a relational database management system (RDBMS) that runs
as a server providing multi-user access to a number of databases. Many web
applications use mysql as a database component. PhpMyadmin, a free web
based protocol widely installed by web hosts worldwide, can connect to
local/remote MySQL servers to manage databases, tables, column structure and
individual data records. MySQL can be built and installed manually from source
code, though it is more commonly installed from binary package - unless
customizations are required.
Data base:- This is a collection of data typically describing activities of one or
more related organizations.
Data base management system (DBMS):- Software designed to assist in
maintaining and utilizing large collections of data.
Variables in PHP are represented by a dollar sign followed by the name of the
variable. It is possible to access Microsoft server from PHP on a windows
machine by simply using ODBC support and the correct ODBC drive. Variables in
PHP are always assigned by value i.e. when you assign an expression to a
variable, the entire value of the original expression is copied into the destination
variable.PHP also allows for the assignment of value to a variable by reference.
This means that the new variable simply references to the original variable.
Changes in the new variable affects the original variable and vice versa.
4.2.3 How php Works

When a client visits a page on a database driven website, the clients web browser
requests for the web page using a standard URL. The web server software (Apache)
recognizes that the requested file is a PHP script and so the server interprets the file
using its PHP plug-in before responding to the page request. Certain PHP commands
connect to the MySQL database and requests the content that belongs to the web page.
The MySQL database responds by sending the requested content to the PHP script. The
PHP script stores the content into one or more PHP variables and then uses the echo
function to output the content as part of the web page. The web server sends the HTML
to the web browser as it would for a plain HTML file except that instead of coming
directly from an HTML file, the page is the output provided by the PHP plug-in.
30
CHAPTER FIVE
CASE STUDY: SELECTION OF A MATERIAL FOR A REVERTED

TWO STAGE COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN
5.1 INTR0DUCTION
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging
teeth. This form of transmission is possible because of the rigidity of the material from
which the gear wheels are made. From kinematical point of view, gear wheels may be
assumed to be completely rigid, such that there is no deformation whatsoever when the
gear wheel is subjected to force. Thus the kind of transmission of motion that occurs in
gear drives is known as a positive drive in which there should be no loss of motion at all.
This is as opposed to belt drives, for instance, in which loss of motion may occur due to
creep, slip or both creep and slip of the belt relative to the pulleys.
5.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS
Gears are generally classified according to the orientation of the teeth; as follows:
Spur gears: The teeth are lengthwise parallel to the axis of rotation of the gear
wheel. The overall form of the gear wheel is actually cylindrical.
Fig. 5.1: Spur gears
Helical gears: Similar to spur gears except that the teeth of a helical gear are
cut at an angle (known as the helix angle) to the axis. Helical gears are made in
both right and left hand configurations.
31
Fig. 5.2: Helical gears
Bevel gears:The teeth lie upon a cone rather than a right cylinder. Variants of
the bevel gears are the straight bevel, spiral bevel and the hypoid gears.
Fig. 5.3: Straight bevel
Fig. 5.4: Spiral bevel
32
Fig. 5.5: Hypoid bevel
Worm and worm wheel: A worm is a type of gear with one or more cylindrical
threads or starts (that resemble screw threads) and a face that is usually wider
than its diameter. A worm wheel, on the other hand, is a helical gear that meshes
with the worm.
Fig. 5.5: Worm and wheel gears

Gear drives have a number of advantages compared to the other mechanical power
transmission devices such as belt drives and chain drives. The major advantages are the
following:
They provide a constant speed ratio.
They dont exhibit chordal action, as in chain drives.
They are more compact as compared to belt and chain drives.
The range of speeds and loads with which gear drives may be used is far broader
than with belt and chain drives.
33
5.1.2 GEARING TERMINOLOGY
Fig. 5.6: Illustration of gearing terminology; Adapted from Boston-Gear

The following defined terms are generally applicable to gears:
Pitch circle is an imaginary circle that corresponds to the circumference of the friction
wheel that corresponds to the gear. The pitch circle of meshing gears roll on each other
without slipping.
Pitch circle diameter (D) is the diameter of the pitch circle of a gear or pinion.
Addendum (a) is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
Dedendum (d) is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth
space.
Outside diameter (D ) is the diameter of the addendum circle. Thus 2
Root diameter (D ) is the diameter of the root circle.5 Thus 2
Whole depth (h ) is the total height of the tooth or the total depth of the tooth space.
Thus

Working depth (h ) is the distance that a tooth that projects into the mating tooth
space. Thus 2
The root circle is also known as the dedendum circle
34
Clearance (c) is the distance between the top of the tooth and the bottom of the mating
tooth space. Thus;
Circular pitch (p) is the distance, along the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to a
corresponding point on adjacent tooth. Therefore /(z is the number of teeth).
Module (m) is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter of a gear wheel to the number of
teeth on the gear wheel. Thus /. It therefore follows that and that the
circular pitch and the module are really measures of the same quantity, to different
scales.
Pressure angle or tooth shape () is the angle at which the pressure from the tooth
of one gear is passed on to the tooth of another gear. Spur gears come in two pressure
angles: 14
!#
"
and 20.
Diametral pitch (P) is the ratio of the number of teeth on a gear wheel to the pitch
circle diameter of the gear wheel. Thus % / 1/
Backlash (B) of a pair of meshing teeth is the amount by which the width of a tooth
space exceeds the thickness of a mating tooth on the pitch circle. A small amount of
backlash is usually desirable, or necessary. But if it is excessive the gears will rattle
under light loads or when running idle.
Face width (b) is the lengthwise width of the teeth in the direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the gear wheel
Gear ratio (G) is the mathematical ratio of a pair of spur gears determined by dividing
the number of teeth on the larger gear with the number of teeth on the pinion.
5.1.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR A GEAR TRAIN

Prior to the design of a gear train, the following data is usually required:
The power to be transmitted
The speed of the driving gear
The speed of the driven gear or the gear ratio
The centre distance
Also the following requirements must be met in design of a gear train:
The gear teeth should have sufficient strength so that they will not fail under
static loading or dynamic loading during normal running conditions.
The gear teeth should have wear characteristics so that their life is satisfactory.
The use of space and material should be economical.
The alignment of the gears and deflections of the shafts must be considered
because of their effect on the performance of gears.
The lubrication of the gears must be satisfactory.
35
5.1.4 MODES OF GEAR FAILURE

Gear failure occurs as a result of a material having or lacking particular attributes
closely related to its mechanical properties. The following are the various modes of
gear failure common in practice, and possible remedies:
Bending failure: Every gear tooth acts as a cantilever. If the total dynamic load
acting on the gear tooth is greater than its beam strength, failure due to bending
will occur i.e. the tooth will break. To avoid such failure, the module and face
width is adjusted such that the beam strength is greater than the dynamic load.
Pitting: Its surface fatigue failure which occurs due to many repetition of
Hertz 6contact stresses. The failure occurs when the surface contact stresses are
higher than the endurance of the material. It starts with formation of pits which
continue to grow resulting in the rupture of the tooth. To avoid pitting, the
dynamic load must be less than the wear strength of the gear tooth.
Scoring: Excessive heat is generated when there is an excessive surface

pressure, high speed, or failure of lubrication system. This causes a stick- slip
phenomenon in which shearing and welding takes place rapidly. To avoid
scoring, proper design of parameters such as speed, pressure and proper flow of
the lubricant should be carried out.
Abrasive wear: Foreign particles in the lubricant such as dirt, dust or burr can
cause loss of material from contacting surfaces of teeth. This type of failure can
be avoided by providing filters for lubricating oil or by using high viscosity oil
which forms a thicker film and permits easy passage of such particles without
damaging the gear surface.
Corrosive wear: Corrosion of teeth surface is mainly caused due to the presence
of corrosive elements such as additives present in lubricating oils. In order to
avoid this type of wear, proper anti-corrosive additives should be used.
5.2 REVERTED COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN DESIGN

A reverted compound gear train is a type of parallel axis gear train. Gears (Only spur
and bevel gears are used in this case ), in the various stages of speed transformation,
though not being rigidly mounted on a single shaft; do have a common axis of rotation.
In a two stage reverted gear train, the input and the output gears have a common axis of
rotation. They are more compact than non-reverted compound gear trains. Reverted
gear trains find applications in speed reducers, machine tools and automotive
transmissions.
6
Contact stress was originally conceived by Hertz (1896) in whose name it is often referred.
36
Fig. 5.7: A reverted two stage compound gear train in a manual winch
For the reverted compound gear train, the input and output shafts must be co-axial and
therefore:
C1=C3
(5.1)
Moreover, it is common practice to make meshing gear wheels be of equal face widths.
In that case:
'
& ( ') ,
'* ' +
(5.2)
b2
b3
Z2
Z3
C1
C3
Z1
Z4
b1
b4
Fig. 5.8: Schematic of a reverted compound gear train
37
In figure 5.8, the numbers of teeth on the gear wheels are denoted -( , z2, z3 and z4.
Further, the corresponding gear wheel pitch diameters are D1, D2, D3 and D4.
Then the modules of the gear wheels can be determined as follows:
.(
/(
-(
; .)
/)
-)
; .*
/*
-*
; .+
/+
-+
(5.3)
As is well known, the modules of meshing gear wheels must be equal. Therefore:
.
& ( .) 0
.* .+
(5.4)
The intra-stage gear ratios can be determined as follows:
1(
1*
2)
2(
2+
2*

