Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
George Backus
Insitute for Geophysics and Planetary Physics
University of California, San Diego
S
Samizdat
Press
Continuum Mechanics
George Backus
S
Samizdat Press
and
New England Research
76 Olcott Drive
White River Junction, Vermont 05001
Contents
Dictionary
D-1
PP-3
1 Multilinear Mappings
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
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3
4
6
7
11
4 Tensor Products
13
17
21
25
25
25
ii
CONTENTS
4.3 Polyads : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Polyad bases : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Components of a tensor relative to a basis sequence:
Changing bases : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Properties of component arrays : : : : : : : : : : :
Symmetries of component arrays : : : : : : : : : :
Examples of component arrays : : : : : : : : : : : :
:::::::
Denition :
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28
31
31
33
35
36
37
38
41
47
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
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47
50
51
57
67
67
71
73
76
80
89
89
95
102
105
108
CONTENTS
iii
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11 Integral Identities
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
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119
119
119
120
123
127
127
128
130
131
132
134
135
139
141
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
Discrete systems : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Continua : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Physical quantities : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Derivatives of physical quantities : : : : : :
Rigid body motion : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Relating continuum models to real materials
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141
142
144
147
151
159
163
iv
CONTENTS
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
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165
168
168
182
187
195
195
200
209
210
210
214
215
222
224
227
231
235
15 Constitutive Relations
249
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Elastic materials : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
Small disturbances of an HTES : : : : : : : :
Small disturbances in a perfectly elastic earth
Viscous uids : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
III Exercises
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249
252
256
265
272
279
DICTIONARY
D-1
Logic
) \implies" (e.g. A ) B where A and B are sentences.)
, \implies and is implied by" (e.g. A , B where A and B are sentences.)
i \if and only if" | same as ,
:= \is dened as"
8 \for every"
9 \there exists at least one"
91 \there exists exactly one"
3 \such that"
fa1 : : : a6 g is a set of objects. Order is irrelevant, and fa1 a2 a3g = fa2 a1 a3g =
fa3 a1 a2g, etc. Duplication is not permitted. All a are dierent.
(a1 : : : 6 a4 : : : a6) := (a1 a2 a3 a5 a6).
D-2
DICTIONARY
>
>
>
>
:
nA := the set of all ordered n tuples (a1 : : : an) with a1 a2 : : : an all members of A.
Same as A
: : :
A (n times).
DICTIONARY
D-3
Functions
Function is an ordered pair (Df f ). Df is a set, called the \domain" of the function,
and f is a rule which assigns to each d 2 Df an object f (d). This object is called
the \value" of f at d. The function (Df f ) is usually abbreviated simply as f . In
the expression f (d), d is the \argument" of f .
Range of function is a set Rf consisting of all objects which are values of f . Two
equivalent denitions of Rf are
Rf := fx : 9d 2 Df 3 x = f (d)g
or
Rf := ff (d) : d 2 Df g :
f = g for functions means Df = Dg and for each d 2 D, f (d) = g(d).
f (W ) for a function f and a set W is dened as ff (w) : w 2 W g. If W \ Df =6 0 then
f (W ) =6 0.
d j! f (d) is a shorthand way of describing a function. For example, if Df = R and
f (x) = x2 for all x 2 R, we can describe f by saying simply x j! x2 under f . In
particular, 2 j! 4 under f .
f jW is the \restriction" of f to W . It is dened whenever W is a subset of Df . It is the
function (W g) such that for each w 2 W , g(w) = f (w). Its domain is W .
D-4
DICTIONARY
Df
f
f
-1
r
Rf
r = f(d ),
-1
d = f (r )
Figure D-1:
Then g is often written f ( v0), and h is often written f (u0 ). The dot shows where
to put the argument of the function.
a2A f (a)
IU , the identity function on the set U , has domain U and eect u j ! u. That is,
IU (u) = u, 8u 2 U .
DICTIONARY
D-5
Mappings
A Mapping is an ordered triple (U V f ) in which U and V are sets, f is a function,
Df = U , and Rf V . We say that \the function f maps U into V ." The mapping
is often abbreviated simply as f if the context makes clear what U and V are.
f : U ! V is the usual way of writing the mapping (U V f ) if one wants to note explicitly
what U and V are. The symbol \f : U ! V " is read \the mapping f of U into V ."
It can also stand for the sentence \f is a function which maps U into V ." In this
latter usage it is equivalent to \f (U ) V ."
F (U ! V ) := the set of all functions mapping U into V .
D-6
DICTIONARY
(D-1)
Permutations
A permutation is a bijection : 1 : : : n ! f1 : : : ng. It is an \n-permutation" or a
\permutation of degree n."
Sn := the set of all n-permutations. It has n! members. The product of two permutations and is dened to be their composition, . If e = If1:::ng then
e = e = and ;1 = ;1 = e for all 2 Sn. These facts, and the above notes
on pg. iv, make Sn a group under the multiplication dened by = . It is
called the symmetric group of degree n. Its identity is e.
(i j ) transposition or interchange. If i 6= j and 1 i j n (i.e. fi j g f1 : : : ng) then
(i j ) stands for the permutation 2 Sn such that (i) = j , (j ) = i, and (k) = k
if k 62 fi j g. This permutation is called the \transposition" or \interchange" of i
and j . Note that (ij ) (ij ) = e, the identity permutation.
DICTIONARY
D-7
write as a product of transpositions, but all have the same parity (i.e., all involve
an even number of transpositions or all involve an odd number of transpositions.)
even, odd. If 2 Sn, is even or odd according as it can be written as the product of
an even or an odd number of transpositions.
Arrays
An array of order q is a function f whose domain is
Df = f1 : : : n1g
: : :
f1 : : : nq g:
The array is said to have dimension n1
n2
: : :
nq .
z n factors
}|
{
is the n-dimensional alternating symbol. It is an n
n
: : :
n array, with nn
entries, all 0 or +1 or ;1. It is dened as follows:
D-8
DICTIONARY
) = 0 if any of i : : : i are equal i.e., if fi : : : i g 6= f1 : : : ng.
"i(1n:::i
1
n
1
n
n
(n = 2)
ii) If an index appears twice in any expression but a sum or dierence, a sum over
all possible values of that index is understood. Thus, if Aij is an n
n array,
Aii stands for Pni=1 Aii. If ui and vj are rst order arrays of dimension n, uivi
stands for Pni=1 uivi , and ui=vi stands for Pni=1 ui=vi, but ui + vi and ui ; vi
stand for the i'th entries in two arrays, not for Pi(ui + vi) or Pi(ui ; vi ).
iii) If an index appears three or more times in an expression other than a sum or
dierence, a mistake has been made. Thus, if Aijkl is an n
n
n
n array,
Aiiii is never written alone. The sum is written out as Pni=1 Aiiii.
iv) Parentheses \protect" an index from the conventions. Thus, A(ii) refers to a
particular element in the array, the one at location (ii). And v(i) = w(i) means
equality only for the particular value of i under discussion, not for all possible
values of i. The element Aiiii in an n
n
n
n array is written A(iiii) to
DICTIONARY
D-9
make clear that no sum is intended. Strictly speaking, the denition of the
Kronecker delta, using these conventions, reads (ij) = 0 if i 6= j , and (ii) = 1
for all i.
An array A of order r is symmetric (antisymmetric) in its p'th and q'th indices
if they have the same dimension, np = nq , and
z n factors
}|
{
5. If Ai1 :::in is an n
n
: : :
n array which is totally antisymmetric, there
is a constant such that
Ai1 :::in = "i1:::in :
6. "i1:::in "j1:::jn = P2Sn (sgn) i1j(1) : : : i1 j(n) (The Polar Identity). The
two special cases of interest to us are
n = 2: "ij "kl = ik jl ; il jk which implies "ij "kj = jk and "ij "ij = 2
n = 3:
D-10
DICTIONARY
7.
which implies "ijk "lmk = il jm ;im jl and "ijk "ljk = 2il and "ijk "ijk =
6.
Some applications of "i1 :::ln are these. If Aij is a real or complex n
n
array whose determinant is det A, then
~u ~v = uivi
~u
~v = x^i"ijk uj vk or
(~u
~v)i := x^i (~u
~v) = "ijk uj vk :
If ~r = rix^i is the position vector in real three-space, R3 , and w~ : R3 ! R3
is a vector eld, with
Remark 1 Suppose Aijk :::kp is antisymmetric in i and j , while Sijl :::lq is symmetric in
1
i and j . Then
Aijk1:::kP Sijl1:::lq = 0:
Proof:
The subscripts k and l are irrelevant, so we omit them. We have Aij Sij =
;AjiSji because Aij = ;Aji and Sij = Sji. Now replace the summation index
DICTIONARY
D-11
of rational numbers, and the set of numbers a + b 2, where a and b are rational.
We will use only the elds R and C , and usually F = R.
~u + ~v : = ad(~u~v)
c~v = ~vc := sc(c~v)
The additional properties which make (V F ad sc) a vector space are properties of
ad and sc as follows (letters with ! are vectors, those without ! are scalars):
v) ~u + ~v = ~v + ~u
vi) ~u + (~v + w~ ) = (~u + ~v) + w~
D-12
DICTIONARY
Example 3: Let (V F ad sc) be any vector space and let S be any non-empty set.
Dene a new vector space (VS F adS scS ) as follows:
DICTIONARY
D-13
To dene adS and scS we note that if f and g are functions in VS and c 2 F then
adS (f g) and scS (c f ) are supposed to be functions in VS , i.e., adS (f g) : S ! V
and scS (c f ) : S ! V . To dene these functions, we must say what values they
assign to each s 2 S . The denitions we adopt are these:
adS (f g)] (s) = f (s) + g(s)
scS (c f )] (s) = cf (s):
(D-2)
(D-3)
Following the convention for vector spaces, we write adS (f g) as f + g and scS (c f )
as cf . Thus, f + g and cf are functions whose domains are S and whose ranges are
subsets of V . The denitions (1) and (2) read thus: for any s 2 S
(f + g)(s) = f (s) + g(s)
(cf )(s) = cf (s):
(D-4)
(D-5)
These are not \obvious facts." They are denitions of the vector-valued functions
f + g and cf .
In VS , the zero vector is the function which assigns to each s 2 S the zero vector in
V.
D-14
DICTIONARY
and c~v and ~vc. V will be called a vector space over F , or a real or complex vector
space if F = R or C .
Because of vector space rules v) and vi), there is no ambiguity about Pni=1 ~ui when
~u1 : : : ~un 2 V . For example, if n = 4, all of ~u1 +u2 +(~u3 + u4)], (~u2 +~u4)+(~u3 +~u1),
~u1 + ~u2) + u~3] + u~4 ~u4 + (~u2 + ~u1)] + ~u3, etc., are the same.
When ~u1 : : : ~un 2 V and a1 : : : an 2 F , we do not even need the P. We can use
the index conventions to write Pni=1 ai~ui as ai~ui.
Facts about ~0. If a 2 F , then a~0 = ~0 because a~0 = a(0~0) = (a0)~0 = 0~0 = ~0. Also, if
a 2 F , ~v 2 V , and a 6= 0 , ~v 6= ~0, then a~v 6= ~0. For suppose a~v = ~0 and a 6= 0.
Then a;1 2 F , and ~v = 1~v = (a;1a)~v = a;1 (a~v) = a;1~0 = ~0. Finally, ~0 + ~u = ~u
because ~0 + ~u = 0~u + 1~u = (0 + 1)~u = 1~u = ~u.
Linear mappings: Suppose V and W are both vector spaces over the same eld F , and
L 2 F (V ! W ). We call L a \linear mapping" if for any ~u, ~v 2 V and c 2 F it is
true that
DICTIONARY
D-15
f = ad jVe
Ve
ii) ad
iii) sfc = sc jF
Ve .
D-16
DICTIONARY
Basis. Any linearly independent subset of vector space V which spans V is called
a basis for V . The following are important theorems about bases.
Theorem 2 If V is nite dimensional, it has a basis, and all its bases are nite
and contain the same number of vectors. This number is called the dimension
of V , written dim V .
V.
Theorem 6 Suppose B = f~b1 : : :~bn g is a basis for V . Then there are functions c1B : : : cnB 2 L(V ! F ) such that for any ~v 2 V
~v = cjB (~v)~bj :
DICTIONARY
D-17
The scalars v1 = c1B (~v) : : : vn = cnB (~v), which are uniquely determined by
~v and B , are called the coordinates of ~v relative to the basis B . The linear
functions c1B : : : cnB are called the coordinate functionals for the basis B . (A
function whose values are scalars is called a \functional.") Clearly ~bi = i j~bj .
Since the coordinates of any vector relative to B are unique, it follows that
cjB (~bi ) = i j
(D-6)
Theorem 7 Suppose V and W are vector spaces over F , and B = f~b1 : : : ~bng
is a basis for V , and fw~ 1 : : : w~ ng"W . Then 91L 2 L(V ! W ) 3 L(~bi ) = w~ i.
(In other words, L is completely determined by LjB for one basis B , and
LjB can be chosen arbitrarily.) (The L whose existence and uniqueness are
asserted by the theorem is easy to nd. For any ~v 2 V , L(~v) = ciB (~v)w~ i.)
This L is an injection if fw~ 1 : : : w~ ng is linearly independent and a surjection
if W = spfw~ 1 : : : w~ ng.
Linear operators: If L 2 L(V ! V ), L is called a \linear operator on V ." If B =
f~b1 : : : ~bn g is any basis for V , then the array Li j = cjB L(~bi )] is called the matrix
of L relative to B . Clearly, L(~bi ) = Li j~bj . (The matrix of L relative to B is
often dened as the transpose of our Li j . It is that matrix 3 L(~bi ) = ~bj Lj i . Our
denition is the more convenient one for continuum mechanics.)
L(~v) = ~v
(D-7)
(D-8)
D-18
DICTIONARY
Linear operators on a nite dimensional complex vector space always have at least
one eigenvalue and eigenvector. On a real vector space this need not be so.
If L and M 2 L(V V ), then L M 2 L(V V ) and det(L M ) = (det L)(det M ).
(dp is a functional)
(dp is symmetric)
(dp is bilinear).
dp is called the dot-product functional, and dp(~u~v) is usually written ~u ~v. In this
notation, the requirements on the dot product are
a)0 ~u ~v 2 R
(dp is a functional)
b)0 ~u ~v = ~v ~u
(dp is symmetric)
c)0 ~u ~u > 0 if ~u 6= ~0
(dp is positive denite)
d)0 for any ~u ~u1 : : : ~un ~v 2 V and a1 : : : an 2 F
(ai~ui) ~v = ai (~ui ~v)
~v (ai~ui) = ai (~v ~ui)
9
>
=
dp is bilinear
>
Example 1: (V R ad sc) is as in Example 1, page D-12, and ~u ~v = uivi. For n = 3
this is ordinary three-space.
DICTIONARY
D-19
Example 2: (V R ad sc) is as in Example 4, page D-13. If f and g are two functions in
R
V , their dot product is f g = 01 dxf (x)g(x). Note that without continuity, f =
6 0
need not imply f f > 0. For example, let f (x) = 0 in 0 x 1 except at x = 12 .
There let f ( 21 ) = 1. Then f =
6 0 but f f = 0.
Length and angle. Schwarz and triangle inequalities. The length of a vector ~v in
p
a Euclidean space is dened as k~v k := ~v ~v. All nonzero-vectors have positive
length. From the denitions on page D-18,
(Schwarz inequality)
is the cosine of exactly one angle between 0 and . This angle is called the angle
between ~u and ~v, and is written 6 (~u~v). Thus, by the denition of 6 (~u~v),
Orthonormal sets and bases. An orthonormal set Q in V is any set of mutually perpendicular unit vectors. I.e., ~u 2 Q ) k~uk = 1 and ~u~v 2 Q, ~u 6= ~v ) ~u ~v = 0.
D-20
DICTIONARY
Linear functionals and dual bases: Let V be a Euclidean vector space. For any ~v 2
V we can dene a ~v 2 L(V ! R) by requiring simply
~v (~y) = ~v ~y 8~y 2 V:
(D-10)
Proof:
We must show that the mapping ~v j! ~v is an injection, a surjection,
and linear. Linearity is easy to prove. We want to show ai~vi = ai ~vi .
But for any ~y 2 V ,
DICTIONARY
D-21
Denition: Two sequences of vectors in V , (~u1 : : : ~um) and (~v1 : : : ~vm ), are dual to
each other if ~ui ~vj = ij .
Remark 2 If (~u1 : : : ~um) and (~v1 : : : ~vm) are dual to each other, each is linearly
independent.
Proof:
Denition: An ordered basis for V is a sequence of vectors (~b1 : : : ~bn) such that f~b1 : : : ~bng
is a basis for V .
Remark 3 If two sequences of vectors are dual to each other and one is an ordered
basis, so is the other. (Proof. If (~v1 : : : ~vm ) is a basis, m = dim V . Then, since
(~u1 : : : ~um) is linearly independent, it is also a basis.
D-22
DICTIONARY
Remark 4 If (~b1 : : : ~bn) is an ordered basis for V , it has at most one dual sequence
(~b1 : : : ~bn).
Proof:
If (~b1 : : : ~bn) and (~v1 : : : ~vn) are both dual sequences to (~b1 : : : ~bn), then
~bi ~bj = ij , and ~vi bj = ij , so (~bi ; ~vi ) ~bj = 0. Then (~bi ; ~vi) (aj~bj ) = 0
for any ai : : : an 2 R. But any ~u 2 V can be written ~u = aj~bj , so
(~bi ; ~vi) ~u = 0 for all ~u 2 V . Hence, ~bi ; ~vi = 0, ~bi = ~vi.
Remark 5 If (~b1 : : : ~bn ) is an ordered basis for V , it has at least one dual sequence
(~b1 : : : ~bn).
Proof:
Let B = f~b1 : : :~bn g, and let ciB be the coordinate functions for this basis.
They are linear functionals on V , so according to theorem (10) there is
exactly one ~bi 2 V such that ~bi = ciB . Then ~bi (~y) = ciB (~y ), 8~y 2 V , so
~bi ~y = ciB (~y ), 8~y 2 V . In particular, ~bi ~bj = ciB (~bj ) = i j see (5)]. Thus
(~b1 : : : ~bn) is dual to (~b1 : : : ~bn).
From the foregoing, it is clear that each ordered basis B = (~bi : : : ~bn) for V has
exactly one dual sequence B D = (~b1 : : : ~bn ) , and that this dual sequence is also an
ordered basis for V . It is called the dual basis for (~b1 : : : ~bn). It is characterized
and uniquely determined by
~bi ~bj = i j :
(D-11)
There is an obvious symmetry: each of B and B D is the dual basis for the other.
If ~v 2 V , and B = (~b1 : : : ~bn) is any ordered basis, we can write
~v = vj~bj
(D-12)
DICTIONARY
D-23
where vj = cjB (~v) are the coordinates of ~v relative to B . Then ~bi ~v = vj~bi ~bj =
vj ji = vi. Thus
vi = ~bi ~v:
(D-13)
Since (~b1 : : : ~bn) = B D is also an ordered basis for V , we can write
~v = vj~bj :
(D-14)
vj = ~v ~bj :
(D-15)
An orthonormal basis is its own dual basis it is self-dual. If ~bi = x^i then ~bi = x^i ,
and (11), (12) are the same as (13) and (14). We have
vj = vj = x^j ~v:
In order to keep indices always up or down, it is sometimes convenient to write an
orthonormal basis (^x1 : : : x^n) as (^x1 : : : x^n), with x^i = x^i. Then
(D-17)
D-24
DICTIONARY
(D-18)
Clearly gij is the contravariant and gij the covariant metric matrix of B D .
