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In order to linearize general nonlinear systems, we will use the Taylor Series expansion of functions.
Consider a function f (x) of a single variable x, and suppose that x
is a point such that f (
x) = 0. In this
case, the point x
is called an equilibrium point of the system x = f (x), since we have x = 0 when x = x
df
f (x) = f (
x) +
(x x
) + higher order terms.
dx
| {zx=x}
a
j=1
j=1
Note: Sometimes the notation is dropped in the linearized equation, with the implicit understanding
that we are working with a linearized system.
Example. Linearize the nonlinear state-space model
x 1 = x21 + sin x2 1
x 2 = x32 + u
y = x1 + x2
around the equilibrium point x
1 = 1, x2 = 0, u = 0.
Solution.
Since we can generally convert nonlinear models to a linear model (in a small region around the equilibrium
point), we will focus on linear state-space models of the form
x = Ax + Bu,
x Rn , u Rm , y Rp
y = Cx .
for the rest of the course. Since this model represents a linear system, we can ask how the matrices A, B
and C relate to the transfer function of the system. To see this, take the Laplace Transform of the above
state space equations:
sX(s) x(0) = AX(s) + BU(s)
Y(s) = CX(s) .
Note that this includes the initial conditions of all the states. The first equation can be rearranged to solve
for X(s) as follows:
(sI A)X(s) = x(0) + BU(s) X(s) = (sI A)1 x(0) + (sI A)1 BU(s) .
The term I represents the n n identity matrix. Substituting this into the equation for Y(s), we obtain
Y(s) = C(sI A)1 x(0) + C(sI A)1 BU(s) .
Note that H(s) is a p m matrix, and thus it is a generalization of the transfer function for standard
single-input single-output systems. In fact, it is a matrix where entry i, j is a transfer function describing
how the jth input affects the ith output. When p = 1 and m = 1, we get the transfer function that we
studied in the first part of the course.
Example. Calculate the transfer function for the state space model
0
1
0
x =
x+
u, y = 1 0 x .
2 3
4
| {z }
|
{z
}
|{z}
C
A
Solution.
Note that the above solution agrees with the transfer function at the beginning of the section.