/(
/)
/*
/+
-(
-)
-*
-+
(5.5)
(5.6)
Introducing the following notation for normalized face widths, as a matter of

convenience:
'3(
'(
.(
; '3*
'*
.(
(5.7)
5.2.1 THE DESIGN CONSTRAINTS

The design must satisfy all geometrical, kinematical and strength constraints:
5.2.1.1 Geometric Constraints
According to Juvinall (1983), the face width of a gear wheel should lie between 9-14
times its module. This constraint may be expressed mathematically, as follows:
4
& 5 '3( 5 (+,
4 5 '3* 5 (+
(5.8)
Furthermore, according to Juvinall (1983), gear wheels with standard pressure angle of
20 should not have less than 18 teeth. This is the condition for avoiding undercutting
for gear wheels that are produced by a generation process. However, according to
Budynas and Nisbett (2008), the number of teeth on a pinion that will avoid
interference is determined as follows:
38
-6 7 91
)8
)
: ;)<=:3
?( @( 91): )1: <=:3) A
(5.9)
Where, BC is the speed ratio for a pair of meshing gear wheels, k is a factor that is equal
to 1 for standard full-depth teeth and 0.8 for stub teeth, is the pressure angle and DE is
the number of teeth on the pinion. For full-depth teeth, if we make BC =1 /6 and =20,
we find that DE 16.
Mathematically, this constraint may be stated as follows:
& ( 7 (F,
-* 7 (F
(5.10)
5.2.1.2 Kinematic Constraints

Budynas and Nisbett (2008) recommend that the speed reduction ratio in a single stage
of a compound gear train should not exceed 1:10. Oonishi (1988) recommends limiting
the speed reduction in a single stage as shown in table below.
Table 5.1: Recommended maximum gear ratio in single stage
Type of gear
Low speed
High speed
Spur
7:1
5:1
Bevel
5:1
3:1
We shall limit the maximum speed reduction in a single stage to be 1: 6. Bearing in mind
that the gear train being designed is a speed reducer, this leads to constraints that may
be stated mathematically as follows:
1
& ( 7 G. (FI,
1* 7 G. (FI
(5.11)
The intra-stage gear ratios must take on such values as to obtain the required overall
gear ratio of the train. This constraint may be expressed as follows:
1( 1* 1
(5.12)
39
5.2.1.3 Strength Constraints

The load carrying capacity of any gear drive is limited by the heat of operation, beam
strength of teeth and wear-load capacity of gear materials. In other words, a satisfactory
gear drive must have the ability to dissipate the friction heat of operation, must have
teeth sufficiently strong to carry the dynamic loads without breaking or shearing and
must be made of materials whose surface-endurance properties are adequate to carry
the dynamic loads without excessive wear.
A. Beam Strength
In studying the beam strength of gear teeth, Buckingham modeled the teeth to be
cantilever beams with the most severe condition of loading assumed to be when the full
load acting on the gear wheel is carried at the tip of a single tooth. To reduce impact
between meshing gear teeth, as well as minimize noise, gears are normally designed in
such a way that a pair of teeth begins contact before the previously engaged pair of
teeth end contact. This nature of tooth contact is characterized by the contact ratio,
which is the average number of teeth in contact at any given time. However, when the
requirement of weight and size of gears are not critical, a condition that includes the
great majority of gears used in machine design, it is safer to assume that the load is
carried at the tip of a single gear tooth.
Gear tooth bending stress is given by the Lewis equation7:
J'
KL
'6M
(5.13)
Where:
N is the transmitted force (newtons)
b is the face width of the gear (mm)
is the circular pitch(mm)
O is known as the tooth form factor or Lewis form factor.
The value of y, in terms of the number of gear teeth is expressed as:
y G. (P+
y G. (IP
G.4()
Q
G.S+(
Q
___________ 20 full depth involute profile

___________ 20 stub system
Now, from their definitions, the circular pitch and the module are related as follows:
6 T.
(5.14)
In 1892, Wilfred Lewis investigated for the strength of gear teeth. He derived an equation which is now
extensively used by industry in determining the size and proportions of gear.
40
Therefore, from equations (5.13) and (5.14), the following can be readily obtained:
KL T'.MJ'
(5.15)
Now, let us introduce the following notation:
U TM
(5.16)
Then, from equations (5.15) and (5.16) the following can be readily obtained:
KL '.UJ'
(5.17)
Figure 5.9, shows the pitch circles of a pinion and a gear in mesh, along with the forces
and torques acting upon the two gear wheels. V! is the input torque at the pinion shaft
and V" is the load torque acting upon the shaft carrying the driven gear. Therefore:
W(
KL( /(
)
(5.18)
The tangential and radial components are given by:
KL( K( XYZ ; Fr1 K( Z[\
(5.19)
D2
F1
T2
Fr1 F1
Ft1
Ft1
T1
Ft1
D1
Fig. 5.9: Forces Acting Between Two Meshing Gear Wheels

41
The power input at the pinion shaft is denoted by ]! and can be expressed as follows:
^( W( 2(
(5.20)
`(
(5.21)
Let us denote the pitch line velocity of the input pinion by _! . Then we can write the
following:
2( /(
)
From equations (5.18), (5.20) and (5.21), we can write the following:
KL(
^(
`(
(5.22)
^(
`(
'( .( U( J' '3( .)( U( J'
(5.23)
Similarly, for the output stage pinion gear, we can write the following:
^(
`*
'* .* U* J' '3* .)* U* J'
(5.24)
If we denote the allowable bending stress of the gear material by abc , then we can write
the following:
J'd 7
^(
'3( .)( U( `(
(5.25)
Similarly, assuming that all the gear wheels in the train are made of the same material,
we can write the following:
J'd 7
^(
'3* .)* U* `*
(5.26)
The pitch-line velocities, _! and _e , may be expressed in terms of the input

shaftrotational velocity as follows:
&
`(
`*
2( /(
2 . ( )( (
)
2( 1( .* -* f
2* .* -*

)
)
(5.27)
42
Thus, from equations (5.25), (5.26) and (5.27), we can write the following:
&
J'd 7
J'd 7
)^(
'3( .*( U( 2( -(
^(
'3* 1( .** U* 2( -*
(5.28)
B. Wear Strength
The contact conditions between spur-gear-tooth profile are similar to those between
two cylinders except that on the gear tooth profiles the radius of curvature is
constantly changing. If use is made of the contact and pressure conditions between two
cylinders as measure of the stress on the surface of the gear teeth, it is necessary to first
select some definite part of the gear tooth for use as a basis of comparison.
In many cases, wear on gear teeth first becomes apparent at or near the pitch line.
Possibly one contributing cause for this effects is the fact that one pair of teeth is usually
carrying the entire load. When contact takes place near the top or the bottom of the
active profile, two pairs of mating teeth are usually sharing the load. Again the impact or
dynamic load is usually imposed on the gear near the pitch line area. It is the intensity of
this dynamic load that is largely responsible for the surface fatigue of the gear materials.
Hence the radius of the curvature of the gear tooth profile at the pitch line is selected as
the one to use as a basis of comparison with the Hertz equation (for cylinders).
The Hertz equation was modified to give the expression for the limiting wear load for
gear teeth by Buckingham and was presented by Oonishi as follows
KL 88g /6 '6 h
)-i
-6 ;-i
(5.29)
Where:
k is the contact stress factor (N/mm2) and is given by:
8
8For
(.+
kv is the velocity factor. For medium speed, surface finished gears it is given by:
8g
l n where Jk 8 is the compressive strength of the material.
Jk ) Z[\ )
F.(
F.(;`6
where `6 is the pitchline velocity of the pinion.
Dp is the pitch circle diameter of the pinion (mm) in the meshing pair of gears
bp is the face width of the pinion (mm) in the meshing pair of gears
metals Jk is the same as the yield strength
43
zg, zp are the numbers of teeth of the gear and the pinion, respectively, in the
meshing pair of gears
Adapting this equation to the load on the input stage pinion, we can write the following:
KL( 5 88g /( '( l
)-)
-( ;-)
(5.30)
By using equations (5.3), (5.5), (5.22) and (5.30), it follows that:

^(
`(
5 88g -( .( '( l
1( ;(
(5.31)
Similarly, for the output stage pinion, we can write the following:
^(
`*
5 88g -* .* '* l
1* ;(
(5.32)
^(
`(
^(
`*
5 88g -( .)( '3( l

5 88g -* .)* '3* l
1( ;(
)
1* ;(
n
n
(5.33)
(5.34)
The contact stress for the pinions in the input and output stages can be expressed as:
87
87
^( 91( ;(<
(5.35)
^( 91* ;(<
(5.36)
) `( 8g -( .)( '3(
) `* 8g -* .)* '3*
Denoting the allowable contact stress factor of the material by 8c , and assuming that
all the gear wheels in the train are made of the same material, it follows that:
&
8d 7
8d 7
^( 91( ;(<
) `( 8g -( .)( '3(
^( 91* ;(<
) `* 8g -* .)* '3*
(5.37)
44
Thus, from equations (5.27) and (5.37), we can write the following:
&
8d 7
8d 7
^( 91( ;(<
8g .*( '3( 2( -)(

^( 91* ;(<
8g .** '3* 2( -)* 1(
(5.38)
45
CHAPTER SIX
THE PROCESS OF MATERIAL SELECTION FOR THE REVERTED

COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN
6.1 MATERIAL RANKING INDICES
In ranking of candidate materials for the gear train, the following factors were
considered: availability, material cost and manufacturing cost.
6.1.1 Availability Index
Availability of a material plays an important role in the selection process. In obtaining
the availability index we considered such factors as availability of material in desired
quantity and time frame, and the form in which the material is supplied.
For the purposes of the selection process, indices of 5, 3 and 1 were allocated for the
locally available materials, not readily available materials and locally unavailable
materials respectively.
6.1.2 Material Cost Index
The prices of materials were obtained from local suppliers9 and are tabulated in table
7.110. Since low cost of a material is desirable, the cost index was obtained as follows:
pq=L r3stu
pq=L qv Lwt xtd=L tu6t3=:gt .dLty:dx

pq=L qv tdkw .dLty:dx
HSLA Steel was the least expensive material at Kshs 290 and thus it had a cost index of
1.
Example, for UNS S40500 ( 405 Stainless steel) the cost index is:
pq=L r3stu I+G = 0.39189
)4G
6.1.3 Manufacturing Index