We have vi = ~bi ~v = ~bi (~bj vj ) = (~bi ~bj )vj so
vi = gij vj :
(D-19)
vi = gij vj :
(D-20)
The metric matrices can be used to raise or lower the indices on the components of
~v.
Transposes: Suppose V and W are Euclidean vector spaces and L 2 L(V ! W ). Then
there is exactly one LT 2 F (W ! V ) such that
L(~v) w~ = ~v LT (w~ ) 8(~v w~ ) 2 V
W:
(D-21)
(D-22)
The linear mapping LT is called the \transpose" of L (also sometimes the adjoint
of L, but adjoint has a second, quite dierent, meaning for matrices, so we avoid
the term).
If L 2 L(V ! W ) and M 2 L(U ! V ), then L M 2 L(U ! W ) and it is easy to
verify that
(L M )T = M T LT :
(D-23)
If L 2 L(V ! W ) is bijective, then L;1 2 L(W ! V ). It is easy to verify that
LT : W ! V is also bijective and
(L;1 )T = (LT );1 :
(D-24)
DICTIONARY
D-25
D-26
DICTIONARY
9
>
>
>
=
8i 2 f1 : : : mg
>
>
>
The vector x^2n+1 is omitted in the above denition if dim V is even, and included
if dim V is odd. If included, it is the \axis" of the rotation.
If L 2 #(V ) is improper, L is the product of a rotation and a \reection." A
reection is an L for which there is an orthonormal basis x^1 : : : x^n such that
L(^x1 ) = ;x^1 , L(^xn ) = x^k , if k 2.
(D-25)
DICTIONARY
D-27
Positive-denite (semidenite) symmetric operators. If L 2 L(V ! V ) is symmetric, L is said to be positive denite when
(D-26)
(D-27)
L = O1 S1 = S2 O2 :
(D-29)
Both S1 and S2 are uniquely determined by L (in fact S1 = (LT L)1=2 and S2 =
(LLT )1=2 ). If L;1 exists, O1 and O2 are uniquely determined by L and are equal,
and S1 and S2 are positive denite. If det L > 0 then O1 is proper.
The existence part of the polar decomposition theorem can be restated as follows:
for any L 2 L(V ! V ) there are orthonormal bases (^x1 : : : x^n) and (^y1 : : : y^n) in
V and non-negative numbers 1 : : : n such that
D-28
DICTIONARY
(D-30)
PP-1
X
( sgn )i1j(1) in j(n) = "i1:::in "j1:::jn :
(PP-1)
2Sn
Lemma PP-1 Suppose Ai1:::in is an n
: : :
n dimensional n'th order array which is
totally antisymmetric (i.e. changes sign where any two indices are interchanged). Then
(PP-2)
Proof:
If any two of fi1 : : : ing are equal, A(i1 :::in ) = 0. If they are all dierent,
there is a 2 Sn such that i1 = (1) : : : in = (n). This is a product
of transpositions (interchanges), and by carrying out these interchanges in
succession on A12:::n one obtains A(1):::(n). Each interchange produces a sign
change, so the nal sign is + or ; according as is even or odd. Thus,
A(1):::(n) = ( sgn )A1:::n = "(1):::(n) A1:::n. Therefore, equation PP-2, holds
both when fi1 : : : ing contains a repeated index and when it does not.
PP-3
PP-4
PROOFS
Proof:
(PP-3)
X
( sgn )i1 j(1) : : : in j(n)
2Sn
(PP-5)
(PP-6)
Proof:
To prove (PP-5) note that by lemma 2, since sgn ;1 = sgn ,
Ai1 :::inj1:::jn =
The set of n pairs
because a pair
(PP-4)
X
( sgn )i1 j;1(1) : : : inj;1 (n):
2Sn
80
1
0
19
>
>
<B 1 C
=
n
B
C
:
:
:
@
A
@
A
>
: ;1(1)
;1(n) >
80
1
0
19
>
<B (1) C
=
(n) C>
B
:
:
:
@
A
@
A
>
: 1
n >
0
B@
1
iC
A
j
PROOFS
PP-5
is in the rst set of pairs i j = ;1 (i) and in the second set of pairs i
i = (j ). Therefore
X
( sgn )i(1)j1 : : : i(n) jn
2Sn
X
=
( sgn )j1i(1) : : : jn i(n)
2Sn
= Aj1:::jni1 :::in :
Ai1:::in j1:::jn =
X
( sgn )i1 k(1) : : : in k(n) :
2Sn
Now ( sgn )2 = 1 and so ( sgn ) = ( sgn )2 ( sgn ) = ( sgn ) ( sgn )( sgn )] =
( sgn )( sgn ), and
X
Ai1 :::in k(1):::k(n) = ( sgn ) ( sgn )i1 k(1) : : : ink(n)
2Sn
X
= ( sgn ) ( sgn )i1 k(1) : : : in k(n)
by Lemma PP-2
2Sn
= ( sgn )Ai1 :::in k1:::kn :
Ai1 :::ink(1):::k(n) =
(PP-7)
PP-6
PROOFS
(PP-8)
(PP-9)
A12:::n12:::n =
X
( sgn )1(1) : : : n(n):
2Sn
There are n! terms in this sum, and a term vanishes unless (1) = 1, (2) =
2 : : : (n) = n that is, unless is the identity permutation e. But sgn e = 1,
so only one of the n! terms in the sum is nonzero, and this term is 1. Therefore,
A12:::n12:::n = 1, and equation (PP-9) becomes the polar identity (PP-1).
Spectral Decomposition of a
Symmetric Linear Operator S on a
Euclidean Space V .
Denition PP-1 S : V ! V is symmetric i S = S T , that is i ~u S (~v) = S (~u) ~v for
all ~u, ~v 2 V .
Theorem PP-11 Let S be a symmetric linear operator on Euclidean space V . Then V
PP-8
PROOFS
Let x^1 : : : x^n be an orthonormal basis for V , and let Sij be the matrix of
S relative to this basis, so S (^xi ) = Sij x^j . Then Sij = S (^xi ) x^j = x^i
S (^xj ) = S (^xj ) x^i = Sji so Sij is a symmetric matrix. A real number is
an eigenvalue of S i det(S ; I ) = 0, where I is the identity operator on
V . (If the determinant is 0, then S ; I is singular, so there is a nonzero
~v 3 (S ; I )(~v) = ~0, or S (~v) ; ~v = ~0, or S (~v) = ~v.) The matrix of S ; I
relative to the basis (^x1 : : : x^n) is Sij ; ij , so we want to prove that the n'th
degree polynomial in , det(Sij ; ij ), has at least one real zero. It certainly
has a complex zero, , so there is a complex n-tuple (r1 : : : rn) such that
(Sij ; ij )rj = 0 or Sij rj = ri :
Let denote complex conjugation. Then
riSij rj = (riri):
(PP-10)
rj Sjiri = (riri):
(PP-11)
But Sij = Sji, so the left hand sides of (PP-10) and (PP-11) are the same.
Also, riri = riri 6= 0. Hence, = . Thus is real, and we have proved
lemma (PP-5).
Now we can prove theorem PP-1. Let be any (real) eigenvalue of S . Let v^ be
a unit eigenvector with this eigenvalue. Then S (spfv^g) spf~vg so by lemma
PP-4, S (fv^g?) fv^g? and S jfv^g? is symmetric. We proceed by induction on
dim V . Since dimfv^g? < dim V , we may assume theorem PP-4 true on fv^g?.
Adjoining v^ to the orthonormal basis for fv^g? which consists of eigenvectors
of S jfv^g? gives an orthonormal basis for V consisting of eigenvectors of S .
PROOFS
PP-9
position of S " is a collection of real numbers 1 < : : : < m and a collection of subspaces
of V , U1 : : : Um, such that
i) S jU(i) = (i) I jU(i) for i = 1 : : : m
ii) V = U1 : : : Um . (This means
a) Ui ?Uj if i 6= j . That is, if ~ui 2 Ui and ~uj 2 Uj then u~i ~uj = 0
Proof:
Order the dierent eigenvalues of S which theorem PP-1 produces as 1 <
< m . Let Ui be the span of all the orthonormal basis vectors turned up
by that theorem which have eigenvalue i.
PP-10
PROOFS
S (~u) =
S (~v) =
~u S (~v) =
=
S (~u) ~v =
=
m
X
i=1
m
X
S (~ui) =
m
X
i=1
m
X
i~ui
S (~vi) = i~vi
=1
1 m
! 0iX
m
X
~ui @ j~vj A = j (~ui ~vj )
i=1X
m
i=1
m
X
j =1
ij =1
i (~ui ~vi )
1 m
! 0X
m
X
i~ui @ ~vj A = i (~ui ~vj )
i=1X
m
i=1
m
X
i=1
j =1
ij =1
i (~ui ~vi ):
Corollary PP-4 Two linear operators with the same spectral decomposition are equal.
Proof:
PROOFS
PP-11
Suppose S and S 0 have the same spectral decomposition (1 U1) : : : (m Um).
Let ~v 2 V . Then ~v = Pmi=1 ~ui with ~ui 2 Ui . Then
m
m
X
X
S (~ui) = i~ui = S 0(~ui)
i=1
i=1
i=1
m !
X
= S0
~ui = S 0(~v):
S (~v) =
m
X
i=1
PP-12
PROOFS
i=1
m
X
i=1
j =1
ij =1
Note: The proofs require an obvious modication if S is positive semi-denite rather than
positive denite.
Euclidean space V . Then there is exactly one symmetric positive (semi) denite linear
PP-13
PP-14
PROOFS
Since i > 0, let i1=2 be the positive square root of i . Let Q be the linear operator on V whose spectral decomposition is (11=2 U1) : : : (m1=2 Um). Then
Q is symmetric by corollary PP-5, and positive denite by corollary PP-6.
Let ~v 2 V . Then ~v = Pmi=1 ~ui with ~u 2 Ui . Then
m
X
m
X
i1=2~ui
i=1
i=1
m
m
X
X
Q2 (~v) =
i1=2 Q(~ui) = i1=2 i1=2~ui
i=1
i=1
m
m
X
X
=
i~ui = S (~ui) = S (~v):
Q(~v) =
i=1
Q(~ui) =
i=1
Hence, Q2 = S .
and det L > 0. Then there are unique linear mappings R1 , S1 , R2 , S2 with these properties:
i) L = R1 S1
ii) L = S2 R2
iii) R1 and R2 are proper orthogonal (i.e. R;1 = RT and det R = +1)
iv) S1 and S2 are positive denite and symmetric.
Further, R1 = R2 , so S1 = R2T S2R2 .
Before giving the proof we need some lemmas.
Lemma PP-6 If det 6= 0, LT L and LLT are symmetric and positive denite.
Proof:
It su"ces to consider LT L, because LLT = (LT )T (LT ) and det LT = det L.
First, (LT L)T = LT (LT )T = LT L, so LT L is symmetric. Second, if ~v 6= ~0,
L(~v) 6= ~0 because L;1 exists. But then L(~v) L(~v) > 0. And L(~v) L(~v) =
~v LT L(~v)] = ~v (LT L)(~v)]. Thus, ~v (LT L)(~v)] > 0, so LT L is positive
denite.
PP-16
PROOFS
Lemma PP-8 If A and B are linear operators on V and AB = I then B ;1 exists and
Lemma PP-9 If L is a linear operator on Euclidean space and L;1 exists so does (LT );1,
PROOFS
PP-17
R1 = LS1;1:
(PP-14)
Thus S1 and R1 are given explicitly and uniquely in terms of L. To prove the existence
of an R1 and S1 with the required properties, we dene them by (PP-8) and (PP-9).
Then S1 is symmetric positive denite as required, and we need show only that R1 is
proper orthogonal, i.e. that det R1 = +1 and R1T = R1;1. But det R1 = det L det(S1;1) =
det L= det S1 > 0 since det L > 0 and det S1 > 0. Therefore, if we can show R1T = R1;1, we
automatically have det R1 = 1. By lemma PP-8 it su"ces to prove R1T R1 = I . But R1T =
(LS1;1)T = (S1;1)T LT = (S1T );1LT = S1;1LT so R1T R1 = S1;1LT LS1;1 = S1;1S12S1;1 = I .
Next we deal with R2 and S2 . To prove them unique, we suppose they exist. Then
L = S2R2 so LT = (S2R2 )T = R2T S2T = R2;1S2 . But if det L > 0 then det LT = det L > 0,
so there is only one way to write LT = R~1 S~1 with R~1 proper orthogonal and S~1 symmetric.
If R2 is proper orthogonal, so is R2;1 , and we must have R2;1 = R~1 so R2 = R~1;1.
Then R2 and S2 are uniquely determined by L. In fact, S2 = S~1 = (LT )T LT = LLT ,
and R2 = (R~1 );1 = (LT S2;1);1 = S2(LT );1. To prove existence of R2 and S2 with
the required properties, we observe that LT = R~1 S~1 with R~1 proper orthogonal and S~1
symmetric. Then (LT )T = L = (R~1 S~1)T = S~1 T R~1T = S~1 R1;1. Therefore we can take
S2 = S~1, R2 = R~1;1.
Finally, to prove R1 = R2 , note that if L = S2R2 then L = R2R2;1 S2R2 = R2 (R2T S2R2 ).
We claim that R2T S2R2 is symmetric and positive denite. If we can prove that, then
L = R2(R2T S2 R2) is of the form L = R1S1 , and uniqueness of R1 and S1 requires R1 = R2 ,
S1 = R2T S2R2 . Symmetry is easy. We have (R2T S2 R2 )T = R2T S2T (R2T )T = R2T S2R2 . For
positive deniteness let ~v 2 V , ~v 6= ~0. Then R2(~v) 6= 0 because R2;1 exists. Then
R2 (~v) S2 R2(~v)] > 0 because S2 is positive denite. Then ~v R2T S2R2 (~v)] > 0, or
~v (R2T S2R2 )(~v)] > 0. Thus R2T S2R2 is positive denite.
We shall not need the PDT when det L < 0 or L;1 fails to exist. For these cases, see
Halmos, p. 170.
PP-18
PROOFS
Lemma PP-10 R is orthogonal i R is linear and preserves all inner products that is,
R(~u) R(~v) = ~u ~v for all ~u~v 2 V .
Proof:
Obviously if R preserves all inner products it preserves lengths. The interesting half is that if R preserves lengths then it preserves all inner products.
To see this, we note that for any ~u and ~v 2 V , k~u + ~vk2 = (~u + ~v) (~u + ~v) =
~u ~u + ~u ~v + ~v ~u + ~v ~v. That is
(PP-15)
Applying this result to R(~u) and R(~v), and using R(~u + ~v) = R(~u) + R(~v),
gives
(PP-16)
PP-20
PROOFS
If R preserves all lengths, then kR(~u +~v)k = k~u +~vk, kR(~u)k = k~uk, kR(~v)k =
k~vk, so subtracting (PP-15) from (PP-16) gives R(~u) R(~v) = ~u ~v:
(PP-17)
where (^x1 : : : x^n ) is the orthonormal basis for V which we are using. The matrix Lij of
an arbitrary linear operator L is dened in the same way,
(PP-18)
PROOFS
PP-21
The matrix of LT relative to (^x1 : : : x^n) is the transposed matrix Lji. That is
(PP-19)
To see this, we note that x^k L(^xi ) = Lij x^k x^j = Lij kj = Lik , so
(PP-20)
Remark 6 If R is orthogonal, then its matrix relative to every orthonormal basis satises
Rij Rik = jk
and
RjiRki = jk
(\orthonormal columns")
(PP-21)
(\orthonormal rows")
(PP-22)
Proof:
If R is orthogonal so is RT . Therefore, it su"ces to prove (PP-21). We have
RT (^xj ) = (RT )jix^i = Rij x^i. Then RRT (^xj ) = Rij R(^xi ) = Rij Rik x^k . But if
R is orthogonal, RRT = I , so RRT (^xj ) = jk x^k . Thus Rij Rik x^k = jk x^k , or
(Rij Rik ; jk )^xk = 0. Fix j . Since x^1 : : : x^n are linearly independent, we
must have Rij Rik ; jk = 0. This is (PP-21).
Remark 7 If R 2 L(V ! V ) and there is one orthonormal basis for V relative to which
the matrix of R satises either (PP-21) or (PP-22), then R is orthogonal.
Proof:
Suppose that relative to the particular basis x^1 : : : x^n, the matrix of R satises
(PP-21). Multiply by x^k and add over k, using Rik x^k = R(^xi). The result is
PP-22
PROOFS
By linearity of R, this means R(Rij x^i ) = x^j or R RT (^xj ) = x^j , or (RRT )(^xj ) =
x^j . But then for any scalars v1 : : : ~vn we have (RRT )(vj x^j ) = vj RRT (^xj ) =
vj x^j . Hence RRT (~v) = ~v for all ~v 2 V . Hence RRT = I . Hence R is
orthogonal.
Next suppose R satises (PP-22) rather than (PP-21). Then (RT )ij (RT )ik =
jk , so the matrix of RT satises (PP-21). Hence, RT = R;1 is orthogonal.
Hence so is (RT )T = (R;1 );1 = R.
Corollary PP-8 If the rows of a square matrix are orthonormal, so are the columns.
A matrix with this property is called orthogonal. What we have seen is that if R is
orthogonal, so is its matrix relative to every orthonormal basis. And if the matrix of R
relative to one orthonormal basis is orthogonal, R is orthogonal, so its matrix relative to
every orthonormal basis is orthogonal.
Now we discuss some properties of orthogonal operators which will eventually tell us
what those operators look like.
First, we introduce the notation in
Denition PP-5 The set of all orthogonal operators on Euclidean space V is written
#(V ). The set of all proper orthogonal operators (those with determinant + 1) is written
#+(V ).
Lemma PP-12 #(V ) and #+(V ) are groups if multiplication is dened as operator
composition.
Proof:
All we need to prove is that both sets are closed under the operations of taking
inverses and of multiplying. But if R 2 #(V ), we know R;1 2 #(V ) by remark
PP-2. And det(R;1) = (det R);1 = 1 if det R = 1 so if R 2 #+(V ) then
R;1 2 #+(V ). If R1 and R2 2 #(V ), then (R1 R2)T (R1 R2 ) = R2T R1T R1 R2 =
R2T IR2 = R2T R2 = I , so R1R2 2 #(V ). And if R1 , R2 2 #+(V ) then
det(R1R2 ) = (det R1)(det R2) = 1, so R1R2 2 #+(V ).
PROOFS
PP-23
PP-24
PROOFS
Lemma PP-18 Let R 2 #(V ). Let x^1 : : : x^n be an orthonormal basis for V . Let Rij
be the matrix of R relative to this basis. Suppose is a complex zero of the n'th degree
polynomial det(Rij ; ij ). Then j j2= 1.
Proof:
There is a complex n-tuple (r1 : : : rn) 6= (0 : : : 0) such that Rij rj = ri.