Manufacturing index was obtained on basis of hardness. A material with low Brinell
hardness number (BHN) is easier to machine than one with a high BHN. An average
BHN of 60 for Electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) Copper was chosen and given an index of 1,
being considered to have the best machinability. The other materials were then ranked
on this basis.
zd3`vdkL`y:3i r3stu
{^| FG
{^| qv tdkw .dLty:dx
East African Foundries Ltd, Kensmetal Ltd and other local suppliers in Industrial Area, Nairobi.
See appendix.
10
46
Example, for UNS S40500 ( 405 Stainless steel) the manufacturing index is:
zd3`vdkL`y:3i r3stu
FG
G. +S*SI
()+
Thus the material that can be machined easily will have a higher manufacturing index.
6.1.4 Composite index

The Composite index was obtained by multiplying the availability index by a weight of
0.55, the cost index by weight of 0.35 and manufacturing index by 0.1. Thereafter,
summing was done for the weighted indices of availability, cost of material and
manufacturing cost for individual materials.
Example, for UNS 40500 (405 Stainless steel) the composite index is:
pq.6q=:Lt r3stu G. PP } P G. *P } G. *4(S G. ( } G. +S*SI ). 4*PPP
Since the idea in all the indices was to maximize the individual index ranking number,
the material with the highest composite index would then be preferred. To achieve this,
all the candidate materials were ranked on the basis of the composite index and then
sorted to get the top fifteen candidate materials. The material with the highest
compound index was selected as the best candidate for the design of a gear train based
on the chosen materials selection criteria. The list of the top fifteen candidate materials
based on their composite index is shown in Table 5.3 below:
Table 5.3: List of Top Fifteen Materials Based On their Composite Index
UNS
Number
K11576
K02801
K02100
K02401
K01800
K02002
K02403
K02800
K02700
K01800
C89520
S40500
S41000
S40900
S44600
Material Name
HSLA Steel
A285-C Steel
A516-60 Steel
A516-60 Steel
A515-70 Steel
A515-55 Steel
AL516-65 Steel
A515-60 Steel
A516-70 Steel
A516-55 Steel
EnviroBrass2
405 SS
410 SS
409 SS
446 SS
Cost
Index
1
0.76316
0.76316
0.76316
0.725
0.725
0.725
0.725
0.725
0.65909
0.28019
0.39189
0.39189
0.31522
0.31183
Manufacturing
Index
0.387096774
0.555555556
0.491803279
0.483870968
0.550458716
0.508474576
0.45112782
0.45112782
0.413793103
0.491803279
0.882352941
0.483870968
0.483870968
0.458015267
0.416666667
Availability
Index
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
Composite
Index
3.13870968
3.07266082
3.06628559
3.06549236
3.05879587
3.05459746
3.04886278
3.04886278
3.04512931
3.02986215
2.93630293
2.93554926
2.93554926
2.90612761
2.90080645
47
6.2 SUPPORT INFORMATION

Support Information gives a detailed profile of each candidate material. The data
requirements for support information differ greatly from those for the screening or
ranking step. Typically, it is the non-quantifiable information which is sought. An
example of Support Information is11:
UNS K02002 A515-55 Steel:
Material Composition: Iron 98%, Carbon 0.2%, Manganese 1.03%, Phosphorous
0.04%, Sulphur 0.05%, Silicon 0.28%, Copper 0.20%.
Maximum plate thickness is 63.4mm.
Much stronger and tougher than ordinary carbon steels.
Ductile with elongation at failure equal to 22% for a 50mm specimen.
Characterized by good corrosion resistance and high hardness.
Machinability is characterized by long, gummy chips . It can be machined in the
annealed condition.
Its welded by common fusion and resistance methods, but should not be joined
by oxyacetylene welding.
Available in many forms e.g. plate, round bar, forgings, tubings.
6.3 MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM

The selection system consists of a server application (WAMP) and database (Material
Selection). The database stores information on a sample of materials and their
properties. Pertinent database server software is MySQL. The server application
comprises of Apache (server), MySQL and PHP applications on a windows platform
(operating system). Server applications purpose include: data retrieval, updating the
database, enabling multiple client support and performing administrative tasks.
11
Adopted from www.matweb.com
48
6.3.1 Database Structure

The database should be structured such that it is easy to retrieve and update
information in it. The database structure used is as shown in the Tables below:
Table
Field
Type
Description
1.Materials Properties
Id
int
UNS No
varchar Holds value of UNS number
Material Name
varchar Holds material name
Form
varchar Holds material form
Yield Strength
int
Tensile Strength
int
Density
int
Elastic Modulus
int
Hardness
int
Availability Index
int
Cost Index
int
Manufacturing
Index
int
Composite Index
int
2.Login(Administration Id
login Purpose)
Username
Password
int
Unique identifier
material.
of
the
Holds value of yield strength

of the material
Holds value of tensile
strength of the material
Holds value of density of the
material
Holds
value
of
elastic
modulus of the material
Holds value of hardness of the
material
Holds value of availability
index of the material
Holds value of cost index of
the material
Holds
value
of
the
manufacturing index of the
material
Holds the value of composite
index value of the material
Unique identifier of the table
varchar Holds the username for the

administration login.
varchar Holds the password for the
administration login.
49
Below is the implemented database using MySql relational database. It shows two tables
for materials properties and login (for administrators login details):
The materials properties table is shown below:
50
6.3.2 Material selection system

To start the materials selection system, run the local server (WAMP) on a windows
operating platform. Then, key in the URL address http://localhost/material selection
system/ to display the homepage as shown below:
The homepage has three menu items: select material, material database, and
administration. On the select material menu item, the spur link enables the user to
start the process of material selection for the gear train. The material database has links
for viewing and searching the material database. The third item, administration, allows
the user to add to and edit material in the database.
51
Clicking on the spur link, a list of locally available materials is displayed. This is done
by screening the material database using availability as the non-discriminating
parameter (if the material is not available it cannot be used and therefore its dropped
in the first stage of selection i.e. its not displayed).
On selecting the calculate stresses option, a page for capturing properties specified by
the user is displayed. This page allows one to input the design specifications for the
gear.
52
The calculate button is used to compute the bending and contact stresses as defined
by equations (5.28) and (5.38) respectively. If the user selects the calculate button
without filling any fields an error report is displayed highlighting the empty text fields
in the html form as shown below:
Filling the form with gear specifications e.g. data considered for our selection process, it
would appear as below:
53
On selecting the calculate button after successfully filling in all the text fields, a new
page loads showing the parameters used in calculating the design stresses and a list of
the qualified materials. The qualified materials are ranked using composite index in a
descending order (starting with the one having the highest composite index to the one
with the least composite index).
This is the second stage in material selection where screening is done using go/no-go
parameters (These are minimum/maximum properties values which candidate
materials must meet). In selecting a candidate material for the gear train, the bending
stress was compared with the materials yield strength (go/no-go parameter) while the
contact stress was compared with the materials contact stress factor (go/no-go
parameter). For any material to qualify it had to meet these two conditions:
Material yield strength bending stress(calculated) &