Taking complex conjugates gives Rij rj = ri, or Rik rk = ri. Multiplying
and summing over i gives
Lemma PP-20 Suppose R, Rij as in lemma PP-18. Suppose is not real and (r1 : : : rn) 6=
two mutually orthogonal unit vectors ~x and ~y such that for some in 0 < < ,
PROOFS
8
>
>
>
< R(^x) = x^ cos # + y^ sin #
>
>
>
: R(^y) = x^ sin # + y^ cos #:
PP-25
(PP-23)
Proof:
Choose an orthonormal basis z^1 : : : z^n for V , and let Rij be the matrix of
R relative to that basis. If 0 = det(Rij ; ij ) has a real root, , it is an
eigenvalue of R, so R has an eigenvector. Hence no root of det(Rij ; ij )
is real. By lemma PP-18, we can write any root as ei where 0 <
< or
<
< 2. By lemma PP-19, we can nd a root e;i with 0 <
< . Then
there is an n-tuple of complex numbers (r1 : : : rn) 6= (0 : : : 0) such that
Rjk rj = e;i rk :
(PP-24)
rjrj = 2
(PP-25)
rj rj = 0:
(PP-26)
xj xj ; yj yj = 0
xj yj = 0
PP-26
PROOFS
xj xj + yj yj = 2:
From these equations, clearly
xj xj = yj yj = 1 and xj yj = 0:
Now take x^ = xj z^j and y^ = yj z^j , and we have the x^ y^,
whose existence is asserted in
the theorem.
8
>
>
>
< R(^xj ) = x^(j) cos
(j) + y^(j) sin
(j)
:
>
>
>
: R(^yj ) = ;x^(j) sin
(j) + y^(j) cos
(j)
(PP-27)
Proof:
By remark PP-4 we can nd mutually orthogonal unit vectors x^1 y^1 and
1
in 0 <
1 < such that (PP-27) holds for j = 1. Then R(spfx^1 y^1g)
spfx^1 y^1g. Hence, by lemma PP-16, R(fx^1 y^1g?) fx^1 y^1g?. Hence, by
lemma PP-14, Rjfx^1 y^1g? 2 #(fx^1 y^1g?). Since R has no eigenvectors in V ,
it has none in fx^1 y^1g?. Thus Rjfx^1 y^1g? satises the hypotheses of remark
PP-3, and we can repeat the argument, nding
2 in 0 <
2 < an mutually
orthogonal unit vectors x^2 y^2 in fx^1 y^1g? such that (PP-4) holds for j = 2.
We can proceed in this way as long as the dimension of the remaining space
is > 0. (The argument is by induction on dim V .) When the dimension of the
remaining space is 0, we have an orthonormal basis for V with the required
properties.
PROOFS
PP-27
Corollary PP-10 dim V is even. That is, if R 2 #(V ) and dim V is odd, R has an
eigenvector. (This is obvious from another point of view. If dim V is odd, so is the degree
of the real polynomial det(R ; I ). Hence, it has at least one real zero).
Theorem PP-14 Suppose V is Euclidean vector space and R 2 #(V ). Then V has an
orthonormal basis x^1 y^1 : : : x^m y^m z^1 : : : z^n w^1 : : : w^p with these properties:
i) R(w^j ) = ;w^j
ii) R(^zj ) = z^j
iii) for j 2 f1 : : : mg, there is a
j in 0 <
j < such that equation (PP-4) holds.
Proof:
Let Z and W be the eigenspaces of V with eigenvalues +1 and ;1. Let
z^1 : : : z^n be an orthonormal basis for Z and w^1 : : : w^p an orthonormal basis
for W . Then R(Z + W ) Z + W , so R(Z + W )?] (Z + W )?. Moreover,
(Z + W )? contains no eigenvectors of R, since all their eigenvalues are +1 or
;1, and these are already in Z or W . Thus remark PP-4 applied to (Z + W )?.
QED.
PP-28
PROOFS
cos 1 sin 1
-sin 1 cos 1
cos 2 sin 2
-sin 2 cos 2
..
.
cos m sin m
-sin m cos m
1
..
.
n terms
1
-1
..
.
p terms
-1
PROOFS
PP-29
Corollary PP-12 If R 2 #+(V ), then V has an orthonormal basis x^1 y^1 : : : x^m y^m z^1 : : : z^n
such that
8
>
i) R(^zj ) = z^j for j 2 f1 : : : ng:
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
< ii) For j 2 f1 : : : mg there is a
j in 0 <
j such that
:
>
>
>
R(^xj ) = x^(j) cos
(j) + y^(j) sin
(j)
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
: R(^yj ) = ;x^(j) sin
(j) + y^(j) cos
(j) :
(PP-28)
Proof:
Since det R = +1, in theorem PP-15, p is even. Therefore, we may divide
w^1 : : : w^p into pairs. For any such pair, we have (for example)
PP-30
PROOFS
Part I
Tensors over Euclidean Vector Spaces
Chapter 1
Multilinear Mappings
1.1 Denition of multilinear mappings
M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ):
V1 : : : Vq W are vector spaces over a single eld F , and M 2 F (V1
: : :
Vq ! W ).
If M satises any of the following three equivalent conditions, M is called a multilinear
mapping from V1
: : :
Vq to W .
Denition 1.1.6 For any (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1
: : :
Vq and any p 2 f1 : : : qg,
M (~v1 : : : ~vp;1 ~vp+1 : : : ~vq ) 2 L(Vp ! W ):
(That is, M (~v1 : : : ~vq ) depends linearly on each of the separate vectors ~v1 : : : v~q if the
others are held xed.)
Denition 1.1.7 If a 2 F , p 2 f1 : : : qg, ~xp and ~yp 2 Vp, and (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1 : : : Vq
then
Denition 1.1.8 For each p 2 f1 : : : qg, suppose a1(p) : : : an(pp) 2 F and ~v1(p) : : : ~vn(pp) 2
iq (q)
i1 : : : aiq M ~v (1) : : : ~v (q) .
Vp. Then M ai(1)1 ~vi(1)
:
:
:
a
~
v
=
a
i1
iq
(q) iq
(1)
(q)
1
Example 1.2.1 For each p between 1 and q, let ~up be a xed vector in Vp. Let w~ 0 2 W .
For any (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1
: : :
Vq , dene
M (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = (~u1 ~v1 ) (~uq ~vq )w~ 0:
(1.2.1)
To give the next example, some terminology is useful. Suppose that for each p 2
f1 : : : qg Bp = ~b1(p) : : : ~bn(pp) is an ordered basis for Vp. Then the sequence of ordered
bases (B1 : : : Bq ) is called a \basis sequence" for V1
: : :
Vq . Let BpD = (~b(1p) : : : ~b(npp) )
be the ordered basis for Vp which is dual to Bp. Then (B1D : : : BqD ) is \the basis sequence
dual to (B1 : : : Bq )."
Example 1.2.2 Let (B1 : : : Bq ) be a basis sequence for V1
: : :
Vq . Let w~ i :::iq be any
q'th order, n1
: : :
nq array of vectors from W . For any (V~1 : : : V~q ) 2 V1
: : :
Vq
1
dene
Then
and also
M ~v(1) : : : ~v(q) = ~b i(1)1 ~v (1) : : : ~b(iqq) ~v(q) w~ i1 :::iq :
(1.2.2)
M 2 M (V1 : : : Vq ! W )
(1.2.3)
M ~bj(1)
= w~ j1:::jq :
: : :~bj(1)
q
1
(1.2.4)
Remark 1.2.10 Suppose V1 : : : Vq are Euclidean vector spaces and W is a real vector
1
= ~bi(1)
~v(1) : : : ~b(iqq) ~v(q) w~ i1 :::iq :
We suppose ~v1 = ~0. Then M (~0~v2 : : : ~vq ) = M (0~0~v2 : : : ~vq ) = 0M (~0~v2 : : : ~vq ) =
~0, where we have used denition (1.1.7).
i1 (1)
iq (q)
iq (q)
= M ai(1)1 ~v(1)
:
:
:
a
~
v
+
N
a
~
v
:
:
:
a
i1
(q) iq
(1) i1
(q)~viq
( by denition of M + N )
i1 : : : a iq M ~v (1) : : : ~v (q) + ai1 : : : aiq N ~v (1) : : : ~v (q)
= a(1)
i1
iq
i1
iq
(q )
(1)
(q)
(because M and N are multilinear)
h
i
i1 : : : a iq M ~v (1) : : : ~v (q) + N ~v (1) ~v (q)
= a(1)
i1
iq
i1
iq
(a)
because W is a vector space over F
i1 ~v (1) : : : aiq ~v (q)
(M + N ) a(1)
i1
(q) iq
i
by denition of M + N:
Comparing the two ends of this chain of equalities, we have a proof that M + N
is multilinear if M and N are, and if M + N is dened by (14.1).
tuple (~v1 : : : ~vr;1~vs~vr+1 : : : ~vs;1~vr ~vs+1 : : :~vq ) will be abbreviated (~v1 : : :~vq )(rs). It is
simply (~v1 : : : ~vq ) with ~vr and ~vs interchanged. Note that if Vr = Vs, then (~v1 : : : ~vq )(rs) 2
V1
: : :
Vq .
(1.4.1)
That is
(rs)M ] (~v1 : : : ~vr;1~vr ~vr+1 : : : ~vs;1~vs~ss+1 : : : ~vq )
= M (~v1 : : : ~vr;1~vs~vr+1 : : : ~vs;1~vr ~ss+1 : : : ~vq ) :
(1.4.2)
Proof:
By remark (1.4.13), (rs) : M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ) ! M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ).
It remains to prove that (rs) is linear. Suppose a1 : : : aN are scalars and
M1 : : : MN 2 M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ). We want to prove that (rs)(aj Mj ) =
aj (rs)Mj ]. Let (~v1 : : : ~vq 2 V1
: : :
Vq ). Then
(rs)(aj Mj )] (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = (aj Mj )(~v1 : : : ~vq )(rs) = aj Mj (~v1 : : : ~vq )(rs)
h
h
i
= aj (rs)Mj (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = aj (rs)Mj (~v1 : : : ~vq ):
i
Since this is true for any (~v1 : : : ~vq ) 2 V1
: : :
Vq , we have the required
result.
Denition 1.4.12 Suppose M , r, s as in denition (1.4.2). If (rs)M = M , M is \symmetric" under (rs). If (rs)M = ;M , M is \antisymmetric" under (rs).
Remark 1.4.15 If Vr = Vs, the members of M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ) which are symmetric
under (rs) constitute a subspace of M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ). The same holds for the
It su"ces to show that if a is any scalar and M , N are symmetric (or antisymmetric) under (rs), so are aM and M +N . We give the proof for antisymmetry.
In that case, by hypothesis,
(rs)M = ;M (rs)N = ;N:
But (rs) is linear, so (rs)aM ] = a(rs)M ] = a(;M ) = ;aM , and (rs)(M +
N ) = (rs)M +(rs)N = ;M ; N = ;(M + N ). (Note that the set of members
of M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ) which are symmetric (anti-symmetric) under (rs)
is simply the eigenspace of (rs) with eigenvalue 1(;1). Of course, it is a
subspace of M(V1
: : :
Vq ! W ).)
(1.4.3)
Proof:
Except for (1.4.3), the proof is like that of remark (1.4.14). To prove equation
(1.4.3), let ~v1 : : : ~vq 2 V and let w~ 1 = ~v(1) : : : w~q = ~v(q) . Then
(M ) (~v1 : : : ~vq ) = (M ) ~v(1) : : : ~v(q)
= M ~v(1)] : : : ~v(q)]
= M ~v()(1) : : : ~v()(q)
10
Chapter 2
Denition of Tensors over Euclidean
Vector Spaces
If V1 : : : Vq are Euclidean vector spaces, then M(V1
: : :
Vq ) ! R is called the \tensor
product of V1 : : : Vq ". It is written V1 : : : Vq . Thus
V1 : : : Vq := M(V1 : : : Vq ) ! R:
(2.0.1)
The multilinear functionals which are the members of V1 : : : Vq are called the tensors
of order q over V1
: : :
Vq .
z q times
}| {
If V1 = : : : = Vq = V , then V1 : : : Vq = V : : : V , and this is abbreviated q V .
Its members are called the tensors of order q over V . By convention, tensors of order zero
are scalars that is
V = R:
(2.0.2)
For tensors of order 1, the notation requires some comment. When q = 1, multilinearity
is simply linearity. That is M(V ! R) = L(V ! R). Thus the tensors of order 1 over
a vector space V are simply the linear functional on V . This would not be a problem,
except that for q = 1, (2.0.1) reduces to V1 := M(V1 ! R), which says
V = L(V ! R):
11
(2.0.3)
12
It is at this point that we require V to be a Euclidean vector space. If it is, then ~v 2 V can
be safely confused with the linear functional ~v 2 L(V ! R) dened by (21.2). Tensors
of order 1 over V are simply the vectors in V .
When V is not a Euclidean vector space, (2.0.3) is false. (The situation is very
subtle. If V is not Euclidean but is nite dimensional, every basis B for V generates an
isomorphism between V and L(V ! R), namely ~bij! ciB . But each of these isomorphisms
depends on the basis B chosen to produce it. There is no \natural", basis-independent
isomorphism which can be used to identify vectors with linear functionals. See MacLane
and Birkho, Algebra, MacMillan 1967, p. 237 for a more detailed discussion.) Tensors
over vector spaces which are not Euclidean are constructed in a more complicated fashion
than (2.0.1). We will not need this generality, and tensors over Euclidean spaces have
some very useful properties for continuum mechanics. It is for this reason that we consider
only tensors over Euclidean spaces. See M. Marcus's book, on reserve, for a treatment of
tensors over arbitrary vector spaces.
Chapter 3
Alternating Tensors, Determinants,
Orientation, and n-dimensional
Right-handedness
In this section we discuss an application of tensors which some of you may have seen in
your linear algebra courses.
Let V be an n-dimensional Euclidean vector space. The set of totally antisymmetric
tensors of order q over V is written q V . It is a subspace of q V . (See remark 1.4.18.)
We want to study nV . The members of nV are called \alternating tensors over V ."
A ~v(1) : : : ~v(n) = ( sgn )A (~v1 : : :~vn) :
(3.1.1)
This is obvious from the denition of A and nV . It implies the rst step in our
attempt to understand alternating tensors:
Lemma 3.1.21 If A 2 nV and two of ~v1 : : :~vn are equal, then A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0.
Proof:
If ~vr = ~vs, interchanging them will not change A(~v1 : : : ~vn). But sgn (rs) =
;1, so (3.1.1) says interchanging them changes the sign of A(~v1 : : : ~vn).
Hence A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0.
Equation (3.1.1) and lemma 3.1.21 are equivalent to the single equation
(3.1.2)
For if two of i1 : : : in are equal, both sides of (3.1.2) vanish. If i1 : : : in are all dierent,
there is a permutation 2 Sn such that i1 = (1) : : : in = (n). Then (3.1.2) reduces
to equation (3.1.1).
Lemma 3.1.21 can be extended to
Remark 3.1.19 If A 2 nV and ~v1 : : : ~vn are linearly dependent, then A(~v1 : : : ~vn) =
0.
Proof:
By hypothesis, there are scalars c1 : : : cn, not all zero, such that ci~vi = ~0.
If ~v1 = ~0, then A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0 by remark 1.3.11. If ~v1 6= 0 then at least
one of c2 : : : cn is nonzero. Let cp be the last scalar which is nonzero. Then
c1~v1 + : : : + cp~vp = ~0 and we can divide by cp to write
pX
;1
~vp = ai~vi
i=1
3.1. STRUCTURE OF N V
15
where
Then
ai = ; cci :
p
0
1
pX
;1
A (~v1 : : : ~vn) = A @~v1 : : : ~vp;1 ai~vi ~vp+1 : : : ~vnA
i=1
pX
;1
i=1
= 0
AB (~v1 : : : ~vn) = ~v1 ~bi1 : : : ~vn ~bin "i1 :::in
(3.1.3)
for any (~v1 : : :~vn) 2
nV . From denition (1.1.6) it is clear that AB is multilinear,
so AB 2 n V , because the values of AB are scalars. Furthermore, AB ~b1 : : : ~bn =
~ ~i1 ~ ~in
b1 b : : : bn b "i1 :::in = 1 i1 : : : n in "i1 :::in = "12:::n = 1. That is, if B = ~b1 : : : ~bn ,
AB ~b1 : : : ~bn = 1
(3.1.4)
= ~v2 ~bi1 ~v1 ~bi2 ~v3 ~bi3 : : : ~vn ~bin "i1 :::in :
If we relabel the summation index i1 as i2, and relabel i2 as i1 , this is
(12)AB ] (~v1 : : : ~vn) = ~v2 ~bi2 ~v1 ~bi1 ~v3 ~bi3 : : : ~vn ~bin "i2 i1 i3 :::in
(3.1.5)
To see this, let B = (~b1 : : : ~bn) be a xed ordered basis for V . We will prove that if
A 2 nV then A is a scalar multiple of AB . Thus, fAB g is a basis for nV . The argument
goes thus. Let A 2 nV . For any (~v1 : : : ~vn) 2
nV we can write ~vp = vp i~bi where vp i =
~vp ~bi, B D = (b~1 : : : ~bn) being the basis dual to B . Then
A (~v1 : : : ~vn) = A v1 i1~bi1 : : : vn in~bin
= v1 i1 : : : vn in A ~bi1 : : : ~bin
by (3:1:2)
A = A ~b1 : : : ~bn AB :
17
(3.1.6)
Remark 3.1.20 Suppose A 2 nV and A 6= 0, and dim V = n. Suppose ~v1 : : : ~vn 2 V .
Then ~v1 : : : ~vn are linearly dependent if and only if A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0.
Proof:
=) is remark 3.1.2. To prove (=, we want to prove that if A(~v1 : : : ~vn) = 0
then ~v1 : : : ~vn are linearly dependent. If they are not, they are a basis B for
V . Then (3.1.6) says A = A(~v1 : : : ~vn)AB , and since A 6= 0, we must have
A(~v1 : : : ~vn) 6= 0, contrary to our hypothesis.
(3.2.1)
Since L is linear and A is multilinear, denition (1.1.6) shows that AL] is multilinear. It
is obvious that AL] is totally antisymmetric if A is. Thus AL] 2 nV . Since A 6= 0, A is
a basis for nV , and there is a scalar kAL such that
AL] = kALA:
(3.2.2)
From the denition (3.2.1), if a 2 R, (aA)L] = aAL]. Thus by (3.2.2), (aA)L] = kALaA.
But, applying the general result (3.2.2) to aA instead of A, we have (aA)L] = kaAL(aA).
Thus
kaAL(aA) = (aA)L] = aAL] = akALA = kAL(aA):
Since A 6= 0, kaAL = kAL. But every member of nV can be written aA for some a 2 R.
Therefore kAL has the same value for all nonzero A 2 nV . It is independent of A, and
depends only on L. Thus for any L 2 L(V ! V ) there is a real number kL such that for
any nonzero A 2 nV ,
AL] = kLA:
(3.2.3)
This equation is obviously true also for A = 0, and hence for all A in nV . The determinant of L, det L, is dened to be kL. Thus, by the denition of det L,
AL] = (det L) A
(3.2.4)
(3.2.5)
h
i
A L (~v1 ) : : : L (~vn)] = A L1 j1~vj1 : : : Ln jn ~vjn
= L1 j1 : : : Ln jn A (~v1 : : : ~vn) because A is multilinear
= L1 j1 : : : Ln jn "j1 : : : jnA (~vj1 : : : ~vjn ) because
A is totally antisymmetric (3.1.1)
19
The determinant of a linear operator is the determinant of its matrix relative to any basis.
In deducing (3.2.6) from (3.2.5) we have used the fact that A(~v1 : : : ~vn) 6= 0. This fact
follows from remark (3.1.6).
Some properties of det L are easy to deduce from (3.2.5). For example, if K and L
are both linear operators on V ,
det (K L) = (det K ) (det L) :
(3.2.7)
(3.2.8)
As another application of (3.2.5), let A 6= 0 and f~v1 : : : ~vng be a basis for V . Then,
as remarked in theorem (18.2), L is an isomorphism () fL(~v1 ) : : : L(~vn )g is linearly
independent. From remark 3.1.20 this is true () A L(~v1 ) : : : L(~vn )] 6= 0: From (3.2.5),
since A(~v1 ~vn) 6= 0, AL(~v1 ) L(~vr )] 6= 0 , det L 6= 0. Thus a linear operator is
invertible, and hence an isomorphism, i its determinant is nonzero.
If det L 6= 0, then L;1 exists, and L L;1 = IV , so (det L)(det L;1 ) = det(L L;1 ) =
det IV = 1. Thus
det L;1 = (det L);1 :
(3.2.9)
Finally we claim
det LT = det L:
(3.2.10)
T j
h i
h
i
L i = cjB LT ~bi = x^j LT (^xi ) = x^i L (^xj )
= ciB L (xj )] = Lj i
det LT = det LT
and
= LT
j1 : : :
T jn
L n "j1:::jn
X
L(1) 1 : : : L(n) n ( sgn ) :
2Sn
n
o
Li j 2 L(1) 1 : : : L(n) n
n
o
o n ;1
L(1) 1 : : : L(n) n = L1 (1) : : : Ln ;1(n)
3.3. ORIENTATION
21
so,
3.3 Orientation
Two ordered orthonormal bases for V , (^x1 : : : x^n) and (^x01 : : : x^0n ), are said to have
the same orientation i one basis can be obtained from the other by a continuous rigid
motion. That is, there must be for each t in 0 t 1 an ordered orthonormal basis
(^x1 (t) : : : x^n(t)) with these properties:
i) x^i(0) = x^i
ii) x^i(1) = x^0i
iii) x^i(t) depends continuously on t.
Since (^x1 (t) : : : x^n(t) is orthonormal, there is an Lt 2 #(V ) 3 x^i(t) = Lt (^xi ). From
i) and iii) above,
i)0 L0 = IV
iii)0 Lt depends continuously on t (i.e., its components relative to any basis depend
continously on t. For example, its components relative to (^x1 : : : x^n) are Li j =
x^j Lt (^xi) = x^j x^i (t), and these are continuous in t.)
Then det L0 = 1 and det Lt depends continuously on t. But Lt 2 #(V ) for all t, so
det Lt = 1 for all t. Hence det Lt = 1 and det L1 = 1. Thus,
Remark 3.3.21 If two ordered o:n: bases for V have the same orientation, the orthogonal
operators L which maps one basis onto the other has det L = 1.
The converse of remark 3.3.21 is also true, as is clear from the comment on page D-26
and from Theorem PP-14. We will not prove that comment here. It is obvious when
dim V = 2, and for dim V = 3 it is Euler's theorem.
If two ordered orthonormal bases do not have the same orientation, we say they have
opposite orientations. The orthogonal operator L which maps one basis onto the other has
det L = ;1. Given any ordered orthonormal basis B = (^x1 : : : x^n), if two other ordered
orthonormal bases are oriented oppositely to B , they have the same orientation. Proof:
Let the bases be B 0 and B 00 . Let L0 and L00 be the orthogonal operators which
map B onto B 0 and B 00. Then L00 (L0 );1 is the orthogonal operator which maps
B 0 onto B 00, and detL00 (L0);1 ] = (det L00 ) det ((L0 );1) = (det L00)(det L0);1 =
(;1)(;1) = +1.
Thus, we can divide the ordered orthonormal bases for V into two oppositely oriented
classes. Within each class, all bases have the same orientation. We call these two classes
the \orientation classes" for V . Choosing an orientation for V amounts to choosing one
of the two orientation classes for V .
It turns out that orientations are easily described in terms of alternating tensors.
3.3. ORIENTATION
23
jA (^x1 : : : x^n)j = 1
(3.3.1)
Thus
A0 = A
(3.3.2)
Remark 3.3.22 nV contains at most two unimodular members. Does it contain any?
Remark 3.3.23 Let B = (^x1 : : : x^n ) and B 0 = (^x01 : : : x^0n) be any two ordered orthonor-
mal bases for V . Let AB be dened by (3.1.1). Then AB (B 0) (an abbreviation for
AB (^x01 : : : x^0n)) is +1 or ;1 according as B and B 0 have this same or opposite orientations. Therefore, AB and ;AB are unimodular.
Proof:
There is an L 2 #(V ) such that x^0i = L(^xi). Then AB (^x01 : : : x^0n) = AB L(^x1 ): : : L(^xn )]
= (det L)AB (^x1 : : : x^n). But det L = 1, and AB (B ) = +1 by (3.1.3). QED.
If A and ;A are the two unimodular members of nV , we see from remark 3.3.23 that
A is positive on one of the two orientation classes of V , and ;A is positive on the other
orintation class. Choosing an orientation class for V amounts simply to choosing one of
the two unimodular members of nV . Therefore we accept
Denition 3.3.16 An oriented Euclidean vector space is an ordered pair (V A) in which
V is Euclidean vector space and A is one of the two unimodular alternating tensors over
V . A is called \the" alternating tensor of the oriented space. An ordered orthonormal
basis (^x1 : : : x^n) is \positively" or \negatively" oriented according as A(^x1 : : : x^n) is +1
or ;1.
Chapter 4
Tensor Products
4.1 Denition of a tensor product
Denition 4.1.17 Suppose U1 : : : Up V1 : : : Vq are Euclidean vector spaces and P 2
U1 : : : Up and Q 2 V1 : : : Vq . Dene PQ as the member of F (U1
: : :
Up
V1
: : :
Vq ! R) which assigns to any (p + q)-tuple ~u1 : : : ~up~v1 : : :~vq ) 2
U1
: : :
Up
V1
: : :
Vq the real number
PQ (~u1 : : : ~up~v1 : : : ~vq ) = P (~u1 : : : ~up) Q (~v1 : : : ~vq ) :
(4.1.1)
PQ 2 U1 : : : Up V1 : : : Vq :
(4.1.2)
26
Remark 4.2.24 Commutativity can fail. PQ need not equal QP . In fact, these two
functions usually have dierent domains, namely U1
: : :
Up
V1
: : :
Vq and
V1
: : :
Vq
U1
: : :
Up. Even if their domains are the same, it is unusual to have
(4.2.1)
(4.2.2)
This holds for every ~y 2 V , so it holds for ~y = ~u. If ~u 6= ~0 then ~u~u 6= 0 so ~u(~v ~u);(~u~u)~v =
~0 shows that ~u and ~v are linearly dependent. And if ~u = ~0, then of course ~u and ~v are
also linearly dependent. Thus PQ = QP implies ~u and ~v are linearly dependent. The
converse is obvious.
27
(4.2.4)
(4.2.5)
Proof:
For any u~ = (~u1 ~up) 2 U1
Up and any v~ = (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1
Vq
we have
(aiPi)Q] (~u v~) = (aiPi)(~u)] Q(~v)
= fai Pi(~u)]g Q(~v)
= ai Pi(~u)Q(~v)] (real arithmetic)
= ai (PiQ)(~u v~)] = ai (PiQ)] (~u v~):
The second of equations (4.2.5) is proved in the same way.
28
4.3 Polyads
Denition 4.3.18 If (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1
Vq , where V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces,
then the tensor product ~v1~v2 ~vq is called a polyad of order q. It is a member of
V1 Vq . It is a \dyad" if q = 2, a \triad" if q = 3, a \tetrad" if q = 4, a \pentad"
if q = 5. By the denition 4.1.17 of a tensor product, for any (~x1 ~xq ) 2 V1
Vq
we have
(4.3.1)
By remark (4.2.28), ~v1~v2 ~vq depends linearly on each of ~v1 ~vq when the others are
xed. We dene a mapping
a)
b)
c)
: V1
Vq ! V1 Vq
by requiring that for any (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1
Vq we have
(~v1 ~vq ) = ~v1~v2 ~vq :
Then is multilinear. That is
2 M (V1
Vq ) ;! V1 Vq ) :
(4.3.2)
The tensor product PQ is sometimes written P Q, and ~v1~v2 ~vq is written ~v1 ~v2
~vq . This notation makes (4.3.2b) look thus: (~v1 ~vq ) = ~v1 ~vq . We will
usually avoid these extra 's.
4.3. POLYADS
29
Remark 4.3.30 Suppose for each p 2 f1 qg that ~up~vp 2 Vp and ap 2 R, and
~vp = a(p)~u(p). Suppose also a1 aq = 1. Then ~u1 ~uq = ~v1 ~vq .
Proof:
Remark 4.3.31 Suppose that for each p 2 f1 qg, we have ~up~vp 2 Vp. Suppose also
that ~u1 ~uq = ~v1 ~vq 6= 0. Then 9a1 aq 2 R such that a1 a2 aq = 1 and for each
p 2 f1 qg we have ~vp = a(p)~u(p).
Proof:
By remark 4.3.29, no ~up or ~vp is ~0. By hypothesis, for any (~x1 ~xq ) 2
V1
Vq we have
(4.3.3)
Choose any p 2 f1 qg, and take ~xr = ~vr if r 6= p. Then for any ~xp 2 Vp
(4.3.3) implies
) (~u(q) ~v(q) )
~v(p) ~x(p) = (~u1 ~v(1~v) ~v(~u) (p;1)(~v ~v(p;1) ~v)(~u(p))( ~~xv (p) )(~u(~vp+1) ~)v(p+1)
1 1
(p;1) (p;1) (p+1) (p+1) (~v(q) ~v(q) )
or
~v(p) ~x(p) = a(p)~u(p) ~x(p)
(4.3.4)
where
(4.3.5)
30
~vp = a(p)~u(p):
Then ~v1 ~vq = (a1 aq )(~u1 ~uq ). But ~v1 ~vq = ~u1 ~uq by hypothesis,
so (a1 aq ; 1)(~u1 ~uq ) = 0. Since ~u1 ~uq 6= 0, a1 aq ; 1 = 0, or
a1 aq = 1 (see facts about ~0, p=s).
Chapter 5
Polyad Bases and Tensor Components
5.1 Polyad bases
It is true (see exercise 4) that some tensors of order 2 are not polyads. However, every
tensor is a sum of polyads. We have
Theorem 5.1.15 For p 2 f1 : : : qg, suppose Vp is a Euclidean space and Bp = (~b(1p) ~b(npp))
(2)
(q)
is an ordered basis for Vp. Then the n1 n2 nq polyads ~b(1)
i1 ~bi2 ~biq are a basis for
V1 Vq .
Proof:
(5.1.2)
Let BpD = (~b1(p) ~bn(pp)) be the dual basis for Bp. Choose a particular q-tuple
of integers (j1 jq ) and set ~x1 = ~bj(1)1 ~xq = ~bj(qq) in (5.1.2). The result is
~j1 ~(q) ~jq
S i1 iq ~b(1)
= bi b = 0:
i b
1
(1)
31
(q)
32
and
(q)
& := T i1 iq~b(1)
(5.1.4)
i1 ~biq :
Clearly & is a linear combination of the polyads ~b(i1i) ~b(iqq) . We will show that
T = &. Since (B1D BqD ) is a basis sequence for V1
Vq , by remark
1.2.10 it su"ces to show that
h
(q) (j1 )
(q) i
= T i1 iq ~b(1)
i1 ~biq ~b(1) ~biq
~j1 ~(q) ~jq i1 iq j1
= T i1 iq ~b(1)
i1 iq jq
i1 b(1) biq b(q) = T
= T j1 iq = T ~bj1 ~bjq :
(1)
(q )
QED.
33
Corollary 5.1.15 Suppose V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces and W is a real vector space,
not necessarily Euclidean. Suppose L : V1 Vq ! W and M : V1 Vq ! W
8
>
i1 iq = T ~bi1 ~biq
T
>
(1)
(
q
)
>
>
>
>
>
>
i1 iq;1 i = T ~b(1) i1 ~b(q;1) iq;1 ~b (q)
T
>
q
i
q
>
>
>
>
<.
..
>
>
>
>
>
(1) ~ q;1 ~ iq
>
i
q =T ~
>
T
bi1 biq;1 b(q)
i1 iq;1
>
>
>
>
>
>
(q)
: Ti1 iq = T ~bi(1)
~
b
iq
1
(5.2.1)
An array is said to be \covariant" in its subscripts and \contravariant" in its superscripts. The rst array in (5.2.1) is the array of \contravariant components of T relative to (B1 Bq )." The last array is the array of \covariant components relative
34
to (B1 Bq )." The other 2q ; 2 arrays are arrays of \mixed components relative
to (B1 Bq )." Note that each array in the list (5.2.1) is the array of contravariant
components of T relative to a suitable basis sequence. For example, T i1 iq;1 iq is the
contravariant array relative to the basis sequence (B1 Bq;1 BqD ), and Ti1 iq is the
contravariant array relative to (B1D B2D BqD ). Similarly, each array is the covariant
array relative to some basis sequence.
From (5.1.3) and (5.1.4) and the fact that T = & in those equations, we conclude
(2)
(q )
T = T i1 iq~b (1)
i1 ~b i2 ~biq :
(5.2.2)
>
>
>
>
>
q;1 iq
>
T = T i1 iq;1 iq~b(1)
i1 ~biq;1~b(q)
>
>
>
>
>
<.
..
>
>
>
>
>
>
>
T = Ti1 iq;1 iq = ~bi(1)1 ~b(iqq;;11) ~bi(qq)
>
>
>
>
>
>
i1 ~b iq
: T = Ti1 iq~b(1)
(q)
(5.2.3)
(q )
i i
Note 5.2.1 Suppose T = T~i iq~b(1)
i ~biq for some array T~ q . Since the polyads
~bi(1) ~bi(qq) are a basis for V1 Vq , therefore T~i iq = T i iq . By using others of the
1
2q basis sequences one can reach the same conclusion for any of the 2q equations (5.2.3).
relative to which one of the 2q component arrays of S is the same as the corresponding
component array of T (e.g. Ti1 i2 i3 iq = Si i2 i3 iq ) then S = T .
35
Note 5.2.3 The notation has been chosen to permit the restricted index conventions. A
double index is summed only when it is a superscript at one appearance and a subscript
at the other. The equation ai = bi holds for all possible values of i, but ai = bi should
not occur unless we introduce orthonormal bases.
Note 5.2.4 If each of the bases B1 Bq is orthonormal, then Bp = BpD , and all 2q
component arrays (5.2.3) are identical, and all 2q equations (5.2.3) are the same. One
uses the non-restricted index convention.
1
!
~1
np
~
~
np ~ D
~
~
~
= b (p) b (p) Bp = b (p) b (p) :
j1
jq
T~j1 jq = T ~~b(1) ~~b(q)
Thus
~b j1 ~b (q) ~~b jq :
~
T~j1 jq = T i1 iq ~bi(1)
iq
(q)
(1)
1
(5.3.1)
36
If we replace some of the bases in (B1 Bq ) and (B~1 B~q ) by their duals, we
can immediately obtain (5.3.1) with some of the j 's as subscripts and some of the i's as
subscripts on the components and superscript on the ~b's.
For example,
T~j1 j2 jq
!
!
(1)
j2
~
~
(1)
(2)
= T i1 iq;1 iq ~bi1 ~bj1 ~bi2 ~b(2)
!
!
jq;1
jq
~
~
i
(
q
;
1)
q
~biq;1 ~b(q;1) ~b(q) ~b(q)
(5.3.2)
As an interesting special case of (5.3.1), we can take for (B~1 B~q ) the basis sequence
obtained from (B1 Bq ) by replacing some of the Bp by BpD . For example, if B~1 = B1D
and B~p = Bp for p 2, (5.3.1) becomes
Tj1 j2 jq = T i1 j2 jq gi(1)1j1
(5.3.3)
where gij(1) = ~bi(1) ~bj(1) is the covariant metric matrix of B1. Similarly, if (B~1 B~q ) =
(B1D BqD ), (5.3.1) becomes
(5.3.4)
Formulas like (5.3.3) and (5.3.4) (there are 4q such) are said to raise or lower the indices
of the component array of T .
Proof:
Immediate from denition of components, 5.2.19.
37
Remark 5.4.34 Suppose T 2 V1 Vq and ~v(p) 2 Vp p = 1 q. Taking components relative to any basis sequence gives
T ~v(1) ~v(q) = T i1 iq vi(1)1 vi(qq):
Proof:
i1
~v (p) = vi(pp)~bi(pp) so T (~v (1) ~v (q) ) = T vi(1)1 ~b(1)
vi(qq)~b(iqq)
(q) T ~bi1 ~b iq = v (1) v (q) T i1 iq .
= vi(1)
v
iq
i1
iq
(1)
(q )
1
(5.5.1)
38
Here B D = (~b1 ~bn) is the basis dual to B . For mixed arrays of components, things
are not quite so simple. For example, if (rs) is a transposition with r < s then
(5.5.2)
Proof:
T (~bi ~bj ) = ;T (~bj ~bi ) , T (~bi ~bj ) = ;T (~bj ~bi) , T (~bj ~bi) = ;T (~bj ~bi) .
Moreover, if any one of the three equations (5.5.2) is true relative to one basis B for
V , then T is antisymmetric. For example, if T i j = ;Tj i then T and ;(12)T take the
same values on the basis sequence (B D B ) for V
V . Therefore, by remark 1.2.10,
T = ;(12)T .
I (~u~v) = ~u ~v:
Let B = (~b1 ~bn) be any ordered basis for V , with dual basis B D = (~b1 ~bn ). Let
gij = ~bi ~bj and gij = ~bi ~bj be the covariant and contravariant metric matrices relative to
B . Then
I ij
Ii j
Ii j
Iij
39
(The reason for calling I the \identity tensor" will appear later.) Relative to an orthonormal basis, any component array of I is ij .
From (5.2.3) it follows that
(5.6.1)
I = x^ix^i
(5.6.2)
Ai1 in = A ~b i1 ~b in = "i1 in A ~b 1 ~b n :
Ai1 in = A ~bi1 ~bin = "i1 in A ~b1 ~bn :
It is not true that
Ai1 i2 in = "i1 i2 in A ~b1 ~b2 ~bn :
(5.6.3)
(5.6.4)
40
Chapter 6
The Lifting Theorem
We must learn to perform a number of simple but useful operations on tensors of order q.
Most of these operations will be easy to perform on polyads, so we express T 2 V1 Vq
as a sum of polyads and perform the operations on the individual polyads, adding the
results. The procedure works quite well once we have overcome a di"culty which is best
understood by considering an example.
Suppose 1 r < s q and V1 Vq are Euclidean vector spaces and Vr = Vs. For
any T 2 V1 Vq , we want to dene the \trace on indices r and s", written trrsT .