Material contact stress factor contact stress(calculated)
From the list of qualified materials above, UNS K11576 HSLA Steel was ranked the
highest with a composite index of 3.1387 while UNS S20910 22-13-5 Stainless Steel was
the lowest ranked with an index of 2.8678.
54
Other than selecting materials, the system has interfaces for viewing and searching the
database. To view materials in the database, click on the view database link to retrieve
and display all materials in the database as shown below:
To search for a particular material in the database, click on the search database link in
the material database menu item and a form for entering the material specifications to
aid in the search is displayed. For example, using density as the search field and
entering a value of 7850Kg/m3 , materials in the database matching this value are
retrieved and displayed.
55
The application also allows the administrator to manage the database by:
Adding new materials and,
Editing existing materials in the database
These two tasks require the administrator to log in (Logging in prevents unauthorized
users from altering contents in the database).To add new materials to the database click
on the add materials link and after a successful login the form for entering materials
properties value is displayed:
Enter the material properties values and click the save button.
56
To edit materials in the database click on the edit materials link and after a successful
login the Administration Materials View page is displayed with the edit and delete
options:
Select edit link and the html form to edit materials properties is displayed:
57
The user is required to enter values in all the fields. In case no change is to be effected in
a given field the previous value should be entered. Note that the Id is a unique identifier
of a material; therefore use the previous Id as the new Id for the material when editing:
Click on save button to save the edited material properties in the database.
Finally, to remove any material from the database click on the delete link in the
administration materials view.
58
CHAPTER SEVEN: CLOSURE
7.1 DISCUSSION
The selection of a material for machine part or structural member is one of the most
important decisions the engineering designer has to make. Poor material choice can
lead to failure of a part or system or to unnecessary cost. The process of materials
selection is difficult one and typically involves multiple conflicting material
characteristics as well as large number of constraints.
A good material selection process considers the limiting factors for a particular design
exercise which include material properties, material processing, material cost and
material availability. The selection of candidate materials for the gear train was done in
two stages; screening of the large material database and ranking of qualified materials.
Screening was done in two steps. In the first step, using availability as the nondiscriminating parameter all locally unavailable materials were eliminated from further
consideration in the selection. The second step used go/no-go parameters as the basis
for screening. In this case, the materials yield strength and the contact stress factor
were considered as the go/no-go parameters. Therefore, for any material to qualify it
had to meet these two conditions: material yield strength had to be greater than the
calculated bending stress and the material contact stress factor had to be greater than
the calculated contact stress.
After screening, the second stage involved ranking the qualified materials using
composite index. The composite index for a given material, by using the Analytic
hierarchy process (AHP), was obtained by multiplying the availability index by a weight
of 0.55, the cost index by a weight of 0.35, and the manufacturing index by a weight of
0.1 and thereafter summing the weighted indices12. The material with the highest
composite index was ranked the best by the material selection system.
Different materials scored differently in the different indices (i.e. availability, cost and
manufacturing). No particular material was exclusively favored by all factors. Some
scored high on some indices and poorly on others while others were just fair. For
example, Low Carbon Steels and Low alloy Steels scored highly in the availability index
as well as cost index. On the other hand, Aluminium alloys scored well in the availability
index but poorly in the cost index.
From the list of the five qualified materials, UNS K11576 HSLA Steel was ranked the
highest with a composite index of 3.1387. Considering the first three materials and
eliminating UNS S43600 436 Stainless Steel on the basis that its in sheet form and
hence it cannot be used in gear manufacture, the decision on which material to use
12
Weighted index= weight *index.
59
relied on supporting information. The supporting information for the two materials is
given below:
UNS K11576 High Strength Low Alloy Steel
Material Composition: Fe 95-97%, C (0.1-0.2%), Mn (0.6-1%), P (0.035%), S
(0.04%), Si (0.15-0.35%), Cr (0.4-0.65%), Ni (0.7-1%), Mo (0.4-0.6%), V (0.030.08%), Cu (0.15-0.5%), B (0.002-0.006%).
Maximum plate thickness is 64 mm.
Highly resistant to corrosion.
Available in many forms e.g. bar, plate, tube.
UNS K02002 A515-55 Steel:
Material Composition: Iron 98%, Carbon 0.2%, Manganese 1.03%, Phosphorous
0.04%, Sulphur 0.05%, Silicon 0.28%, Copper 0.20%.
Maximum plate thickness is 63.4 mm.
Characterized by good corrosion resistance and high hardness.
Available in many forms e.g. plate, round bar, forgings, tubings.
From the supporting information, the two materials had almost similar attributes, and
thus UNS K11576 HSLA Steel was chosen as the best material for the gear train design
because of its higher composite index.
This online material selection system helps the designer perform the rigorous process
of material selection for the gear train by giving accurate information at fast speeds thus
saving time and money during design. However, several challenges were encountered
during the development of this selection system. Among them were lack of easy access
to comprehensive and accurate information on the availability of the different materials
and their local cost.
60
7.2 CONCLUSION
Optimal selection of engineering materials is done in two stages: screening followed by
ranking. The first stage reduces the large material database to a small candidate list
which meets the critical property limits as defined by the design equations. The second
stage involves ranking the candidate materials using composite index. Supporting
information is then sought and used to narrow down the ranked materials to a final
choice allowing a definite match to be made between design requirements and material
attributes.
The selection of a suitable material for the gear train was successfully implemented as
an information processing routine on a computer system. Only data input was required,
the application developed did the data manipulation and output a list of suitable
materials ranked in order of preference. The selection of UNS K11576 HSLA Steel was
therefore not based on past experience but on stepwise selection from first principles,
considering the design problem was new.
7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Documentation of concise and accurate information on the materials available in
the local market and their costs.
2. Future students to approach a local gear manufacturing industry to test and
check the workability of this materials selection system.
3. Future students to ensure full realization of an online materials selection portal
for all types of gears (bevel, worm and wheel).
4. Future students to develop this application further to incorporate other
engineering designs other than gear design so as to ensure that we have a onestop universal materials selection system.
61
7.4 REFERENCES AND APPENDICES

7.4.1 REFERENCES
1. MADARA OGOT and GL KREMER, Engineering Design. A Practical
Guide, Trafford Publishing Co., Inc, 2004.
2. RICHARD G. BUDYNAS AND J. KEITH NISBETT, Shigleys Mechanical Engineering
Design, 8th edition, McGraw Hill, 2008.
3. ODUORI, M.F, Class notes on gears for FME 212 Mechanics of Machines.
4. MICHAEL F. ASHBY, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 2nd Edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.
5. RADING, G. O, Concise Notes on Materials Science and Engineering, Trafford
Publishing, 2007.
6. WILLIAM D. CALLISTER, DAVID G. RETHWISCH, Materials Science and
Engineering: An Introduction, 7th Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2007.
7. TAHA, A. H, Operations Research. An introduction, 8th Edition. Prentice Hall of
India Private Ltd, 2008.
8. POPOV, E, Mechanics of Materials, Upper Saddle River Prentice-Hall, 1976.
9. A Metals Handbook, 9th Edition. Vol.3: Properties & Selection: Stainless Steels,
Tool Materials & Special Purpose Metals, American Society Of Manufacturing
Engineers (ASME).
10. Matweb.com, http://www.matweb.com
11. Metals Bank website, http://www.metalsbank.com
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failure_causes
13. Metals Handbook Desk Edition, Second Edition, American Society for Metals
(ASM), 1998.
62
7.4.2 APPENDICES
7.4.2.1 Tables
Table 7.1: Local Cost of Materials in Kshs per Kg
UNS Number
K11576
K02801
K01800
K02100
K02401
K02002
K02403
K02800
K01800
K02700
S40500
S41000
S40900
S44600
S40300
S43600
S30200
S44200
S34700
S32100
S31725
S31635
S43400
S30500
S31726
S34800
S21000
S20910
C89520
C89510
C61300
C60800
C61300
A95154
C11000
C10200
Material Name
HSLA Steel
A285-C Steel
A515-70 Steel
A516-60 Steel
A516-60 Steel
A515-55 Steel
AL516-65 Steel
A515-60 Steel
A516-55 Steel
A516-70 Steel
405 Stainless Steel
410 Stainless Steel
409 Stainless Steel
446 Stainless Steel
403 Stainless Steel
436 Stainless Steel
302 Stainless Steel
442 Stainless Steel
347 Stainless Steel
321 Stainless Steel
317LM Stainless Steel
316Ti Stainless Steel
434 Stainless Steel
305 Stainless Steel
317L4 Stainless Steel
348 Stainless Steel
201 Stainless Steel
22-13-5 Stainless Steel
EnviroBrass2
EnviroBrass1
Aluminium Bronze 7%
Aluminium Bronze 6%
Aluminium Bronze 7%
Aluminium 5154
ETP Copper
Oxygen free Copper
Form
Bar
Plate
Plate
Bar
Bar
Bar
Plate
Plate
Plate
Bar
Tube
Tube
Plate
Tube
Plate
Sheet
Plate
Plate
Bar
Bar
Bar
Plate
Plate
Plate
Bar
Plate
Plate
Bar
Casting
Casting
Sheet
Tube
Tube
Tube
Sheet
Sheet
Cost per kg
290
380
400
380
380
400
400
400
440
400
740
740
920
930
930
980
920
940
940
940
940
940
980
1020
1000
1035
1090
1150
1035
1150
1780
1670
1700
2010
2010
2025
63
C89320
C12200
A96061
C14200
A95086
A95083
A96063
C61400
A92024
A92014
A97075
DHP Copper
AL6061
DPA Copper
Aluminium 5086
Aluminium 5083
Aluminium 6063
Aluminium Bronze D
Aluminium 2024
Aluminium 2014
Aluminium 7075
Casting
Tube
Tube
Tube
Tube
Tube
Tube
Sheet
Tube
Tube
Tube
1610
2010
2070
2010
2130
2130
2050
1700
2010
2025
2540
Table 7.2: Materials Ranking Indices
UNS
Number
K11576
K02801
K01800
K02100
K02401
K02002
K02403
K02800
K01800
K02700
S40500
S41000
S40900
S44600
S40300
S43600
S30200
S44200
S34700
S32100
S31725
S31635
S43400
S30500
S31726
S34800
Material Name
HSLA Steel
A285-C Steel
A515-70 Steel
A516-60 Steel
A516-60 Steel
A515-55 Steel
AL516-65 Steel
A515-60 Steel
A516-55 Steel
A516-70 Steel
405 SS
410 SS
409 SS
446 SS
403 SS
436 SS
302 SS
442 SS
347 SS
321 SS
317LM SS
316Ti SS
434 SS
305 SS
317L4 SS
348 SS
Cost
index
1
0.7631579
0.725
0.7631579
0.7631579
0.725
0.725
0.725
0.6590909
0.725
0.3918919
0.3918919
0.3152174
0.311828
0.311828
0.2959184
0.3152174
0.3085106
0.3085106
0.3085106
0.3085106
0.3085106
0.2959184
0.2843137
0.29
0.2801932
Manufacturing Availability
index
Index
0.387096774
5
0.555555556
5
0.550458716
5
0.491803279
5
0.483870968
5
0.508474576
5
0.45112782
5
0.45112782
5
0.491803279
5
0.413793103
5
0.483870968
5
0.483870968
5
0.458015267
5
0.416666667
5
0.416666667
5
0.408163265
5
0.387096774
5
0.387096774
5
0.387096774
5
0.387096774
5
0.387096774
5
0.387096774
5
0.382165605
5
0.387096774
5
0.36809816
5
0.375
5
Composite
Index
3.13870968
3.07266082
3.05879587
3.06628559
3.06549236
3.05459746
3.04886278
3.04886278
3.02986215
3.04512931
2.93554926
2.93554926
2.90612761
2.90080645
2.90080645
2.89438776
2.89903576
2.8966884
2.8966884
2.8966884
2.8966884
2.8966884
2.89178799
2.88821948
2.88830982
2.88556763
64
S21000
S20910
C89520
C89510
C61300
C60800
C61300
A95154
C11000
C10200
C89320
C12200
A96061
C14200
A95086
A95083
A96063
C61400
A92024
A92014
A97075
201 SS
22-13-5 SS
EnviroBrass2
EnviroBrass1
AL Bronze 7%
AL Bronze 6%
AL Bronze 7%
AL5154
ETP Copper
Oxygen free Cu
DHP Copper
AL6061
DPA Copper
AL5086
AL5083
AL6063
AL Bronze D
AL2024
AL2014
AL7075
0.266055
0.2521739
0.2801932
0.2521739
0.1629213
0.1736527
0.1705882
0.1442786
0.1442786
0.1432099
0.1801242
0.1442786
0.1400966
0.1442786
0.1361502
0.1361502
0.1414634
0.1705882
0.1442786
0.1432099
0.1141732
0.307692308
0.295566502
0.882352941
0.909090909
0.612244898
0.75
0.659340659
1.034482759
1
0.967741935
0.923076923
0.923076923
0.923076923
0.895522388
0.857142857
0.779220779
0.731707317
0.631578947
0.5
0.444444444
0.4
5
5
5
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2.8738885
2.86781752
2.93630293
1.82916996
1.76824696
1.78577844
1.77563995
0.70394579
0.70049751
0.69689765
0.70535117
0.6928052
0.69134151
0.69004975
0.68336687
0.67557466
0.67268293
0.67286378
0.65049751
0.6445679
0.62996063
Hardness
(BHN)
155
108
109
122
124
118
133
133
122
145
124
124
131
144
144
147
155
Contact
stress
(MPa)
1.2053
0.10267
0.16515
0.11824
0.11824
0.42075
0.14072
0.14072
0.10267
0.20546
0.12078
0.44524
0.14072
0.18475
0.10807
0.3426
0.10639
Table 7.3: Materials properties
UNS
Number
K11576
K02801
K01800
K02100
K02401
K02002
K02403
K02800
K01800
K02700
S40500
S41000
S40900
S44600
S40300
S43600
S30200
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
690
205
260
220
220
415
240
240
205
290
205
405
240
275
205
365
205
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
795
380
485
415
414
550
450
450
380
485
415
415
450
485
485
530
515
Density
(Kg/m3)
7850
7850
7850
7850
7850
7850
7850
7850
7850
7850
7870
7870
7800
7870
7870
7870
7860
Elastic
Modulus
(GPa)
193
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
170
180
200
200
190
190
193
65
S44200
S34700
S32100
S31725
S31635
S43400
S30500
S31726
S34800
S21000
S20910
C89520
C89510
C61300
C60800
C61300
A95154
C11000
C10200
C89320
C12200
A96061
C14200
A95086
A95083
A96063
C61400
A92024
A92014
A97075
275
205
205
205
205
365
240
240
240
260
380
121
119
240
130
193
75
105
180
125
205
145
205
117
110
195
205
290
414
455
515
515
515
515
515
530
585
550
620
655
690
176
185
540
345
447
205
250
205
241
250
241
250
262
270
225
485
440
483
530
7870
8030
8030
8030
7860
7800
8000
8030
8000
8000
8030
7890
7890
7890
8170
7890
2660
8890
8940
7890
8940
2700
8910
2660
2660
2700
7890
2780
1800
2810
190
190
190
198
193
200
193
198
195
200
200
115
115
115
121
115
70
120
115
115
117
69
115
71
71
69
115
73
73
72
155
155
155
155
155
157
155
163
160
195
203
68
66
98
80
91
58
60
62
65
65
65
67
70
77
82
95
120
135
150
0.19448
0.10807
0.10807
0.1037
0.10639
0.32547
0.14582
0.14214
0.14432
0.16515
0.35277
0.06221
0.06017
0.24472
0.06824
0.15826
0.03926
0.04489
0.13766
0.06639
0.1755
0.14888
0.17855
0.0942
0.08327
0.26926
0.17855
0.56289
1.14718
1.40489
Table 7.4: Expressions for evaluating the velocity factor for different applications
Application
Pitch line
Velocity, g6
~E 5
Low
speed
Cut gear
Medium
speed
Surface finished
gear
5~10
Medium
speed
Surface finished
gear
10 ~ 20
Velocity
Factor, 8g
3.05