First, suppose P is a polyad in V1 Vq , that is
(6.0.1)
(6.0.2)
Then we dene
If T 2 V1 Vq , we write
T=
and we dene
m
X
i=1
Pi Pi a polyad
trrsT =
m
X
i=1
trrsPi:
(6.0.3)
(6.0.4)
42
(i) Suppose P = ~u1 ~ur ~us ~uq = ~v1 ~vr ~vs ~vq . Is it true that (~ur
~us)~u1 6 ~ur 6 ~us ~uq = (~vr ~vs)~v1 6 ~vr 6 ~vs ~vq ? If not, trrsP is not
uniquely dened by (6.0.2).
(ii) Suppose T = Pmi=1 Pi = Pnj=1 Qj where Pi and Qj are polyads. Is it true that
Pm tr P = Pn tr Q ? If not, tr T is not uniquely dened by (6.0.3).
rs
i=1 rs i
j =1 rs j
To attack this problem, we return to the very rst sloppiness, in (6.0.2). We hope that
trrsP will be a unique polyad in V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq , so that trrs maps the
set of polyads in V1 Vq into the set of polyads in V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq .
But di"culty i) above leads us to look carefully at (6.0.1) and (6.0.2), and to recognize
that until we have provided some theory all we have really done in (6.0.2) is to show
how to take an ordered q-tuple (~u1 ~uq ) and assign to it a polyad of order q ; 2 in
V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq . The polyad assigned to (~u1 ~uq ) is
(6.0.5)
M 2 M(V1 Vq ! V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq ):
(6.0.6)
This M is all we really have. The process of constructing a linear mapping trrs : V1
Vq ! V1 6 V r 6 V s Vq from the M of (6.0.5) is a very general one. That
such a construction is possible and unique is the intent of the \lifting theorem." This
theorem holds for all tensors, not just those over Euclidean spaces, and it is sometimes
(as in Marcus, Multilinear Algebra) taken as the denition of V1 Vq .
A formal statement of the lifting theorem for Euclidean vector spaces is as follows:
Theorem 6.0.16 (Lifting theorem). Let V1 Vq be Euclidean vector spaces and let
W be any real vector space. Let M 2 M(V1
Vq ! W ). Then there is exactly one
43
V1 x . . . x Vq
M x
x
V1 x . . . x Vq
Figure 6.1:
M
2 L(V1 Vq ! W ) such that
M = M
(6.0.7)
M (~v1 ~vq ) = M
(~v1 ~vq )] 8 (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1
Vq :
This is equivalent to
M (~v1 ~vq ) = M
(~v1 ~vq ) :
(6.0.8)
In other words, the lifting theorem asserts the existence of exactly one linear mapping
M
: V1 Vq ! W such that when M
is applied to any polyad the result is the
same as applying M to any q-tuple of vectors whose tensor product is that polyad.
A diagram of the three functions may clarify matters: M maps V1
Vq into W ,
and maps V1
Vq into V1 Vq . Both mappings are multilinear. The lifting
theorem \lifts" M from V1
Vq to V1 Vq by producing a unique linear mapping
M
: V1 Vq ! W which satises (6.0.7) or (6.0.8). These equations mean that if
we start at any (~v1 ~vq ) in (V~1
V~q ), and go to W either via M or via and
M
, we will reach the same vector in W . Usually, when people draw the diagram as in
Figure 6.2 they mean f : U ! W , g : U ! V , h : V ! W , and f = h g.
The proof is actually rather simple. Choose a basis sequence (B1 Bq ) for V1
Vq , with Bp = (~b(1p) ~b(npp) ). Let BpD = (~b1(p) ~bn(pp) ) be the basis for Vp dual to Bp. First
44
g
f
U
Figure 6.2:
we will prove that M
is unique, i.e. there can be no more than one M
2 L(V1 Vq !
W ) which satises (6.0.7) or (6.0.8). Suppose M
is such a mapping. Let T 2 V1 Vq .
(q )
(1)
(q)
i i
By (5.2.2), T = T i1 iq~b(1)
i1 ~biq so M
(T ) = T 1 q M
(~bi1 ~biq ) because M
is linear.
Then M
(T ) = T i1 iq M (~bi(1)
~bi(qq) ) from (6.0.8) with ~v1 = ~bi(1)
~vq = ~biq(q) . Thus
1
1
if such an M
exists, then for any T 2 V1 Vq we must have
(q)
M
(T ) = T ~bi(1)1 ~bi(qq) M ~b(1)
i1 ~biq :
(6.0.9)
In other words, M
is determined because M
(T ) is known for all T 2 V1 Vq .
It still remains to prove that there is an M
2 L(V1 Vq ! W ) which satises
(6.0.7) and (6.0.8). Our uniqueness proof has given us an obvious candidate, namely
the M
: V1 Vq ! W dened by (6.0.9). This M
is certainly a well dened
function mapping V1 Vq into W . By the denitions of ad and sc in V1 Vq ,
M
(T ) depends linearly on T , i.e. M
2 L(V1 Vq ! W ). For a formal proof,
let T1 Tn 2 V1 Vq and a1 an 2 R. Then we want to show M
(aj Tj ) =
aj M
(Tj ). From (6.0.9), and the denition of aj Tj , and the rules of vector arithmetic in
W , given on page D-11, we compute
M
aj Tj =
=
=
=
j ~ i1
(q)
~
a Tj b(1) ~b(iqq) M ~bi(1)
b
iq
1
n j h ~ i1
io
(q)
~
b
a Tj b(1) ~b(iqq) M ~bi(1)
iq
1
i
h
i1 ~b iq M ~b (1) ~b (q)
aj Tj ~b(1)
iq
i1
(q )
aj M
(Tj ):
QED.]
45
(6.0.11)
(6.0.12)
(6.0.13)
By (6.0.12),
h
(3) ~b(q) i = ~bi1 ~b(2) ~b(3) ~b(q) :
~
tr12 ~bi(1)1 ~b(2)
b
i2 i3
iq
iq
(1) i2 i3
i
We have agreed to take B1 = B2 , so ~bi(1)1 ~b(2)
i2 = 1 i2 . Thus,
h
(q )
(3)
(q) i i1 (3)
tr12 ~bi(1)1 ~b(2)
i2 ~bi3 ~biq = i2~bi3 ~biq :
(6.0.14)
46
so
Similarly
is proved from
(6.0.15)
(tr12 T )i3 iq = T j j i3 iq
(6.0.16)
Recall that for orthonormal bases we need not distinguish between superscripts and
subscripts. Thus, if all bases are orthonormal and B1 = B2,
(tr12 T )i3 iq = Tjji3 iq :
(6.0.17)
Chapter 7
Generalized Dot Products
7.1 Motivation and denition
Suppose U , V , and W are Euclidean vector spaces, and ~u 2 U , ~x 2 V , ~y 2 V , w~ 2 W .
Then ~u~x 2 U V and ~yw~ 2 V W . What could be more natural than to dene (following
Willard Gibbs)
(~u~x) (~yw~ ) := ~u (~x ~y) w~
(7.1.1)
which is the same as (~u~x) (~yw~ ) := (~x ~y) ~uw~ ? Then the denition can be extended so
that if P 2 U V and R 2 V W we dene P R by writing
P=
m
X
i=1
Pi
R=
n
X
j =1
Rj
(7.1.2)
P R :=
n
m X
X
i=1 j =1
Pi Rj
(7.1.3)
48
~xj and ~yj 2 Vj , w~ r 2 Wr . We would like to dene a generalized dot product of order q as
(~u1 ~up~x1 ~xq ) hqi (~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )
(7.1.4)
P hqiR :=
m X
n
X
i=1 j =1
PihqiRj :
(7.1.5)
BB CC
BB CC
@ A
~xq
BB CC
BB CC
:
@ A
~yq w~ 1 w~ r
(7.1.6)
M 2 M(U1
Up
V1
Vq
V1
Vq
W1
Wr !
U1 Up W1 Wr )
49
by requiring
(7.1.7)
M
2 L(U1 Up V1 Vq V1 Vq W1 W !
U1 Up W1 Wr )
satisfying
M
(~u1 ~up ~x1 ~xq ~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )
= M (~u1 ~up ~x1 ~xq ~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )
= (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq ) ~u1 ~upw~ 1 w~ r
(7.1.8)
for all
(~u1 ~up ~x1 ~xq ~y1 ~yq w~ 1 w~ r )
2 U1
Up
V1
Vq
V1
Vq
V1
Vq
W1
Wr :
For any P 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and any R 2 V1 Vq W1 Wr ,
we dene
P hqiR := M
(PR):
(7.1.9)
Then if P and R are polyads, (7.1.8) says we do have (7.1.4).
We can calculate P hqiR for any tensors and P and R by writing them as sums of
polyads and doing the arithmetic justied by
(7.1.10)
50
Equation (7.1.10) is true for any Pi and Rj , but when Pi and Rj are polyads,
(7.1.10) and (7.1.4) give a convenient way to calculate P hqiR for any tensors
P and R.
P = P i1 ipj1 jq~bi(1)
~bi(pp) ~j(1)1 ~j(qq)
1
k1 ~ kq ~6 (1) ~6 (r)
R = Rk1 kq l1 lr ~(1)
lr
(q) l1
(~(kpp) are the dual basis vectors to ~k(pp) ). Then
(7.1.4) gives
k1 ~ (q) ~ kq ~b (1) ~b (p)~6 (1) 6(r)
~
P hqiR = P i1 ipj1 jq Rk1 kq l1 lr ~j(1)
jq
ip l1
lr
(1)
(q) i1
1
(r)
= P i1 ipj1 jq Rk1 kq l1 lr jk11 jkqq i(1)
~bi(pp~) 6(1)
l1 ~6lr
1
P hqiR = P i1 ipj1 jq Rj1 jq l1 lr ~bi(1)
~bi(pp)~6l(1)
~6l(rr) :
1
1
(7.2.1)
51
It is important to remember that for (7.2.1) to hold, the same bases for V1 Vq (and
their dual bases) must be used to calculate the components of P and R.
Covariant or contravariant metric matrices can be used to raise or lower any index i or
l or pair j in (7.2.1). The same collection of 2p+q+r formulas can be obtained immediately
from (7.2.1) by choosing to regard certain of the original bases for the Ui, Vj or Wk as
dual bases, the duals becoming the original bases. For example,
(P hqiR)i1 i2 ipl1 lr;1 lr =
= Pi1 i2 ipj1 j2 jg Rj1 j2 jq l1 lr;1 lr
All the 2p+q+r variants of (7.2.1) collapse into a single formula when all the bases are
orthonormal.
52
Property 7.3.4 P hqiR and RhqiP need not be the same even if both are dened. This is
obvious from property 7.3.3 and the corresponding result for tensor products. An example
with q = 1 is this. Let ~u~v w~ ~x 2 V . Let P = ~u~v, R = w~ ~x. Then P R = (~v w~ )~u~x and
R P = (~x ~u)w~ ~v. If these two dyads are equal and not 0, remark (4.3.30) shows that ~u
must be a multiple of w~ and ~x must be a multiple of ~v.
(7.3.1)
Proof:
First we prove (7.3.1) when P R, T are polyads. In that case (7.3.1) follows
from (7.1.4) by simple computation, which we leave to the reader. That
(7.3.1) holds for polyads can also be seen immediately from the mnemonic
diagram (7.1.6). The generalized dot products hqi and hsi are formed by
53
{{
Figure 7.1:
dotting vertical pairs of vectors in the regions of overlap of P , R, T . It is
clearly irrelevant to the outcome, whether we dot rst the q vectors in P with
those below them in R or the s vectors in R with those below them in T .
Next suppose P , R1 Rn are polyads and T is any tensor and R = Pi Ri.
Then P hqi(RhsiT ) = P hqi (Pi Ri)hsiT ] = P hqi Pi(RihsiT )] = Pi P hqi(RihsiT )] =
P (P hqiR )hsiT ] = P (P hqiR )] hsiT = P hqi(E R )] hsiT = (P hqiR)hsiT .
i
i
i i
i
i
Thus (7.3.1) holds when P is a polyad and R and T are any tensors.
Finally, suppose P1 Pn are polyads and R and T are any tensors, and
P = Pi Pi, Then P hqi(RhsiT ) = (Pi Pi)hqi(RhsiT ) = Pi Pihqi(RhsiT )] =
54
Figure 7.2:
may be dierent even if both are dened (they may not be). As an example,
suppose all tensors are over a single space V . Let ~u~v w~ ~x ~y 2 V . Let
P = ~u~v, R = w~ , T = ~x~y. Then we have the diagram
P = 22
R = 2
T = 22
which exhibits the fatal P ; T overlap shown in Figure (7.2). We have P
(R T ) = ~u~v (w~ ~x)~y] = (w~ ~x) (~u~v) ~y] = (w~ ~x)(~v ~y)~u and (P R) T =
~u(~v w~ )] (~x~y) = (~v w~ ) ~u (~x~y)] = (~v w~ )(~u ~x)~y. If we choose ~x and ~y to
be mutually perpendicular unit vectors, and take ~v = ~y, ~u = w~ = ~x, we have
P (R T ) = ~u = ~x and (P R) T = ~0.
(7.3.2)
55
v=y
u =w=x
Figure 7.3:
Proof:
If P = ~x1~x2 ~xq and R = ~y1~y2 ~yq then P hqiR = (~x1 ~y1) (~xq ~yq ) =
(~y1 ~x1) (~yq ~xq ) = RhqiP , so (7.3.2) is true of P and R are polyads. But
both RhqiP and P hqiR are bilinear in P and R, so the proof of (7.3.2) for
general tensors P and R in V1 Vq is like the proof of (7.3.1).
(7.3.3)
Proof:
For i 2 f1 qg, let (^x(1i) x^(nii) ) be an orthonormal basis for Vi. By
(7.2.1),
P hqiP = Pi1 iq Pi1 iq :
(7.3.4)
This is a sum of squares of real numbers. It is > 0 unless every term is 0, i.e. Pi1 iq = 0.
In that case P = 0.
Theorem 7.3.17 On the vector space V1 Vq , dene the dot product dp(P R) =
P hqiR for all P , R 2 V1 Vq . With this dot product, V1 Vq is a Euclidean
vector space.
Proof:
56
Properties (7.2.1), (7.3.2), (7.3.3) show that dp satises a) b), c), d) on page D18.
Corollary 7.3.16 Let (^x(1i) x^(nii) ) be an orthonormal basis for Vi, i = 1 q. Then
(2)
(1)
the n1 n2 nq polyads x^(1)
i x^i x^iq are an orthonormal basis for V1 Vq .
1
Proof:
By theorem 5.1.15 they are a basis. To prove them orthonormal, we note
(q )
(q)
(1)
(^x(1)
x(1)
x(1)
x(iqq) x^(jqq) ) = i1 j1 i2 j2 iq jq :
i1 x^iq )hq i(^
j1 x^jq ) = (^
i1 x^j1 ) (^
X
J
!2 X
PIJ RJL
PIJ2
! X
K
2
RKL
where K stands for the q-tuple (k1 kq ). (We have simply changed the
summation index from J to K .) Summing over I and L gives
X X
IL
!2 0X 1 0X 1
2 A
PIJ RJL @ PIJ2 A @ RKL
IJ
KL
57
u1 . . . u p
v1 . . . v q
Figure 7.4:
or
X
IL
0
10
1
X
X
2 A:
(P hqiR)2IL @ PIJ2 A @ RKL
IJ
KL
kP hqiRk2 kP k2kRk2:
Taking square roots gives (7.3.5).
(7.4.1)
Note that (7.3.1) applies, so no parentheses are needed to say whether hpi or hqi is
calculated rst. There is none of the overlap shown in gure 7.2. The diagram for (7.4.1)
is shown in Figure 7.4. Therefore, at least (7.4.1) is unambiguous. To prove it true,
suppose rst that T is a polyad, T = ~x1 ~xp~y1 ~yq . Then
(~u1 ~up) hpi T hqi (~v1 ~vq ) = (~u1 ~up) hpiT ] hqi (~v1 ~vq )
58
This proves (7.4.1) when T is a polyad. But both sides of (7.4.1) depend linearly on T ,
so if (7.4.1) is true for polyads T , it is true when T is a sum of polyads. That is, (7.4.1)
is true for any tensor T 2 U1 Up V1 Vq .
~u ~v = Ah2i (~u~v) :
(7.4.2)
59
Usually we omit the A and write simply ~u
~v, but it should always be remembered that
there are two oriented 3-spaces, (V A) and (V ;A), and so two ways to dene ~u
~v.
We will now show that our cross product is the usual one. First, if ai, bj 2 R and ~ui,
~vj 2 V for i = 1 m and j = 1 n
(ai~ui)
(bj~vj ) = ai bj (~ui
~vj ) :
(7.4.3)
For (ai~ui)
(bj~vj ) = Ah2i (ai~ui)(bj~vj )] = Ah2i (aibj ~ui~vj )] = aibj Ah2i(~ui~vj )] = aibj (~ui
~vj ). Second, w~ (~u
~v) = w~ Ah2i(~u~v)] = A(w~ ~u~v) = A(~u~v w~ ) so
(~u
~v) w~ = A (~u~v w~ ) :
(7.4.4)
8
>
< (~u
~v) w~ = (~v
w~ ) ~u = (w~
~u) ~v
>
: = ; (~v
~u) w~ = ; (~u
w~ ) ~v = ; (w~
~v) ~u:
(7.4.5)
~v ~u = ;~u ~v:
(7.4.6)
Therefore, ~u
~u = ~0. Setting w~ = ~u in (~u
~v) w~ = (w~
~u) ~v gives (~u
~v) ~u =
(~u
~u) ~v = 0. Thus, using (7.4.6),
(~u
~v) ~u = (~u
~v) ~v = 0:
(7.4.7)
(7.4.8)
If the ordered basis is negatively oriented and orthonormal, A(~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) = ;1 so
(~u
~v)i = ;"ijk uj vk :
(7.4.9)
60
(7.4.10)
can be derived from (7.4.8) as follows: relative to any positively oriented orthonormal
basis
~u
(~v
w~ )]i = "ijkuj (~v
w~ )k
= "ijkuj "klmvl wm
= "ijk"klmuj vl wm
= (il jm ; imjl ) uj vl wm see page D-9
= uj wj vi ; uj vj wi
Since the vector on the left of (7.4.5) has the same components as the vector on the right,
those two vectors are equal.
From (7.4.5) and (7.4.10) we have (~u
~v)(~u
~v ) = ~u~v
(~u
~v)] = ~uk~vk2~u ; (~v ~u)~v] =
k~uk2 k~vk2 ; (~u ~v)2 , so
k~u
~vk2 = k~uk2k~vk2 ; (~u
~v)2:
(7.4.11)
We have dened the angle
between ~u and ~v as the
in 0
such that ~u ~v =
k~ukk~vk cos
. With this denition of
, (7.4.11) implies
(7.4.12)
Equations (7.4.7) and (7.4.12) determine that ~u
~v is ?~u and ~v and has length
k~ukk~vk sin
. This leaves two possibilities for a nonzero ~u
~v. The correct one is determined by the fact that
A (~u~v ~u
~v) > 0 if ~u
~v 6= 0:
(7.4.13)
To prove (7.4.3), we note that A(~u~v ~u
~v) = A(~u
~v ~u~v) = (~u
~v) Ah2i(~u~v)] =
(~u
~v) (~u
~v). Inequality (7.4.3) is usually paraphrased by saying that \~u~v ~u
~v is
a positively oriented ordered triple." If we orient the space we live in by choosing A so
61
Figure 7.5:
that our right thumb, index nger and middle nger are positively oriented ordered triple
of vectors when extended as in Figure (7.5), we will obtain the usual denition of ~u
~v
in terms of the right hand screw rule.
Application 3: Let U1 Up, V1 Vq be Euclidean spaces. Then
(7.4.14)
Proof:
What is meant is that there is a natural isomorphism between the spaces
on the two sides of (7.4.14). Before proving this, we note that the tensor
product of U1 Up and V1 Vq on the right in (7.4.14) is dened,
because U1 Up and V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces. Their dot
products are hpi and hqi. To construct the isomorphism whose existence
is asserted by (7.4.14), let T 2 U1 Up V1 Vq and dene
Te : (U1 Up )
(V1 Vq ) ! R by requiring for any P 2 U1 Up
and any Q 2 V1 Vq that
(7.4.15)
62
$
L2 U V:
Thus, (7.4.16) can be written in the equivalent form
$
~u L ~v = L(~u) ~v:
(7.4.17)
(7.4.18)
For a xed ~u 2 U , (7.4.18) is true for all ~v 2 V . Hence, since ~u L~ and L(~u) are both in
V , we have
$
~u L= L(~u):
(7.4.19)
$
$
Let : L(U ! V ) ! U V be dened by (L) =L. If we know L= (L), we can
recover L from (7.4.19), so is an injection. We claim is also a surjection. That is,
63
every T 2 U V is (L) for at least one L 2 L(U ! V ). Suppose T is given and dene L
$
$
$
by L(~u) = ~u T . Then L (~u~v) = ~u L ~v = L(~u) ~v = ~u T ~v = T (~u~v), so T =L= (L).
We claim that : L(U ! V ) ! U V is also linear. If L1 Ln 2 L(U ! V ) and
a1 an 2 R, we claim
!
$
(aiLi )= ai Li :
(7.4.20)
The proof is this: for any ~u 2 U and ~v 2 V ,
!
~u (aiLi ) ~v = (aiLi)(~u)] ~v = fai Li(~u)]g ~v
$
= ai Li(~u) ~v] = ai (~u Li ~v)
$
= ~u ai Li ~v:
!
$
Thus (aiLi )(~u~v) = (ai L)(~u~v) for all ~u 2 U , ~v 2 V . Hence (7.4.20).
We have now shown that is a linear bijection between the two vector spaces L
(U ! V ) and U V . We can use to regard any linear mapping L : U ! V as a tensor
$
L2 U V and vice-versa. The process of taking linear combinations can be done either
to the tensors or to the linear mappings, so confusing tensors with linear mappings does
no harm to linear combinations.
Linear mappings can also be \multiplied" by composition. If K 2 L(U ! V ) and
L 2 L(V ! W ) then L K 2 L(U ! W ). Our identication of tensors with linear
mappings almost preserves this multiplication. We have
! $ $
L K =K L :
(7.4.21)
The proof is simple. For any ~u 2 U ,
!
~u (L K ) = (L K )(~u) = L K (~u)]
$
$
= K (~u) L= (~u K~ ) L
$
= ~u (K~ L)
by (7.3.1):
Since this is true for all ~u 2 U , corollary (7.4.18) gives (7.4.21).
If IU : U ! U is the identity operator on U (that is, IU (~u) = ~u for all ~u 2 U ) then for
any ~u1 ~u2 2 U ,
$
(7.4.22)
I U (~u1 ~u2) = IU (~u1) ~u2 = ~u1 ~u2:
64
$
That is, I U is what we have already called the identity tensor on U see example 5.6.3.
The origin of that name is now clear. And (7.4.22) can also be written
$
~u1 I U ~u2 = ~u1 ~u2:
(7.4.23)
This is true for all ~u1 and ~u2 2 U , so we have for any ~u 2 U
$ $
~u I U = I U ~u = ~u:
(7.4.24)
(7.4.25)
(7.4.27)
Since the tensors in U V and the linear mappings in L(U ! V ) can be thought of
as essentially the same objects, any concept dened for one can be dened immediately
for the other. Denition 7.4.23 is an example of this process. Other examples are below.
65
$
$
From denition 7.4.23 and 7.4.24 it is apparent that for any L2 V V , L;1 exists i
$
det L6= 0.
$T $
$
$
Denition 7.4.25 If L2 U V then L :=LT . Thus LT 2 V U .
Here LT is the
of L : U ! V , as dened on page D-24. From the denition
$transpose
T
$
$
of LT we have L (~v ~u) =LT (~v ~u) = LT (~v) ~u = ~v L(~u) = L(~u) ~v =L (~u~v): Thus
$
$
LT = (12) L :
(7.4.28)
$T
$T
$
$
It is also
true
that
for
any
(
~
u
~
v
)
2
U
V
,
~
v
L
~
u
=
L
(
~
v
~
u
)
=
(
~
u
~
v
)
=
~
u
L
L ~v.
$
$
Thus ~v LT ~u ; ~u L = 0. This is true for that for any ~v 2 V so for all ~u 2 U
$
$
LT ~u = ~u L :
(7.4.29)
$T $
~v L =L ~v:
(7.4.30)
$ $
Similarly, ~v LT ; L ~v ~u = 0 for all ~u 2 U so if ~v 2 V
$
P hqi L hqiQ = L(P )hqiQ:
(7.4.31)
Here hpi and hqi are to be interpreted as the dot products on U1 Up and V1 Vq ,
$
and L is a second order tensor in the space (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ), which is the
tensor product of two Euclidean spaces.
66
$
However, as we saw on page 61, L can also be interpreted as a tensor of order p + q
in U1 Up V1 Vq . Equation (7.4.31) continues to hold, but now hpi and
hqi are interpreted as generalized dot products, and $L2 U1 Up V1 Vq .
Therefore, the linear mappings L 2 L(U1 Up ! V1 Vq ) can be viewed as
$
$
tensors L2 U1 Up V1 Vq . If we know L, we nd L from (7.4.31) by taking
$
P and Q to be arbitrary polyads. If we know L2 U1 Up V1 Vq , then we
know it in (U1 Up) (V1 Vq ) so we nd L by appealing to (7.4.19). That
is, for any P 2 U1 Up,
$
L(P ) = P hpi L :
(7.4.32)
The generalization from application 4 to application 5 is particularly useful in continuum mechanics.
Chapter 8
How to Rotate Tensors (and why)
8.1 Tensor products of linear mappings
For j 2 f1 qg, suppose Vj and Wj are Euclidean vector spaces and Lj 2 L(Vj ! Wj ).
We would like to dene a linear mapping
L1 Lq : V1 Vq ! W1 Wq
by requiring that for any polyad ~v1 ~vq 2 V1 Vq we have
(L1 Lq ) (~v1 ~vq ) = L1 (~v1) Lq (~vq ) :
(8.1.1)
The lifting theorem will show that there is exactly one such L1 Lq . To nd it, we
invoke that theorem. We dene
M : V1
Vq ! W1 Wq
by requiring for any (~v1 ~vq ) 2 V1
Vq that
68
M x
W1 x . . . x Wq
x
V1 x . . . x Vq
Figure 8.1:
(q)
Remark 8.1.37 Suppose ~b(1j) ~b(njj) is an ordered basis for Vj and Q = Qi iq~b(1)
i ~biq
2 V1 Vq . Then
1
h
i
(q )
(L1 Lq ) (Q) = Qi1 iq L1 ~b(1)
i1 Lq ~biq :
(8.1.2)
Proof:
h
(q) i
L1 Lq is linear, so (L1 Lq )(Q) = Qi1 iq (L1 Lq ) ~b(1)
i1 ~biq :
Now use (8.1.1).
(8.1.3)
Proof:
We want to show for every P 2 U1 Uq that
(K1 Kq ) (L1 Lq )] (P ) = (K1 L1 ) (Kq Lq )] (P ):
By linearity it su"ces to prove this when P is any polyad ~u1 ~uq . But
(K1 Kq ) (L1 Lq )] (~u1 ~uq )
= (K1 Kq ) (L1 Lq )(~u1 ~uq )]
= (K1 Kq ) L1(~u1) Lq (~uq )]
= K1 L1 (u1)] K2 L2 (u2)] Kq Lq (uq )] (K1 L1 )(~u)] (K2 L2 )(~u2)]
(Kq Lq )(~uq )]
= (K1 L1 ) (Kq Lq )] (~u1 ~uq ):
69
Remark 8.1.39 Suppose that for j 2 f1 qg we have Lj 2 L(Vj ! Wj ) for Euclidean
spaces Vj and Wj . Suppose P 2 V1 Vq and (w~ 1 w~ q ) 2 W1
Wq . Then
h
i
(L1 Lq )(P )] (w~ 1 w~ q ) = P LT1 (w~ 1) LTq (w~ q ) :
(8.1.4)
Proof:
Both sides of this equation are linear in P , so it su"ces to prove the equation
when P is a polyad, P = ~v1 ~vq . In that case,
(L1 Lq )(P )] (w~ 1 w~ q ) = L1(~v1 ) Lq (~vq )] (w~ 1 w~ q )
= L1(~v1 ) w~ 1] Lq (~vq ) w~ q ]
Lemma 8.1.22 Suppose V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces, ~vj 2 Vj for j 2 f1 qg, and
2 Sq . Then
(~v1 ~vq ) = ~v; ~v;q :
(8.1.5)
1
(1)
1
( )
Proof:
From the denition (1.4.10),
= ~v;1 (1) ~v;1(q) w~ ;1(1) w~ ;1(q)
= ~v;1 (1) w~ ;1(1) ~v;1 (q) w~ ;1(q)
QED.
70
(L1 Lq ) = L;1(1) L;1(q) :
(8.1.6)
Proof:
The domain of L1 Lq is V1 Vq . We want to prove that if
P 2 V1 Vq then (L1 Lq )](P ) = (L;1(1) L;1 (q) )](P ),
i.e., (L1 Lq )](P ) = (L;1 (1) L;1 (q) )(P ). Both sides of the
last equation are linear in P , so it su"ces to prove that equation when P is a
polyad, say P = ~v1 ~vq . In this case
= L;1 (1) L;1 (q) (~v1 ~vq )] by 8.1.5
= L;1 (1) L;1 (q) ~v;1(1) ~v;1 (q)
QED.
Special Case:
Suppose V1 = = Vq = V and W1 = = Wq = W and L1 = = Lq = L. Then
we write L1 Lq as q L. Then
q L 2 L (q V ! q W )
(8.1.7)
(8.1.8)
If P 2 q V , (8.1.8) leads to the gure of speech that (q L)(P ) is obtained by applying
L to P . (Really q L is applied to P ).
71
(8.1.9)
(8.1.10)
(8.1.11)
dot products. More precisely suppose p q r are any non-negative integers. Suppose
P 2 p+q V , R 2 q+r V , and L 2 #(V ). Then
(8.2.1)
72
QED
Corollary 8.2.19 The value of a rotated q-tensor at a rotated q-tuple of vectors is the
value of the original tensor at the original q-tuple of vectors. The same is true for reections. in general, if L 2 #(V ) and Q 2 q V and (~v1 ~vq ) 2 xq V then
(q L) (Q)] L (~v1) L (~vq )] = Q (~v1 ~vq ) :
Proof:
73
This is the underlying tensor from which the inertia tensor and gravitational second degree
harmonic tensor of a solid body are calculated.
If V is real 3-space and L 2 L(V ! V ), then \subjecting a physical system to the
mapping L" means that we move all the mass points (atoms) which make up the system,
$
so that a mass point which was originally at ~rv is moved to the new location L(~rv ) = ~rv L.
If L 2 #+(V ), L subjects the body to a rigid rotation. If L 2 #(V ) but det L = ;1, L
subjects the body to a rigid rotation and also a reection in some plane. If L 2 #(V )
but det L > 0 then L is the product of a rigid rotation and a symmetric linear operator.
The latter stretches the body by dierent amounts in dierent directions. If det L < 0, a
74
Cl
Br
Br
Cl
Left Handed
Right Handed
Figure 8.2:
reection also occurs.
It is actually possible to imagine subjecting a real body to a reection if we allow
ourselves to disassemble and reassemble the body atom-by-atom. For example, iceland
spar (calcite) crystals come in right-handed or left-handed version. Liquids can also be
reected. For most, reection has no eect because the distribution of molecules in the liquid has no preferred directions and the molecules either have no right- or left-handedness,
or the right- and left-handed versions are present in equal amounts. A liquid which is
aected by reection is bromochlorouoromethane, C H F Cl Br. At one atmosphere of
pressure, it is liquid between ;115C and 36C. the molecule is a tetrahedron with H, F,
Cl, Br at the four vertices and C at the center. It can come in two forms, left handed or
right handed. To reect a pot of left-handed C H F Cl Br means to replace it by a pot of
right-handed C H F Cl Br.
If we subject a system of mass points mv at positions ~rv to the mapping L 2 L(V !
$
V ), where V is real 3-space, then the second moment tensor M of that system (see (8.3.1))
$
changes to 2 L(M ). To see this, note that the second moment tensor of the deformed
75
system is
N
N
X
X
$
=
m
L
(
~
r
)
L
(
~
r
)
=
mv 2 L (~rv~rv )
ML
v
v
v
v=1
! v=1 $
N
2 X
= L
mv~rv~rv = 2 L M :
v=1
$
If we subject a homogeneously stressed crystal to the mapping L, the stress tensor S in
$
that crystal will not change to 2 L(S ). Rather it will be determined by the elasticity
tensor E of the crystal. These examples show that it is not always obvious how to calculate
the eect of subjecting a physical system to a linear mapping L. Some tensor properties
of that system simply have L applied to them, and others do not.
The situation is much simpler if L 2 #(V ). To see this, suppose ~b1 , ~b2 , ~b3 is any basis
for real 3-space V . Suppose Q 2 q V is a measurable tensor property of a particular
physical system. Then
(8.3.2)
Q = Qi1 iq~bi1~bi2 ~biq :
\Measuring" Q means measuring the real numbers Qi1 iq . Suppose we apply to the
physical system a mapping L 2 #(V ). The new physical system will have instead of
Q the tensor QL to describe that particular physical property. Suppose we apply L to
the apparatus we used to measure Qi1 iq , and we use this mapped apparatus to measure
the contravariant components of QL relative to the basis L(~b1 ), L(~b2 ), L(~b3 ). We assume
either that no gravity or electromagnetic eld is present or, if they are, that they are
also mapped by L. Then the experiment on QL is identical to that on Q, except that it
has been rotated and possibly reected relative to the universe. As far as we know, the
univese does not care the laws of nature are invariant under reection and rigid rotation.
The universe seems to be isotropic and without handedness. (As a matter of fact, a small
preference for one orientation or handedness exists in the weak nuclear force governing
-decay Yang, Lee and Wu won Nobel prizes for this discovery it has no measurable
eects at the macroscopic level of continuum mechanics in an old universe.) Therefore,
the numbers we read on our dials (or digital voltmeters) will be the same in the original
and mapped systems. That is, the contravariant components of QL relative to L(~b1 ),
76
L(~b2 ), L(~b3 ) will be the same as the contravariant components of Q relative to ~b1 , ~b2, ~b3 .
Thus
QL = Qi1 iq L(~bi1 ) L(~bi2 ) L(~biq )
= Qi1 iq (q L)(~bi1~bi2 ~biq )
h
i
= (q L) Qi1 iq~bi1~bi2 ~biq :
Therefore, if L 2 #(V ) and the physical system is mapped by L, the new tensor property
QL is obtained by applying L to the original Q
QL = (q L)(Q):
(8.3.3)
A tensor property of a physical system rotates with that system, and is reected if the
system if reected.
77
I 2 G (S )
(8.4.1)
Finally, we claim
if L1 L2 2 G (S ) then L1 L2 2 G (S ):
(8.4.2)
if L 2 G (S ) then L;1 2 G (S ):
(8.4.3)
For LS and S are indistinguishable. Hence so are L;1(LS ) and L;1 S . But L;1 (LS )
is S , so S and L;1S are indistinguishable. Properties (8.4.1), (8.4.2), (8.4.3) show that
G (S ), is a subgroup of #(V ). It is called the invariance group of the physical system S .
Examples of invariance groups are these:
and with equal numbers of right and left-handed microcrystals, and if we make only
measurements involving lengths > > microcrystal diameter (e.g. study only seismic
waves very long compared to the size of the microcrystals), G (S ) = #(V ).
Example 8.4.8 If in example 8.4.7, 30% of the microcrystals are left handed and 70%
are right handed, G (S ) = #+(V ).
Example 8.4.9 If S is an Na Cl crystal, G (S ) is the \cubic group". It is the group
of orthogonal operators which send into itself a cube centered on ~0. If x^1 x^2 x^3 are
unit vectors parallel to the edges of the cube, G (S ) consists of those L 2 #(V ) such that
L(^xi ) = (i) x^(i) for i = 1 2 3, where 2 S3 and 1 2 3 can be +1 or ;1 independently.
78
(8.4.4)
The set I q (G ) is called the space of q'th order tensors invariant under G . The tensors in
I q (#(V )) are unchanged by any orthogonal operator. They are called \isotropic tensors".
The tensors in I q (#+(V )) are unchanged by any rotation, but may be changed by reections. They are called \skew isotropic tensors." If G is the cubic group, the tensors in
I q (G ) are unchanged by any rotation or reection which is physically undetectable in an
Na Cl crystal.
The following are simple consequences of denition 8.4.26.
79
(8.4.5)
80
(8.5.1)
Example 8.5.10 The identity tensor $I is isotropic. For, relative to any orthonormal
$
basis (^x1 x^n) for V , Iij = I (^xi x^j ) = x^i x^j = ij .
Example 8.5.11 If A is a unimodular alternating tensor, A is skew isotropic but not
isotropic. For as we saw on page 39, A has the same component array relative to every
positively oriented orthonormal basis, but its component array changes sign for negatively
oriented bases.
81
Example 8.5.13 All the tensors in example 8.5.12 are skew isotropic. By corollary
$ $$ $$$
8.4.23, so are I A, I I A, I I I A, etc. By corollary 8.4.22, so are all permutations of these
tensors. By corollary 8.4.20, so is every linear combination of such permuted tensors. We
gain nothing new by using more than one factor A. The polar identity (10.2) shows that
$$ $
if n = dim V then AA is a linear combination of n! permutations of I I I (with n
$
factors I ).
On p. 64 of his book \The Classical Groups" (Princeton, 1946), Hermann Weyl shows
that there are no isotropic tensors except those listed in example 8.5.12, and no skew
isotropic tensors except those listed in example 8.5.13. Note the corollary that all nonzero
isotropic tensors are of even order. We cannot consider Weyl's general proof, but we will
discuss in detail the tensors of orders q = 0 1 2 3 4, which are of particular interest in
continuum mechanics. We assume dim V 2.
q = 0 Tensors of order 0 are scalars. They are unaected by any orthogonal transformation, so are isotropic and therefore also skew isotropic.
q = 1 If dim V 2, the only skew isotropic tensor of order 1 is ~0. Therefore the only
isotropic tensor of order 1 is ~0.
Proof:
Tensors of order 1 are vectors. We are claiming that if dim V 2 then
the only vector which is unaected by all rotations is the zero vector.