3.05 ~E

6.1
6.1 ~E
15
15 ~E
Type of Finish
Machining
Shaping
Machined and
ground
66
Fig. 7.1: Chart for obtaining the modified Lewis form factor (Y)
67
7.4.2.2 THE CODE

A. Code of the Index page
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
<head>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Materials Selection</title>
<link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" />
<style type="text/css">
<!-.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color: #000000; }
-->
</style>
</head>
<body>
<body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-11h06m27s26.png">
<div id="container">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1" align="center">
<h4>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM </h4>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="639" height="50" border="0" style="background-color:#C6C6FF" align="center";
border:solid 4px #990000;-moz-opacity:0.75;opacity:1.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<tr>
<td>
<div id="menu">
<ul>
<li>
<h2>Select Material</h2>
Reverted Compound Gear Train </h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="availablematerials.php">Spur</a>
</li>
<li><a href="">Helical</a></li>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
<h2> Material Database</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="MaterialsProperties.php"> View Database </a>
68
</li>
<li><a href="SearchMaterial.php"> Search Database </a>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
<h2> Administration</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="login.php">Add Materials</a></li>
<li><a href="login2.php">Edit Materials</a>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
</tr>
<tr>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
B. Code to connect to the database
<?php
$DbConn = mysql_connect("localhost","projectmech","wazito");
$Db = mysql_select_db("materialsselection",
$DbConn);
if(!$Db)
{
echo "Connection to DB was not successful";
}
else
{
}
?>
69
C. Code to display locally available materials

<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<head>
<title>Materials Properties</title> <link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"
/>
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color: #000000;} -->
</style>
</head>
<body><body bgcolor="#CC0000" background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21-11h06m27s26.png">
<div id="topPan">
<div id="title" class="style1" align="center"> <h4>
<a href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33" height="20" alt="" />
</a> MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM </li>
<li> Locally Available Materials</a>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="100%" border="0" align="center"style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF";
border:solid 4px #990000;-moz-opacity:1;opacity:1;
filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<thead>
<tr>
<td colspan="8" align="center">
<a href="GetProperties.php"><strong>CLICK HERE TO CALCULATE STRESSES</strong></a>
<?php
include 'DB.php';
$get_details="select * from materialproperties WHERE AvailabilityIndex > '1'";
$get_details_res=mysql_query($get_details) or die(mysql_error());
if (mysql_num_rows($get_details_res)<1)
{
//print message
$display_block = "<p>There are no details for material properties in the database try checking
later.</p>";
}
else
70
{
// get info and build display table
$display_block ="
<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1 width=98% font=medium> <tr>
<td >
<strong>Id</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>UNS Number </strong></td> <td>
<strong>Material Name</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>Form</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Yield Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Tensile Strength</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Density</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Elastic Modulus</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Hardness</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Availability index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Cost index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Manufacturing index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Composite index</strong></td>
</tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($get_details_res))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
$UNSNo=$info['UNSNo'];
$matN=$info['MaterialName'];
$Form=$info['FormId'];
$Yst=$info['YieldStrength'];
$Tst=$info['TensileStrength'];
$ava=$info['AvailabilityIndex'];
$cost=$info['CostIndex'];
$manu=$info['ManufacturingIndex'];
$compo=$info['CompositeIndex'];
$elas=$info['ElasticModulus'];
$had=$info['Hardness'];
$de=$info['Density'];
$display_block.="<tr>
<td align=centre>$id<br></td>
<td align=centre>$UNSNo<br></td>
<td align=centre>$matN<br></td>
<td align=centre>$Form<br></td>
<td align=centre>$Yst<br></td>
<td align=centre>$Tst<br></td>
<td align=centre>$de</td>
<td align=centre>$elas</td>
<td align=centre>$had</td>
<td align=centre>$ava</td>
<td align=centre>$cost</td>
<td align=centre>$manu</td>
71
<td align=centre>$compo</td>
</tr>";
}
$display_block.="</table>";
}
print "$display_block";
?>
</td>
</thead>
</table>
<div id="searchreport">
</tr>
<tr>
</tr>
</thead>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
D. Code to enter gear specifications
<?php include 'DB.php';?>
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<head>
/>
<script language="javascript" type="text/javascript" src="xmlhttprequest.js"> </script>
<script language="javascript" type="text/javascript" src="functions.js"> </script>
<script type="text/javascript" > function validateGetProperties
{
var reduction1 = document.getElementById('reduction1').value;
var reduction2 = document.getElementById('reduction2').value;
var speed = document.getElementById('speed').value;
var putpower = document.getElementById('power').value;
var teethpinion = document.getElementById('teethpinion').value;
var facewidth = document.getElementById('facewidth').value;
var length = document.getElementById('length').value;
var Error = "The following field(s) need to be attended to.\n";
var ErrorCounter = 0;
if( putpower == '') { Error += '-Please enter the Input power.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if( speed == '') { Error += '-Please enter the Input speed.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if( teethpinion == ''){ Error += '-Please enter the number of teeth in pinion.\n';
ErrorCounter +=1; }
72
if( reduction1 == '') { Error += '-Please enter the reduction 1.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if( reduction2 == '') { Error += '-Please enter the reduction 2.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if( length == '') { Error += '-Please enter the module.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if( facewidth == '') { Error += '-Please enter the Normalized facewidth.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1; }
if (ErrorCounter !=0)
{
alert(Error); return false;
}return true;
}
</script> <style type="text/css">
->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan">
<h4><a href="index.php" ><img name="" src="images/2.png" width="31" height="22" alt="" />
</a>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM </h4> </div>
</div> <div id="content">
<table
width="800"
height="315"
border="0"
align="center"style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF";border:solid4px
#990000;-mozopacity:0.5;opacity:0.5;filter:alpha(opacity=75);"
<formid="GetProperties"name="GetProperties"method="POST"action="getbestMaterials.php"
onsubmit="return validateGetProperties()">
<thead>
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<strong>CALCULATE BENDING AND CONTACT STRESSES</strong>
</td>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody >
<tr>
<td>Input Power </td>
<td><input type="text" name="power" id="power" /> kW</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Input Speed</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="speed" id="speed" /> rpm</label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Number of teeth Pinion</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="teethpinion" id="teethpinion" /> </label>
73
</td>
</tr>
<td width="185" >Gear Ratio </td>
<td width="399" >
<label>
<input type="text" name="reduction1" id="reduction1" size="10"/> : <input type="text"
name="reduction2" id="reduction2" size="10"/>
</label></td>
<tr>
tr> <tr>
<td>Module </td>
<td><label><input type="text" name="length" id="length"/> mm</label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Normalized Face Width </td>
<td>
<label><input type="text" name="facewidth" id="facewidth"/></label> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Preference </td>
<td> <select name="preference" id="preference"> <option value="0">All</option>
</select>
</td>
</tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" align="center">
<label>
<input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit" value="Calculate" />
</label></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</form>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
E. Code to calculate design stresses and display qualified materials
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Get best materials</title>
<script type="text/javascript" >
</script>
<style type="text/css"> <!-.style1 {font-size: 36px; color:#FFFFFF;}
74