A formal proof of this intuitively obvious fact is as follows. Suppose
~v 2 I 1 (#+(V )). Let x^ and y^ be any two unit vectors. Each is the rst
vector of a positively oriented ordered orthonormal basis (pooob), so by
corollary 8.4.24, ~v(^x) = ~v(^y). That is ~v x^ = ~v y^ for any two unit vectors
82
I 2 (#(V )) = spf$I g
I 2 (#+(V )) = spf$I g if dim V 3
I 2 (#+(V )) = spf$I Ag if dim V = 2 and
A is any nonzero member of 2V:
(8.5.2)
(8.5.3)
(8.5.4)
Proof:
The containments have all been established in examples 8.5.12 and
8.5.13, so we need prove only in (8.5.2, 8.5.3, 8.5.4). In all these cases,
suppose T 2 I 2 (#+(V )). If x^ and y^ are any unit vectors, each is the
rst vector of an ordered orthonormal basis (oob), and by changing the
sign of one later basis vector, if necessary, we can assume that these oob's
have the same orientation. Therefore T (^x x^) = T (^y y^) because T has
the same component array relative to all oobs with the same orientation.
Thus there is a scalar aT such that
(8.5.5)
If fx^ y^g is orthonormal, (^x y^) is the rst pair of vectors in an oob. Replacing (^x y^) by (^y ;x^) in that oob gives a second oob with the same
orientation. Hence, T (^x y^) = T (^y ;x^) = ;T (^y x^).
(8.5.6)
When dim V = 2, choose an oob (^x1 x^2 ) and let a = aT , b = T (^x1 x^2 )
$
=A(^x1 x^2). Then relative to this oob, Tij = aij + bA(^x1 x^2 )"ij = (a I
$
+bA)ij , so T = a I +bA, and (8.5.4) is proved. To treat (8.5.2, 8.5.3), let
83
(^x y^) be orthonormal. Both (^x y^) and (^y x^) are the rst pair of vectors
in an oob, so if T 2 I 2 (#(V )),
(8.5.7)
If dim V 3, both (^x y^) and (^y x^) are rst pairs in oobs with the same
orientation, namely (^x y^ x^3 x^n) and (^y x^ ;x^3 x^4 x^n). If T 2
I (#+ (V )), we again have 8.5.7. In either case we have (8.5.6) and (8.5.7)
so
T (^x y^) = 0 if fx^ y^g is orthonormal:
(8.5.8)
Now let (^x1 x^n ) be an oob. By (8.5.5) and (8.5.8), relative to this
$
oob we have Tij = aT ij , so T = aT I .
QED
q=3
I 3 (#(V )) = f0g
I 3 (# + (V )) = f0g if dim V 6= 3
I 3 (#+(V )) = spfAg if dim V = 3 and A 6= 0 A 2 3V:
(8.5.9)
(8.5.10)
(8.5.11)
Proof:
If dim V is even, let (^x1 x^n) be an oob for V . Then (;x^1 ;x^n)
is another oob with the same orientation. Then if T 2 I 3 (#+(V )),
T (^xi x^j x^k ) = T (;x^i ;x^j ;x^k ) = ;T (^xi x^j x^k ) = 0 so Tijk = 0 .
If dim V is odd and dim V 5, let (^x y^ z^) be any ordered orthonormal sequence. It is the rst triple of an oob (^x y^ z^ x^4 x^n) and
(;x^ y^ z^ ;x^4 x^5 x^n) is an oob with the same orientation, so
T (^x y^ z^) = T (;x^ y^ z^) = ;T (^x y^ z^) = 0. Similarly, T (^x y^ y^ ) =
;T (^x y^ y^ ) = 0 and T (^x x^ x^ ) == ;T (^x x^ x^ ) = 0. Thus if x^1 x^2 x^3
are orthonormal, T (x^i x^j x^k ) = 0 for fi j kg f1 2 3 g. This comment applies to any three vectors from an arbitrary oob for V , so Tijk = 0
84
for fi j kg f1 ng relative to any oob, and T = 0. Finally, suppose dim V = 3. If fx^ y^g is orthonormal, (^x y^) is the rst pair of an
oob (^x y^ z^), and the oob (;x^ y^ ;z^) has the same orientation. Thus
T (^x y^ y^) = T (;x^ y^ y^) = ;T (^x y^ y^) = 0. Similarly T (^y x^ y^) = 0 and
T (^y y^ x^) = 0. Also T (^x x^ x^) = T (;x^ ;x^ ;x^) = ;T (^x x^ x^) = 0.
Thus if T 2 I 3 (#+(V ))
(8.5.12)
T (^x y^ y^) = T (^y x^ y^) = T (^y y^ x^) if fx^ y^g is orthonormal: (8.5.13)
Finally, if (^x y^ z^) is an oob, then the following are oobs with the same
orientation: (^y z^ x^) , (^z x^ y^) , (^y x^ ;z^) , (^x ;z^ y^) , (;z^ y^ x^) . Then
if T 2 I 3 (#+(V ))
T (^x y^ z^) = T (^y z^ x^) = T (^z x^ y^) = ;T (^y x^ z^) = ;T (^x z^ y^) = ;T (^z y^ x^)
(8.5.14)
if fx^ y^ z^g is orthonormal. Let (^x1 x^2 x^3) be an oob for V . Let c =
T (^x1 x^2 x^3)=A(^x1 x^2 x^3 ). Then (8.5.12 , 8.5.13 , 8.5.14) imply Tijk =
cA(^x1 x^2 x^3 )"ijk = cAijk so T = cA.
QED.
Note that in all the foregoing arguments, only mutually ? vectors were used. These
arguments remain valid if G is the cubic group and T 2 I q (G ) with q = 1 2 3 and
we work only with unit vectors and oobs in the crystal axis directions. Therefore
the conclusions apply to tensors of orders 1 2 3 known only to be invariant under
$
the cubic group of Na Cl. For example, it follows that the conductivity tensor K
$
$
of Na Cl must have the form K I . In Na Cl, Ohm's law J~ = E~ K reduces to the
~ , even though an Na Cl crystal is not isotropic.
isotropic form J~ = EK
q=4
I 4 (#(V ))
$$
$$
$$
= sp I I (23) I I (24) I I
(8.5.15)
85
(8.5.16)
if dim V = 4
(8.5.17)
$
$
$
I A (23) I A (24) I A
$
$
$
AI (23)AI (24)AI g if dim V = 2:
(8.5.18)
T (w
^ x^ y^ z^) = 0 if fw
^ x^ y^ z^)g is orthonormal:
(8.5.19)
This result is also vacuously true for dim V = 3, because then we cannot nd
four orthonormal vectors in V .
Next, suppose dim V 3 and fx^ y^ z^g is orthonormal. Then fx^ y^ z^g and
(;x^ y^ ;z^) are both the rst triple in oobs with the same orientation, so
T (^x y^ z^ z^) = T (;x^ y^ ;z^ ;z^) = ;T (^x y^ z^ z^) = 0. Similarly, if fx^ y^ z^g is
orthonormal
T (^x y^ z^ z^) = T (^x z^ y^ z^) = T (^x z^ z^ y^)
= T (^z x^ y^ z^) = T (^z x^ z^ y^) = T (^z z^ x^ y^) = 0:
(8.5.20)
86
(8.5.22)
(8.5.23)
(8.5.24)
Finally, if x^ and y^ are unit vectors, each is the rst member of an oob, and
the two oobs can have the same orientation, so T (^x x^ x^ x^) = T (^y y^ y^ y^).
Therefore, there is a scalar T depending only on T such that
(8.5.25)
$$
Then tensor I I satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with = 1, = 1, u = 0, v = 0.
$$
The tensor (23) I I satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with = 1 , = 0 , u = 1,
$$
v = 0. The tensor (24) I I satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with = 1 , = 0 ,
u = 0, v = 1. Therefore, the tensor
$$
$$
$$
S = T ; T I I ;uT (23) I I ;vT (24) I I
(8.5.26)
satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with S = T ; T ; uT ; vT and S = uS = vS = 0.
Now let (^x y^) be orthonormal in V and let (^x y^ x^3 x^n) be an oob for V .
Then (^x0 y^0 x^3 x^n) is an oob with the same orientation if we take
A(^x0 y^0 x^3 x^n) = A(^x cos
+ y^ sin
;x^ sin
+ y^ cos
x^3 x^n)
= ; cos
sin
A(^x x^ x^3 x^n) + cos2
A(^x y^ x^3 x^n )
; sin2 A(^y x^ x^3 x^n) + sin
cos
A(^y y^ x^3 x^n)
= cos2
+ sin2
A(^x y^ x^3 x^n) = A(^x y^ x^3 x^n ):
But if (^x y^ x^3 x^n ) and (^x0 y^0 x^3 x^n) have the same orientation and
S 2 I 4 (#+(V )), the S (^x x^ x^ x^) = S (^x0 x^0 x^0 x^0 ). The S of (8.5.26) is a linear
combination of members of I 4 (#+(V )), so it is in I 4 (#+(V )). In addition, S
satises (8.5.19)-(8.5.25) with S = uS = vS = 0. Therefore
87
88
(8.5.29)
Chapter 9
Dierential Calculus of Tensors
9.1 Limits in Euclidean vector spaces
Denition 9.1.28 Let U be a Euclidean vector space. Let ~u 2 U . Let t 2 R, t > 0. We
B (~u t) , @B (~u t) and B( (~u t) are called, respectively, the open ball, the sphere, and the
closed ball centered at ~u with radius t. See gure 9.1
gure 9.2.
90
B(u, t)
B(u, t)
Figure 9.1:
91
.
D
.
Figure 9.2:
92
Proof:
If ~u 2 D and k~u ; ~u0 k < (1), then kf (~u) ; ~v0 k < 1 so kf~(~u)k = kf~(~u) ; ~v0 +
~v0k kf (~u) ; ~v0k + k~v0 k < 1 + k~v0k.
(9.1.1)
(9.1.2)
Let 00(") = ("=2) ^ 0("=2). If k~u ; ~u0k < 00("), then both (9.1.1) and
(9.1.2) are true, so k(f~ + f~ 0)(~u) ; ~v0 ; ~v00 k = kf~(~u) ; ~v0 + f~0 (~u) ; ~v00 k
QED.
kf~(~u) ; ~v0k + kf~0(~u) ; ~v00 k "=2 + "=2 = ".
93
Thus
8
>
if k~u ; ~u0k < R (1) then kR(~u)k < 1 + kR0 k (see corollary 9.1.26)
>
>
>
<
"
"
if
k
~
u
;
~
u
k
<
0
T 2(1+kR0 k) then kT (~u) ; T0 k < 2(1+kR0 k)
>
>
>
>
: if k~u ; ~u0k < R " then kR(~u) ; R0 k < " :
2(1+kT0 k)
2(1+kT0 k)
(9.1.4)
94
Take (") = R (1) ^ T 2(1+k"R0 k) ^ R 2(1+"kT0 k) . Then if k~u ; ~u0k < ("),
we have all three of (9.1.4), so by (9.1.3),
k(R T )(~u) ; R0 T0k < (1 + kR0 k) 2(1 +"kR k) + 2(1k+T0kkT" k) < ":
0
QED.
Corollary 9.1.29 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, and D U , and
~u0 2 D and ~v0 2 V . Suppose f~ : D ! V is dened by f~(~u) = ~v0 for all ~u 2 D. Then
f~(~u) ! ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0.
Proof:
Obvious from denition 9.1.30.
Corollary 9.1.30 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, and D U , and
~u0 2 D and ~v0 2 V . Suppose f~ : D ! V .
i) If f~(~u) ! ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0, then ~bi f~(~u) ! ~bi ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0, for any basis (~b1 ~bn) of
V , with dual basis (~b1 ~bn).
ii) If there is one basis for V , (~b1 ~bn), such that ~bi f~(~u) ! ~bi ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0, then
f~(~u) ! ~v0 as ~u ! ~u0.
Proof:
Regard ~bi as a function whose domain is D and whose value is ~bi for each
~u 2 D. Then i) follows from corollaries 9.1.28 and 9.1.29. And ii) follows
from corollaries 9.1.29 , 9.1.28, and 9.1.27.
Notice that the ranges of our functions can lie in tensor spaces since these are Euclidean
vector spaces. The corollaries all apply verbatim. The dot products are, of course,
the generalized dot products used to make tensor spaces Euclidean. The only corollary
which perhaps deserves comment is 9.1.28. It now reads thus: Suppose U , V1 V
W1 Ws, X1 Xt are Euclidean vector spaces, and D U and R : D ! V1
95
(9.2.1)
f~(~u + ~h) =
=
Therefore if ~u + ~h 2 D,
(9.2.2)
96
Now D is open, so there is an " > 0 such that if k~hk < " then ~u + ~h 2 D.
Let ~k be any vector in U , and let t be any nonnegative real number. Then
kt~kk < " as long as 0 t < "=k~kk. Therefore, if t is in this range, 9:2:2 is
true for ~h = t~k. That is
(9.2.3)
This is true for all t in 0 < t < "=k~kk. Let t ! 0, and both R~ 1(t~k) ! ~0 and
R~ 2 (t~k) ! ~0. Therefore L1 (~k) = L2 (~k). Since this is true for all k 2 U , we
have L1 = L2 .
QED
then f~ is \dierentiable at ~u ", and R~ is the \remainder function for f~ at ~u ". The tensor
$
L2 U V is called the \gradient tensor of f at ~u " or the \gradient of f~ at ~u ". It is
~ f~(~u). Since L(~h) = ~h $L, we can rewrite 9.2.33 as
written r
lim R~ (~h) = ~0 and
h~ ~ i ~ ~ ~
f~(~u + ~h) = f~(~u) + ~h r
f (~u) + khkR(h) if ~u + ~h 2 D:
a)
~h!~0
b)
(9.2.4)
Remark 9.2.43 Suppose U and V are Euclidean vector spaces, D is an open subset of
$
U , ~u 2 D, and f~ : D ! V . Suppose there is a tensor L2 U V and a function R~ : D ! V
a)
b)
~h!~0
(9.2.5)
$
Then f~ is dierentiable at ~u, its gradient tensor at ~u is L, and its remainder function at
~u is R~ .
Proof:
97
$ $ $
The hypotheses of remark 9.2.43 are satised with L= 0 , R (~h) = ~0:
$ $
The hypotheses of remark 9.2.43 are satised with L= I U , R~ (~h) = ~0.
Example 9.2.16 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U and
$
$
T is a xed tensor in U V . Suppose f~ : D ! V is dened by f~(~u) = ~u T for every
~ f~(~u) =T$. (Often abbreviated
~u 2 D. Then at every ~u 2 D, f~ is dierentiable and r
r~ (~u T$) =T$.)
Proof:
$ $
The hypotheses of remark 9.2.43 are satised with L=T , R~ (~h) = ~0.
98
~h!~0
(9.2.6)
(9.2.7)
Proof:
To obtain (9.2.4) from (9.2.6), multiply all terms in (9.2.6) on the right by ^1.
To obtain (9.2.6) from (9.2.4) dot ^1 on the right in all terms in (9.2.4). Here
$
~ f (~u)^1.
clearly L= L~ ^1 = r
this derivative as @u f~(u) rather than df~=du, for reasons made clear later). Then f~ is
dierentiable at ~u and
r~ f~(u) = ^1@uf~(u):
(9.2.8)
Proof:
By hypothesis, limh!0
for h 6= 0 then
~
f (u+h);f~(u)
h
8
9
< f~(u + h) ; f~(u)
=
h
~
;
@
f
(
u
)
R~ (h) = jhj :
u
:
h
99
(9.2.9)
(9.2.10)
Proof:
By hypothesis, if ~u + ~h 2 D then
h ~
i
~ f )~g + k~hkR~ fg (~h) (9.2.11)
f (~u + ~h)~g(~u + ~h) = f (~u)~g(~u) + ~h f (r
~g) + (r
where, by denition,
h
i
~ ~g(~u)
R~ fg (~h) = Rf (~h) ~g(~u) + ~h r
h
i
~ f (~u) + k~hkRf (~h)R~ g (~h)
+R~ g (~h) f (~u) + ~h r
h ~ i h~ ~ i ~
+ ~h r
f (~u) h r~g(~u) =khk:
As ~h ! ~0, the three terms in R~ fg , which involve Rf or R~ g , obviously !
0. So does the last term, because by Schwarz's inequality its length is
k~hkkr~ f (~u)kkr~ ~g(~u)k. Therefore remark 9.2.43 can be applied to (9.2.11).
QED.
100
Example 9.2.21 The Chain Rule. Suppose U , V , W are Euclidean vector spaces Df
is an open subset of U , Dg is an open subset of V , and f : Df ! Dg and g : Dg ! W .
Suppose ~u 2 Df and ~v = f~(~u). Suppose f~ is dierentiable at ~u and ~g is dierentiable at
~v. Then their composition, ~g f~ : Df ! W , is dierentiable at ~u and
(9.2.12)
Proof:
$ ~~
$ ~
Let Lf = r
f (~u) and Lg = r
~g(~v). Let R~ f and R~ g be the remainder functions
for f~ at ~u and ~g at ~v. Then R~ f (~h) ! ~0 as ~h ! ~0, and R~ g (~k) ! ~0 as ~k ! ~0,
and
$
f~(~u + ~h) = f~(~u) + ~h Lf +k~hkR~ f (~h) if ~u + ~h 2 Df
(9.2.13)
$
~g(~v + ~k) = ~g(~v) + ~k Lg +k~kkR~ g (~k) if ~v + ~k 2 Dg :
(9.2.14)
We hope to nd R~ gf : U ! W such that R~ gf (~h) ! ~0 as ~h ! ~0 and
$ $
(~g f~ )(~u + ~h) = (~g f~ )(~u) + ~h Lf Lg + k~hkR~ gf (~h) whenever ~u + ~h 2 Df .
This equation is the same as
h
i h i
$ $
~g f~(~u) + ~h) = ~g f~(~u) + (~h Lf ) Lg +k~hkR~ gf (~h):
(9.2.15)
(9.2.16)
(9.2.17)
h ~ ~ i h ~ i ~ $ ~ ~ ~ $ ~ ~ ~
~g f (~u + h) = ~g f (~u) + h Lf +khkRf (h) Lg +kkkRg (k):
101
This is exactly (9.2.15) if we dene R~ gf (~0) = 0 and, for ~h 6= ~0, dene
$ ~
R~ gf (~h) = R~ f (~h) Lg + k~kk R~ g (~k):
(9.2.18)
khk
Applying to (9.2.17) the triangle and Schwarz inequalities gives
k~kk k~hk k $Lf k + kR~ f (~h)k :
(9.2.19)
Therefore, as ~h ! ~0, we have ~k ! ~0, and k~kk=k~hk remains bounded. Hence
R~ f g (~h) ! ~0 as h ! 0.
QED.
(9.2.21)
102
Example 9.2.24 Suppose f~ and ~g are inverse to one another, and f~ is dierentiable at
~ f~(~u) and r
~ ~g(~v) are inverse to one another.
~u and ~g is dierentiable at ~v = f~(~u). Then r
Proof:
Let Df be the domain of f~, an open subset of Euclidean space U . Let Dg be the
domain of ~g, an open subset of Euclidean space V . By hypothesis, f~ ~g = IDg
~ f~(~u) r
~ ~g(~v) = r
~ IDf (~u) =$I U and
and ~g f~ = IDf . By the chain rule, r
r~ ~g(~v) r~ f~(~u) = r~ IDg (~v) =$I V .