-->
</style>
</head>
<body><bodybgcolor="#CC0000"background="vlcsnap-2012-03-21 11h06m27s26.png">
<div id="topPan">
<h4> <a href="index.php" >
<img name="" src="images/2.png" width="33" height="26" alt="" /></a>MATERIALS
SELECTION SYSTEM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="320" border="0" align="center style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF":solid4px #990000;-moz-opacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<tr>
<td>
<table width="647" border="1" >
<?php include 'DB.php';
?>
<?php
if(count($_POST))
{
$g1 = $_POST['reduction1'];
$g2 = $_POST['reduction2'];
$N = $_POST['speed'];
$h = $_POST['power'];
$b = $_POST['facewidth'];
$z = $_POST['teethpinion'];
$m = $_POST['length'];
if(count($_POST))
{
if (!$g1 | !$g2 | !$N | !$h | !$b | !$z | !$m)
{
echo "Ensure all fields are filled and try!.";
}
else
{
$g3 = $g1 / $g2; //gear ratio
$y = (0.154 - (0.912 / $z));
//start the expression for modified form Factor
$Y = (3.142 * $y);
$M = ($m * $m * $m / 1000000000);
//start the expression for Facewidth
$fw = $b * $m ;
//start conversion of speed from rpm into rads/sec
$w = (($N *2*3.142) / 60);
75
//start main formula

$D = ($b*$g3*$M*$Y*$w*$z); // Denominator of the formula
//real formula
$YIELD = $h*1000 / $D;
//for convenience, we divide the value above by 1000000 to match what we recorded in the
database.
$MATCHEDYIELD = $YIELD/1000000;
//echo "$MATCHEDYIELD";
//start calculating for contact stress
//we start by finding (velocity factor)kv needed in the formula
//denominator for kv is
$Dkv = (12.2 + ($w * $z * 0.001*$m));
//velocity factor(kv) is then given as
$kv = (12.2 / $Dkv);
//this will soon be needed
$g4 = ($g3 + 1);
//we will need the value of z as a square
$z2 = ($z*$z);
//now we embark on getting the value of the contact stress ka
//the numerator is given as
$Nka = ($h * $g4*1000);
// The denominator for ka is
$Dka = ($kv*$M*$b*$w*$z2);
//the contact stress is given as
$ka = ($Nka / $Dka);
//divide by 1000000 for consistency with the database
$Mka = ($ka / 1000000);
//work out some formula needed for selection of materials
//check in the database for values that meet this condition
$res = "SELECT * FROM materialproperties WHERE YieldStrength >='$MATCHEDYIELD' AND
ContactStress >='$Mka' AND AvailabilityIndex > '1' ORDER BY CompositeIndex DESC";
$result = mysql_query($res) or die(mysql_error());
}
?>
<tr>PARAMETERS USED</tr>
<tr><td align="center">Bending Stress(MPa)</td><td align="center">Contact Stress(MPa)
</td><td
align="center">
Modified
Formfactor(Y)</td><td
align="center">Velocity
Factor(Kv)</td><td align="center">Gear Ratio (G)</td><td align="center"> Face width(mm)
</td><td
align="center">Module(mm)</td><td
align="center">Speed(rads/s)</td><td
align="center">Power(kW)</td></tr>
<tr><td align="center"><?php echo "$MATCHEDYIELD"; ?> </td><td
echo "$Mka"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo "$Y"; ?></td><td
echo "$kv"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo "$g3"; ?></td><td
echo "$fw"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo "$m"; ?></td><td
echo "$w"; ?></td><td align="center"><?php echo "$h"; ?></td></tr>
align="center"><?php
76
</table>
</td> </tr> <tr>
<td>
<table>
<thead>
<td>
<?php
if (mysql_num_rows($result)<1)
{
//print message
$display_block = "<p>No results were found for your search.</p>";
}
else
{
$display_block ="
<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1 width=98%>
<tr>QUALIFIED MATERIALS</tr>
<tr>
<td>
<strong>UNS Number</strong> </td> <td>
<strong>Material Name </strong></td> <td>
</tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($result))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
77
</tr>";
}
}
}
}
?>
</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
F. Code to view the material database
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<head>
/>
78

-->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan">
</a>MATERIALS SELECTION SYSTEM </h4>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="100%" border="0" align="center"style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF";
<thead>
<tr>
<strong>MATERIALS PROPERTIES </strong>
<?php
include 'DB.php';
$get_details="select * from materialproperties";
{
//print message
later.</p>";
}
else
{
$display_block ="<table cellpadding=3 cellspacing=2 border=1 width=98% font=medium>
<tr>
<td >
<strong>UNS Number </strong></td> <td>
<strong>Material Name</strong> </td> <td>
79

</tr>";
{
$id=$info['Id'];
</tr>";
}
}
?>
</td>
</thead>
</table>
</tr>
<tr>
80
</tr>
</thead>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
G. Code to search materials
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<title>search for materials</title>
</script>
-->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan">
SELECTION SYSTEM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table
width="100%"
height="320"
border="0"
align="center"style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF";
border:solid
4px
#990000;-mozopacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<tr>
<td>
<table width="647" >
?>
<form
id="searchMaterials"
name="searchMaterials"
method="POST"
action="SearchMaterial.php">
<tr>
<td colspan="4"><strong>SEARCH MATERIALS DATABASE </strong>
</td> </tr>
<tr>
81
<td width="136" >UNS Number</td>

<td width="181" ><input type="text" name="UNSNo" id="UNSNo" />
</td>
<td width="143" >Yield Strength</td>
<td width="167" ><label> <input type="text" name="ystrength" id="ystrength" />
</label></td>
</tr> <tr>
<td>Material Name </td>
<td><input type="text" name="material" id="material" /></td>
<td>Tensile Strength </td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="tstrength" id="tstrength" />
</label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Form</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="formId" id="formId" />
</label></td>
<td>Density</td>
<td>
<input type="text" name="density" id="density" /></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Elastic Modulus </td>
<td><input type="text" name="elastic" id="elastic"/></td>
<td>Hardness</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="hardness" id="hardness"/> </label>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td> </td>
<td><input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit" value="Search" /></td>
<td><label></label></td>
</tr> <tr>
<td colspan="4" align="center"><label></label></td>
</tr> </form> </table>
</td> </tr> <tr>
<td>
<table>
<?php
if(count($_POST))
{
$UNSNo = $_POST['UNSNo'];
$material = $_POST['material'];
82
$formId = $_POST['formId'];
$ystrength = $_POST['ystrength'];
$tstrength = $_POST['tstrength'];
$density = $_POST['density'];
$hardness = $_POST['hardness'];
$elastic = $_POST['elastic']; }
$search_parts="";
$Sql="";
$counter =0;
$res = "SELECT * FROM materialproperties";
if(count($_POST))
{
if ($UNSNo !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE UNSNo LIKE '%$UNSNo%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND UNSNo LIKE '%$UNSNo%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if
($material !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE MaterialName LIKE '%$material%'";
}
else { $search_parts.=" AND MaterialName LIKE '%$material%'";
}
$counter ++; }
if ($formId !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE FormId LIKE '%$formId%'";
}
else
{ $search_parts.=" AND FormId LIKE '%$formId%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($ystrength !='')
{
83
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE YieldStrength LIKE '%$ystrength%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND YieldStrength LIKE '%$ystrength%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($tstrength !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE TensileStrength LIKE '%$tstrength%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND TensileStrength LIKE '%$tstrength%'";
} $counter ++; } if ($density !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE Density LIKE '%$density%'";
}
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND Density LIKE '%$density%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($hardness !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE Hardness LIKE '%$hardness%'"; }
else
{
$search_parts.=" AND Hardness LIKE '%$hardness%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
if ($elastic !='')
{
if ($counter==0)
{
$search_parts=" WHERE ElasticModulus LIKE '%$elastic%'";
84
}
else
{
$search_parts=" AND ElasticModulus LIKE '%$elastic%'";
}
$counter ++;
}
$search_order="ORDER BY CompositeIndex DESC";
$Sql= $res."".$search_parts."".$search_order;
}
else
{
$Sql=$res;
}
$result = mysql_query($Sql) or die(mysql_error());
//Execute the SQL query
?>
<thead>
<td>
<?php
if (mysql_num_rows($result)<1)
{
//print message
$display_block = "<p>No results were found for your search.</p>";
}
else
{
$display_block ="
<tr>
<td>
<strong>manufacturing index</strong></td> <td>
85
</tr>";
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($result))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
</tr>";
}
}
?>
</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
86
</div>
</body>
</html>
H. Code for login1 to Add materials properties
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<title>login-addmaterials</title>
</script>
-->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan">
SELECTION SYSTEM LOGIN FORM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table
width="100%"
height="320"
border="1"
border:solid
4px
<tr>
<td>
<tr><tr><p>Hi, to add materials, you must be logged in. fill the form below</p></td></tr>
?>
<form method="POST" action="engineer.php"><table border="1" align="center" ><tr>
<td><span class="style5"><label for="email"><strong>Username</strong></
</span><input type="text" name="username" id="search-text" size="30" /></td> <td><span
class="style5">
<label><strong>Password</strong></label></span>
<input type="password" name="password" id="password"/></td><td>
<input type="submit" id="search-submit" value="login" /></td></tr></table>
</form></table></td> </tr>
<tr>
87
<td>
<table>
<thead>
<td>
</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
I. Code for login 2( Editing materials)
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<title>login-remove_materials</title>
</script>
-->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan"> <div id="title" class="style1" align="center">
SELECTION SYSTEM LOGIN FORM </h4> </div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table
width="100%"
height="320"
border="1"
align="center"style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF";border:solid4px#990000;-mozopacity:0.75;opacity:0.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);" >
<tr>
<td>
<tr><tr><p>Hi, to add materials, you must be logged in. fill the form below</p></td></tr>
?>
88
<form method="POST" action="engineer2.php"><table border="1" align="center" ><tr>

<td><span class="style5"> <label for="email"><strong>Username</strong></label>
</span><input type="text" name="username" id="search-text" size="30" /></td>
<td><span class="style5">
<label><strong>Password</strong></label></span><input
type="password"
name="password" id="password"/></td><td>
<input type="submit" id="search-submit" value="login" /></td></tr></table>
</form></table></td> </tr>
<tr>
<td>
<table>
<thead>
<td>
</tbody>
</table>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
J. Code to link the login 1 with the database
<?php
//ensure that all fields have been filled
include 'DB.php';
if($_POST['username']!="" | $_POST['password']!="")
{
$username = $_POST['username'];
$password = $_POST['password'];
$querytrylogin = "select * from login where username = '$username' And password =
'password' ";
$resultlogin = mysql_query($querytrylogin) or
die ( mysql_error() );
$row = mysql_fetch_row($resultlogin);
if(isset($row[0]))
{
header ("location: AddMaterials.php");
exit;
}
else
{
die('Wrong username or password');
exit;
}
}
else
89
{
}
?>
K. Code to link the login2 with the database
<?php
//ensure that all fields have been filled
include 'DB.php';
if($_POST['username']!="" | $_POST['password']!="")
{
$username = $_POST['username'];
$password = $_POST['password'];
$querytrylogin = "select * from login where username = '$username' And password =
'$password' ";
$resultlogin = mysql_query($querytrylogin) or
die ( mysql_error() );
$row = mysql_fetch_row($resultlogin);
if(isset($row[0]))
{
header ("location: AddMaterials.php");
exit;
}
else
{
exit;
}
}
else
{
}
?>
L. Code to add materials in the database
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type"
content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Adding Materials</title>
<script type="text/javascript" > function validateAddProperties()
{
var UNSNo = document.getElementById('UNSNo').value;
var material = document.getElementById('material').value;
var formId = document.getElementById('formId').value;
90
var ystrength = document.getElementById('ystrength').value;

var tstrength = document.getElementById('tstrength').value;
var density = document.getElementById('density').value;
var hardness = document.getElementById('hardness').value;
var elastic = document.getElementById('elastic').value;
if( UNSNo == '')
{
Error += '-Please enter the UNSNo number.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( material == '')
{
Error += '-Please enter the material name.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( formId == '') { Error += '-the form field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( ystrength == '') { Error += '-the yield strength field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( tstrength == '') { Error += '-the tensile strength field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( density == '') { Error += '-the density field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( hardness == '') { Error += '-the hardness field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( elastic == '') { Error += '-elasticity field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
{
}
return true;
} </script> <style type="text/css">
-->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan">
91

</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table
width="639"
height="315"
border="0"
align="center"style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF";border:solid
4px
?>
<form id="AddMaterials"
name="AddMaterials"
method="POST"
action="Save.php" onsubmit="return validateAddProperties()">
<tr>
<td colspan="2">
<strong>ADD MATERIALS PROPERTIES</strong>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="399" ><label>
<input type="text" name="UNSNo" id="UNSNo" />
</label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Material Name </td>
<td>
<label><input type="text" name="material" id="material" /></label>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Form</td>
<td>
<select name="formId" id="formId">
<option> Please Select </option>
<option> Plate </option>
<option> Sheet </option>
<option> Tube </option>
<option> casting </option>
<option> Bar </option>
<option> ANN </option>
</select>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Yield Strength(MPa) </td>
<td>
92
<label> <input type="text" name="ystrength" id="ystrength" />

</label>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Tensile Strength(MPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="tstrength" id="tstrength" />
</label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Density (Kg/M^3)</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="density" id="density" /> </label>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Young's Modulus(GPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="elastic" id="elastic"/> </label>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Hardness</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="hardness" id="hardness"/> </label></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Availability index</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="availabilityindex" id="availabilityindex"/> </label></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Cost index</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="costindex" id="costindex"/> </label></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Manufacturing index</td>
<td><label>
<input
type="text"
name="manufacturingindex"
id="Manufacturingindex"/>
</label></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Composite index</td>
<td><label>
93
<input type="text" name="compositeindex" id="Compositeindex"/> </label></td>

</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><label>
<input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit" value="Save" /> </label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td
colspan="2"
align=centre><a
href="adminMaterialsProperties.php">Edit
materials</a></td>
</tr>
</form>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
M. Code to save materials in the database

<title>Save materials to db</title><?php
include 'DB.php';
$elastic = $_POST['elastic'];
$availability = $_POST['availabilityindex'];
$cost = $_POST['costindex'];
$manufacturing = $_POST['manufacturingindex'];
$composite = $_POST['compositeindex'];
//calculate for allowable contact stress
$Yst2 = ($ystrength*$ystrength);
$allowableka = 0.0004886 *$Yst2 / $elastic;
$sql=
mysql_query("INSERT
INTO
materialproperties(UNSNo,MaterialName,FormId,YieldStrength,TensileStrength,Density,Elastic
Modulus,Hardness,AvailabilityIndex,CostIndex,ManufacturingIndex,CompositeIndex,ContactStr
ess)
VALUES('$UNSNo','$material','$formId','$ystrength','$tstrength','$density','$elastic','$hardness',
'$availability','$cost','$manufacturing','$composite','$allowableka')")
or die(mysql_error());
if(!$sql) {
echo "error in saving";
94
}
else
{
echo "Material details were successfully saved in the database";
}
?>
N. Code to Administrations materials view
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<head>
<title>Admin for Materials Properties</title> <link href="css/styles.css" rel="stylesheet"
type="text/css" />
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color: #000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan">
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
<table width="100%" height="100%" border="0" align="center"style="backgroundcolor:#C6C6FF;
<thead>
<tr>
<strong>ADMIN'S MATERIALS VIEW </strong>
<?php
include 'DB.php';
$get_details="select * from materialproperties";
{
//print message
95
later.</p>";
}
else
{
$display_block ="
<tr>
<td>
<strong>Composite index</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Edit</strong></td> <td>
<strong>Remove</strong></td>
</tr>";
{
$id=$info['Id'];
96
<td align=centre><a href=\"edit_material.php?id=$id\">Edit</a></td>
<td align=centre><a href=\"remove_material.php?id=$id\">Delete</a></td>
</tr>";
}
}
?>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
</tr>
</thead>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
O. Code to edit materials in the database
<!DOCTYPE
html
PUBLIC
"-//W3C//DTD
XHTML
1.0
Transitional//EN"
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type"
content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
<title>Edit db Materials</title>
<script type="text/javascript" > function validateAddProperties()
{
var UNSNo = document.getElementById('UNSNo').value;
var material = document.getElementById('material').value;
var formId = document.getElementById('formId').value;
var ystrength = document.getElementById('ystrength').value;
var tstrength = document.getElementById('tstrength').value;
var density = document.getElementById('density').value;
var hardness = document.getElementById('hardness').value;
var elastic = document.getElementById('elastic').value;
97

if( UNSNo == '')
{
Error += '-Please enter the UNSNo number.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( material == '')
{
Error += '-Please enter the material name.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( formId == '') { Error += '-the form field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( ystrength == '') { Error += '-the yield strength field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( tstrength == '') { Error += '-the tensile strength field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( density == '') { Error += '-the density field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( hardness == '')
{ Error += '-the hardness field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
if( elastic == '') { Error += '-elasticity field is empty.\n'; ErrorCounter +=1;
}
{
}
return true;
} </script> <style type="text/css">
.style4 {font-size: 36px; color: #000000; } -->
</style>
</head>
<div id="topPan">
</div>
</div>
<div id="content">
98
<table
width="639"
height="315"
border="1"
border:solid
4px
<?php
include 'DB.php';
if($_GET['id']!="")
{
$select_row ="select * from materialproperties where Id=$_GET[id]";
$rows=mysql_query($select_row) or die(mysql_error());
if (mysql_num_rows($rows)<1)
{
echo "No items were selected for editing";
}
else
{
while($info=mysql_fetch_array($rows))
{
$id=$info['Id'];
}
}
?>
<form id="AddMaterials"
name="AddMaterials"
method="POST"
action="Save2.php" onsubmit="return validateAddProperties()">
<tr> <td colspan="2">
<strong>EDIT MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR ID (<?php echo $id; ?>) IN THE
DATABASE</strong>
</td><td>Previous values</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td width="185" >Id</td> <td width="399" ><label><input type="text" name="Id" id="newId"
/>(Use default Id)<td>
<?php
99
echo $id; ?></td></label></td> </tr>

<tr>
<td width="399" ><label>
<input type="text" name="UNSNo" id="UNSNo" /> </label></td>
<td><?php echo $UNSNo; ?></td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Material Name </td> <td>
<label><input type="text" name="material" id="material" />
</label>
</td> <td><?php echo $matN; ?></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Form</td>
<td>
<select name="formId" id="formId">
<option> Please Select </option>
<option> Plate </option>
<option> Sheet </option>
<option> Tube </option>
<option> casting </option>
<option> Bar </option>
<option> ANN </option>
</select>
</td> <td><?php echo $Form; ?></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Yield Strength(MPa) </td>
<td>
<label> <input type="text" name="ystrength" id="ystrength" />
</label>
</td><td><?php echo $Yst; ?></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Tensile Strength(MPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="tstrength" id="tstrength" />
</label></td><td><?php echo $Tst; ?></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Density (Kg/M^3)</td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="density" id="density" /> </label>
</td><td><?php echo $de; ?></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Young's Modulus(GPa) </td>
<td><label> <input type="text" name="elastic" id="elastic"/> </label>
</td><td><?php echo $elas; ?></td>
100
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Hardness</td>
<td><label>
<input type="text" name="hardness" id="hardness"/> </label></td> <td><?php echo
$had; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Availability index</td>
<td><label>
<input
type="text"
name="availabilityindex"
id="availabilityindex"/>
</label></td><td><?php echo $ava; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Cost index</td>
<td><label
<input type="text" name="costindex" id="costindex"/> </label></td>
<td><?php echo $cost; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Manufacturing index</td>
<td><label>
<input
type="text"
name="manufacturingindex"
id="Manufacturingindex"/>
</label></td><td><?php echo $manu; ?></td>
</tr>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Composite index</td>
<td><label>
<input
type="text"
name="compositeindex"
id="Compositeindex"/>
</label></td><td><?php echo $compo; ?></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" align="center"><label>
<input type="submit" name="Submit" id="Submit" value="Save" /> </label></td>
<td colspan="2"><label>
<a href="adminMaterialsProperties.php">Back</label></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td colspan="2" align=centre>Use previous values if no change is to be made.</td>
</tr>
</form>
<?php } ?>
</table>
101
</div>
</div>
</body>
</html>
P. Code to save edited materials
<title>Save materials to db</title>
<?php
include 'DB.php';
$id = $_POST['Id'];
$elastic = $_POST['elastic'];
$availability = $_POST['availabilityindex'];
$cost = $_POST['costindex'];
$manufacturing = $_POST['manufacturingindex'];
$composite = $_POST['compositeindex'];
//calculate for allowable contact stress
$Yst2 = ($ystrength*$ystrength);
$allowableka = 0.0004886 *$Yst2 / $elastic;
//Density=$density,ElasticModulus=$elastic,Hardness=$hardness,AvailabilityIndex=$availabilit
y,CostIndex=$cost,ManufacturingIndex=$manufacturing,
//CompositeIndex=$composite,ContactStress=$allowableka
// WHERE Id=$id;
//
$sql=mysql_query("REPLACE
INTO
materialproperties
(Id,UNSNo,MaterialName,FormId,YieldStrength,TensileStrength,Density,ElasticModulus,Hardne
ss,AvailabilityIndex,CostIndex,ManufacturingIndex,CompositeIndex,
ContactStress)
VALUES('$id','$UNSNo','$material','$formId','$ystrength','$tstrength','$density','$elastic','$hardn
ess','$availability','$cost','$manufacturing','$composite','$allowableka')")
or die(mysql_error());
if(!$sql) {
echo "error in saving";
}
else
{
echo " properties for the row selected were updated in the database.";
}
?>
102
Q. Code to delete materials in database

<?php
include 'DB.php';
if($_GET['id']!="")
{
$delete_item="delete from materialproperties where Id=$_GET[id]";
mysql_query($delete_item) or die(mysql_error());
header("location: adminMaterialsProperties.php");
exit;
}
else
{
header("location: login.php");
exit;
}
?>
R. Code for cascading style sheet
/* CSS Document */
body{padding:0px; margin:0px; background:#31DDCC 0 0 repeat-x; color:#000033
font:10px/14px Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;}
#container{width:100%; margin:0 auto; position:relative; border-right-color:#660000; borderbottom-color:#660000; border-left-color:#660000; outline-color:#000099;}
#incontent{width:632px; position:relative;}
#content{width:100%; height:100%; position:relative; background:url(../images/gear7.jpg); }
#heading{width:678px; position:relative; clear:both; height:50px; background:#FEE7EB;
background-image:url(../images/transbg.gif); 0 0 no-repeat}
#title{width:632px; position:relative; margin:0 auto}
.button a{font:10px/14px Tahoma, sans-serif; color:#FFFFFF; text-decoration :underline; }
#topPan{width:100%; position:relative; clear:both; height:80px}
#logo{position:absolute; top:107px; right:29px}
/*menu*/
#menu {
width: 100%;
background: #eee;
float: left;
}
#menu ul {
list-style: none;
margin: 0;
padding: 0;
width: 12em;
float: left;
}
#menu a, #menu h2 {
103
font: bold 11px/16px arial, helvetica, sans-serif;

display: block;
border-width: 1px;
border-style: solid;
border-color: #ccc #888 #555 #bbb;
margin: 0;
padding: 2px 3px;
}
#menu h2 {
color: #fff;
background: #000;
text-transform: uppercase;
}
#menu a {
color: #000;
background: #efefef;
text-decoration: none;
}
#menu a:hover {
color: #a00;
background: #fff;
}
#menu li {position: relative;}
#menu ul ul ul {
position: absolute;
top: 0;
left: 100%;
}
#menu ul ul {
position: absolute;
z-index: 500;
}
div#menu ul ul {
display: none;
}
div#menu ul li:hover ul
{display: block;}
div#menu ul ul,
div#menu ul li:hover ul ul,
div#menu ul ul li:hover ul ul
{display: none;}
div#menu ul li:hover ul,
div#menu ul ul li:hover ul,
div#menu ul ul ul li:hover ul
{display: block;}
104

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FINAL YEAR PROJECT

SUPERVISED BY: PROF. M. F. ODUORI

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL AND

MOGAKA DAVIDSON ONCHANA

MOMANYI GODFREY MARAMBE

Copyright 2012 Mogaka & Marambe

Standards And Codes .................................................................................................................. 2

Chapter Two ...................................................................................................................................... 3

Overview Of The Engineering Design Process .................................................................. 4

Material Selection ......................................................................................................................... 6

Materials Selection Process ............................................................................................. 7

Factors Influencing Materials Selection ...................................................................... 9

Material Properties .................................................................................................................... 17

Categories Of Engineering Materials................................................................................... 18

Metallic Materials .............................................................................................................. 19

Non-Metallic Materials .................................................................................................... 24

Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................... 27

Rank Order: Pair Wise Comparison Charts.............................................................. 27

Relative Order: Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) .............................................. 28

Information Processing ............................................................................................................ 29

Chapter Five .................................................................................................................................... 31

Gearing Terminology ........................................................................................................ 34

Design Considerations For A Gear Train .................................................................. 35

Modes Of Gear Failure ...................................................................................................... 36

Reverted Compound Gear Train Design ............................................................................ 36

The Design Constraints.................................................................................................... 38

Chapter Six ....................................................................................................................................... 46

Material Ranking Indices ......................................................................................................... 46

Support Information ................................................................................................................. 48

Materials Selection System ..................................................................................................... 48

Database Structure ............................................................................................................ 49

Material Selection System .............................................................................................. 51

Chapter Seven: Closure ............................................................................................................... 59

References and Appendices.................................................................................................... 62

To develop an online materials selection process that will be based on the

To develop a knowledge intensive methodology for screening and ranking

To implement the materials selection process so developed as an information

To document and evaluate the materials selection process so developed by

1.2 STANDARDS AND CODES

Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design

REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON DESIGN, MATERIALS SELECTION

2.2 OVERVIEW OF THE ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS

2.2.1 Recognition of need

2.2.2 Problem definition

2.2.3 Conceptual design

2.2.4 Preliminary design and evaluation

2.2.5 Detailed design

2.2.7 Design Reviews

2.3 MATERIAL SELECTION

Japanese union of scientists and engineers.

leading role. For an engineering project on a tight schedule, material availability is

b) Go/no-go parameters. These are minimum or maximum property values

2.3.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING MATERIALS SELECTION

2.3.2.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Mechanical failure modes

Ashby, M.F., 1999

2.3.2.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

2.3.2.3 COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES (COST AND AVAILABILITY)

2.3.2.4 REGULATORY PROPERTIES

LITERATURE REVIEW ON ENGINEERING MATERIALS, THEIR

3.2 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

(corrosion). Specialized simulation tests are developed to screen materials for

Root diameter (D ) is the diameter of the root circle.5 Thus 2

?( @( 91): )1: <=:3) A

KL( K( XYZ ; Fr1 K( Z[\

'( .( U( J' '3( .)( U( J'

'* .* U* J' '3* .)* U* J'