QED.
Denition 9.3.36 The i'th covariant component function of f~ relative to ~1 ~n is
fi : Df ! R where, for every ~u 2 Df ,
h i
fi (~u) = f~(~u) i = f~(~u) ~i :
(9.3.1)
The ith contravariant component function of f~ relative to ~1 ~n is the i'th covariant
component function of f~ relative to ~ 1 ~ n. That is, it is f i : Df ! R where, for any
~u 2 Df ,
h ii
f i(~u) = f~(~u) = f~(~u) ~ i:
Evidently
f~ = f i~i = fi~ i:
(9.3.2)
103
Theorem 9.3.18 Let ~1 ~n be any basis for V . Let Df be an open subset of U .
Then f~ : Df ! V is dierentiable at ~u 2 Df i all n covariant component functions
fi : Df ! R are dierentiable at ~u. If they are, then
h
i
r~ fi (~u) = r~ f~(~u) i = r~ f~(~u) ~i
h
i
r~ f~(~u) = r~ f~(~u) i ~ i = r~ f~i(~u)~ i:
(9.3.3)
(9.3.4)
Proof:
lim R (~h) = 0
~h!~0 i
h~ ~ ~ i ~ ~
fi(~u + ~h) = fi(~u) + ~h r
f (~u) i + khkRi(h)
where Ri = R~ ~i. By remark 9.2.43, fi is dierentiable at ~u, and its gradient
is (9.3.3). Then (9.3.4) follows from (D-14) and (9.3.3).
( Suppose all the fi are dierentiable at ~u. We can regard ~ i as a constant
Denition 9.3.37 Let ~b1 ~bm be any basis for U . Let Df be an open subset of U
and suppose f~ : Df ! V . Then f~(uj~bj ) is a V -valued function of the real variables
u1 un. If the partial derivative @ f~(uj~bj )=@ui exists at ~u = uj~bj , we abbreviate it as
@ui f~(~u) or @i f~(~u) . Let ~b1 ~bm be the basis dual to ~b1 ~bm . If the partial derivative
(9.3.5)
~(uj~bj )
:
@ i f~(~u) := @ui f~(~u) := @ f @u
(9.3.6)
104
Theorem 9.3.19 Suppose ~b1 ~bm is any basis for U , and Df is an open subset of U ,
and f~ : Df ! V . If f~ is dierentiable at ~u 2 Df then the partial derivatives @if~(~u) and
~ f~(~u)
@if~(~u) = ~bi r
~ f~(~u)
@ i f~(~u) = ~bi r
r~ f~(~u) = ~bi @i f~(~u) = ~bi @ i f~(~u):
(9.3.7)
(9.3.8)
(9.3.9)
Proof:
By example 9.2.23, if f~ is dierentiable at ~u = uj~bj then the partial derivative
of f~(uj~bj ) with respect to ui exists (hold all uj xed except for ui) and is
h
i ~~
equal to @i(uj~bj ) r
f (~u). But obviously, by the denition of @i, @iuj = i j
so
@i (uj~bj ) = ~bi :
Thus we have (9.3.7). 9.3.8 is obtained similarly. To get (9.3.9) use the fact
$
~ f~(~u) =$I U r
~ f~(~u) = ~bi~bi r
~ f~(~u) = ~bi @i f~(~u) and
that I U = ~bi~bi = ~bi~bi. Then r
r~ f~(~u) =$LU r~ f~(~u) = ~bi~bi r~ f~(~u) = ~bi @ i f~(~u).
Note: If dim U = 1, the converse of theorem 9.3.19 is true. See example 9.2.19.
However, if dim U 2, that converse is false. A famous example is this. Let dim U = 2,
V = R. Let x^, y^ be an orthonormal basis for U and dene f : U ! R by f (~0) = 0,
p
f (xx^ + yy^) = xy= x2 + y2 if x2 + y2 =
6 0. Then @xf (~0) = 0, @y f (~0) = 0, so if f is
~ f (~0) = 0^x + 0^y = ~0. Then by example 9.2.23, @t f (tx^ + ty^) =
dierentiable at ~0 then r
~ f (~0) = 0 at t = 0. But f (tx^ + ty^) = t, so @t f (tx^ + ty^) = 1 at t = 0. This
@t (tx^ + ty^)] r
contradiction shows that f is not dierentiable at ~0.
Theorem 9.3.20 Suppose (~b1 ~bm ) and (~1 ~n) are bases for U and V respectively, with dual bases (~b1 ~bm) and (~ 1 ~ n). Suppose Df is an open subset of
U and f~ : Df ! V and ~u 2 Df . Suppose f is dierentiable at ~u. Then the partial
105
~ fj (~u). Moreover
derivatives @if~(~u) and @ifj (~u) exist, and so do the gradients r
h ~ i
@i f (~u) j = @ifj (~u)
h~
i
rfj (~u) i = @ifj (~u)
h~ ~ i
rf (~u) ij = @ifj (~u):
(9.3.10)
(9.3.11)
(9.3.12)
Proof:
(9.3.14)
(9.3.15)
(9.3.16)
106
Method 1: No Bases.
By hypothesis,
$
$
$ ~
~ $f (~u) + k~hk R
f (~u + ~h) = f (~u) + ~h r
f (h)
$ ~
$g
$
~ $g (~u) + k~hk R
(~u + ~h) = g (~u) + ~h r
g (h):
Dotting the rst equation into the second gives
$
$ $
$ $
~ $
( f g )(~u + ~h) = ( f g )(~u) + ~h r
f (~u) g (~u)
h ~$ i ~ $ ~
$
g (~u) + khk Rf g (h)
+ f (~u) ~h r
(9.4.1)
where
$ $ ~ ~ ~ $ h~ ~ $ i ~
$ ~
Rf g (h) = f (~u) Rg (h) + h r f (~u) h r g (~u) =khk
$ $ ~ $ ~ $
~
~
+ h r f (~u) Rg (h)+ Rf (h) g (~u)
h ~$ i ~ $ ~ $ ~
$
g (~u) + khk Rf (h) Rg (h):
+ Rf (~h) ~h r
$
$
An application of Schwarz's inequality proves that Rf g (~h) ! 0 as ~h ! ~0. In (9.4.1) the
expression
$
h ~$ i
$
~h r
~ $
g (~u)
f (~u) g (~u)+ f (~u) ~h r
(9.4.2)
$ $
~ ( $f $g
depends linearly on ~h, so (9.4.1) shows that f g is dierentiable at ~u and that r
~ ( $f $g )(~u) is equal to (9.4.2) for all ~h 2 U .
)(~u) is that tensor in U V X such that ~h r
~ ( $f $g )(~u)? We need
But what is r
Proof:
Since both sides of this equation are linear in P and Q, it su"ces to prove
the equation when P and Q are polyads, say P = ~vw~ , Q = ~uw~ 0~x. Then
107
h i
P~ ~h Q = (~h ~u)(w~ w~ 0)~v~x , and
~h f(12) P (12)Q]g =
=
=
=
~h f(12) P w~ 0~u~x]g
~h f(12) ~v(w~ w~ 0)~u~x]g
(w~ w~ 0)~h (12) ~v~u~x]
(w~ w~ 0)~h ~u~v~x] = (w~ w~ 0)(~h ~u)~v~x:
(9.4.3)
Method 2:
Introduce bases in U , V , W , X and take components. This is the procedure likely to be
used in practical calculations, and the results are generally easier to use than (9.4.3).
$
$
Since f and g are dierentiable at ~u, so are their component functions fjk and gk l .
By example (9.2.20), so are the products of fj(k)g(k) l . By example (9.2.17) so are the
sums fjk gk l , and from examples 9.2.20 and 9.2.17
(9.4.4)
$ $
Now fjk gk l = ( f g )jl and so (9.4.5) and (9.3.10) imply
$ $ $
h $ik
@i ( f g ) = @i f gk l + fjk @i g l
jl
therefore
jk
$ $ $ $ $ $
@i ( f g ) = @i f g + f @i g
jl
jl
jl
(9.4.5)
108
and
$ $
h $ i
$ $
$
@i( f g )(~u) = @i f (~u) g (~u)+ f (~u) @i g (~u) :
(9.4.6)
If we multiply (9.4.6) on the right by ~bi, where ~b1 ~bn is the dual to the basis we have
introduced in U , we obtain
~r( $f $g ) = (r
~ $f ) $g +~bi $f (@i $g ) :
(9.4.7)
The last terms in (9.4.3) and (9.4.7) can be shown to be equal by lemma 9.4.23. In fact,
neither (9.4.7) nor (9.4.3) is very useful. One usually works with (9.4.6) or (9.2.10).
~ ( $f $g ) = r
~ ( $f ) $g +( $f ) (r
~ $g ), is generally false. It is
The hoped for formula, r
~ or $
true if one of r
f , is one-dimensional. If U is one dimensional, (9.4.6) reduces to
$ $
$ $
$
$
@u ( f g )(u) = @u f (u) g (u)+ f (u) @u g (u):
(9.4.8)
$
If f is one dimensional, (9.2.10) is
(9.4.9)
109
We have
Then we will write @i~g for the partial derivative with respect to ui. That is
j e^ )
@~
g
(
u
@i~g(~u) = @ui j :
(9.5.1)
If f~ : DV ! W is dierentiable, then so is f~ V~ : DU ! W (by the chain rule). We will
abbreviate @i(f~ V ) as @if~. Thus
n
~~ 1
(9.5.2)
@if~(~v) = @ f V (u@u i u )]
if ~v = V~ (u1 un).
Note that by theorem 9.3.18, the coordinate functions ci : DV ! R are dierentiable
at every ~v 2 DV . And by theorem 9.3.19 the partial derivatives @i V~ exist at every ~u 2 DU .
The key to understanding vector and tensor elds in curvilinear coordinates is
(9.5.4)
110
~ V~ (~u) 2 U V so r
~ V~ (~u) =$L for some L 2 L(U ! V ), and r
~ C~(~v) 2
Now r
$
~ C~(~v) =M
V U , so r
for some M 2 L(V ! U ). According to (9.5.3) and
$ $ $
(7.4.20), L M = I U so
M L = IU :
(9.5.5)
$ $ $
According to (9.5.4) and (7.4.20), M L= I V so
L M = IV :
(9.5.6)
According to (D-1), (9.5.5) and (9.5.6) together imply that L and M are
bijections and M = L;1 . Therefore U and V are isomorphic. Hence they
have the same dimension.
A more intuitive way to put the proof of (9.5.7) is as follows. uj = cj (V~ (u1 un )) so i j = @i uj =
@i cj (V~ (u1 un ))] = @i V~ r~ cj .
1
111
r~ f~(~v) = r~ ci(~v)@if~(~v):
(9.5.8)
Proof:
~ ci(~v).
(9.5.8) is (9.3.9) with ~bi = r
A function f~ : DV ! W is often called a vector eld on DV . If W is a tensor
product of other vector spaces, f~ is called a tensor eld. It is often convenient
to express f~ in terms of a basis for W which varies from point to point in DV .
h i
r~ f~(~v) = (r~ ci)@i f j ~j
~ ci)(@i f j )~j + f j (r
~ ci)(@i ~j ):
= (r
Then
(9.5.9)
h
i
r~ f~(~v) = @i f j + ;i j k f k (r~ ci)~j (~v):
(9.5.10)
Equation (9.5.9) is called the \connection formula" for the basis ~ 1(~v) ~ N (~v)
in the coordinate system V~ : DU ! V . The scalars ;i j k (~v) are the \Christoel symbols" at ~v. The expression @i f j + ;i j k f k is often abbreviated Dif j
and, in the older literature, is called the covariant derivative of the vector eld
f~ : DV ! W .
112
@i (@k V~ ) = ;i j k (@j V~ ):
(9.5.12)
If we use (@k V~ )(@l V~ ) as the basis ~1 ~N for V V , we have from (9.5.12)
h
i
@i (@k V~ )(@l V~ ) = ;i j k (@j V~ )(@l V~ ) + ;i j l (@k V~ )(@j V~ ):
Dif jk := @i f jk + ;i j l f lk + ;i k l f jl:
;i j k = ;k j i :
(9.5.13)
(9.5.14)
(9.5.15)
(9.5.16)
(9.5.17)
~ ck )(r
~ cl ) analogous to (9.5.13).
Then we need the connection formula for (r
~ ck . The Christoel symbols
Therefore we need the analogue of (9.5.12) for r
~ cj @k V~ = j k .
introduced by that analogue will not be new. From (9.5.7), r
~ cj ) @k V~ + r
~ cj @i (@k V~ ) = 0. From (9.5.12),
Then @i (r
113
~ cj ) @k V~ = ;;i l k r
~ cj @l V~ = ;;i l k j l = ;;i j k . Thus ;;i j k r
~ ck =
@i (r
~ cj ) (@k V~ )(r
~ ck ) = @i (r
~ cj ) $I V = @i (r
~ cj ). Hence,
@i (r
~ cj ) = ;;i j k (r
~ ck ):
@i (r
(9.5.18)
Therefore,
where
(9.5.19)
(9.5.20)
r~ f~ : D ! U V:
(9.6.1)
This function may itself be dierentiable everywhere in V , in which case we have another
function.
r~ r~ f~ : D ! U U V:
(9.6.2)
~ pf~ : D ! (pU ) V exists, we say f~ is p times dierenThe process can continue. If r
tiable in D.
Now suppose f~ : D ! V is P times dierentiable in D. For any ~u 2 D write ~u = ui~bi .
Let @i = @=@ i . Then
r~ f~ = ~bi @i f~
h
i
h
i
r~ r~ f~ = r~ ~bi @if~ = ~bj @j ~bi @if~
= ~bj~bi @j @i f~
...
r~ pf~ = ~bi1 ~bip @i1 @ip f~:
114
~hp = ~h~h ~h
~hphpir
~ pf~ = hi1 hip @i1 @ip f~:
h^ = ~h=k~hk:
~g(t) =
P tp
X
@gp (0) + jtjP R~ P (T )
p
!
p=0
~ pf~(~u):
tp@tp~g(0) = (th^ )phpir
Thus,
~g(t) =
P 1
X
~ pf~(~u) + jtjpR~ p(t):
(th^ )phpir
p
!
p=0
(9.6.3)
115
(9.6.4)
$
the divergence of T at ~u to be
(9.7.1)
Remark 9.7.44 Suppose ~b1 ~bm is a xed basis for U and ~1 ~n is a xed basis
$
for V . Write ~u = ui~bi , @i = @u@ i , T = T ik~bi ~k . Then
r~ T$ (~u) = @i T ik ~k or, equivalently,
$ k
r~ T (~u) = @iT ik :
(9.7.2)
(9.7.3)
Proof:
$
In theorem 9.3.20, replace V by U V and f~ : D ! V by T : D ! U V .
~ T$ (~u)@iT jk~bi~bj ~k . Then
For U V use the basis ~bj ~k . Then by (9.3.16) r
h
i
~r T$ (~u) =$I U h2ir
~ T$ (~u) =$I U h2i @iT jk~bi~bj ~n = @i T jk $I U h2i~bi~bj ~k =
@i T jk(~bi ~bj )~k = @iT jk i j ~k = @i T ik ~k .
(9.7.4)
116
^y
^x
Figure 9.3:
Proof:
Use components. Then, because of (9.7.2), (9.7.4) is equivalent to @i (f igk ) =
(@if i)gk + f i(@i gk ). In this form it is obvious.
(9.7.5)
Note 9.7.5 There are two curls for T$: D ! U V , one for each of the two unimodular
alternating tensors over U . We will always choose the right handed A dened on page 61
so Figure 9.3 is positively oriented. The other curl is the negative of the one we use,
because the two A's dier only in sign.
Remark 9.7.45 Suppose (~b1 ~bm) is a basis for U and (~1 ~n) is a basis for V
$
and T = Tkl~bk ~ l . Then
or equivalently,
h
i
r~
T$= Aijk @j Tkl ~bi~ l
(9.7.6)
i
~r
T$ l = Aijk @j Tkl:
(9.7.7)
117
Proof:
r~ r~ f~ =$0 :
(9.7.8)
Proof:
~
r
~ f~)i l = Aijk @j (r
~ f~)kl = Aijk @j @k fl . Because of the continuity assump(r
tion, @j @k = @k @j so Aijk @j @k fl = Aijk @k @j fl = Aikj @j @k fl = ;Aijk @j @k fl = 0:
r~ (r~
T$) = 0:
Proof:
(9.7.9)
118
Proof:
Let (~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) be orthonormal and positively oriented, so (9.7.7) reads
~
T$)il = "ijk @j Tkl. Then
(r
r~
(r~
T$) il = "ijk @j (r~
T$)kl
= "ijk @j "kmn@m Tnl ]
= "ijk "kmn@j @m Tnl = (im jn ; injm) @j @m Tnl
~
(r
~
T$) = r
~ (r
~ T$) ; r
~ (r
~ T$) :
Thus, r
il
il
il
QED.
Chapter 10
Integral Calculus of Tensors
10.1 Denition of the Integral
10.1.1 Mass distributions or measures
Let D be any subset of Euclidean space U . A function m which assigns real numbers
to certain subsets of D is called a mass distribution, or measure, on D if it has these
properties: (if S is a subset of D to which m does assign a mass, that mass is written
m(S ), and S is called \measurable-m")
i) If S is measurable-m, then m(S ) 0,
ii) D and the empty set are measurable-m.
iii) If S1 S2 is any nite or innite sequence of sets which are measurable-m , then
S1 \ S2 , S1= S2 and S1 S2 are measurable-m and m(S1 S2 ) = P
m(S
)
if no Si and Sj have common points (i.e., if S1 S2 are mutually disjoint.)
The general theory of mass distributions is discussed in Halmos, \Measure Theory," Van
Nostrand, 1950. An example of a \mass distribution" is (dim U )- dimensional volume.
Some subsets of D are so irregular that a volume cannot be dened for them. All bounded
open sets D do have volumes. As with volume, any mass distribution can be extended
119
120
to permit innite masses. The reader will be presumed to be familiar with the following
mass distributions (but not perhaps with the general theory).
Example 10.1.25 D is an open subset of U . (~u) is the density of mass per unit of
(dim U )-dimensional volume at ~u, and the mass in any measurable set S is m(S ) =
R dV (~u)(~u) where dV (~u) is the innitesimal element of (dim U )-dimensional volume in
S
U.
of such area at ~u, and the mass in any measurable set S is m(S ) = S dA(~u)(~u).
Example 10.1.27 D is a curve in U , and (~u) is the density of mass per unit of length
at ~u, while dl(~u) is the innitesimal element of such length at ~u. Then the mass in any
R
measurable subset S of D is m(S ) = S dl(~u) (~u).
Example 10.1.28 D is a nite set of points, ~u1 ~uN , and these points have masses
m1 mN . The mass of any subset S of D is the sum of the masses M
for which
~u
2 S .
10.1.2 Integrals
Let F : D ! R be a real-valued function on D. The reader is presumed to know how to
calculate the integral of f on D with respect to a mass distribution m. We will denote
R
this integral by D dm(~u)f (~u). In the foregoing examples, this integral is as follows:
Example 10.1.25
Z
D
Example 10.1.26
Z
D
dm(~u)f (~u) =
Z
D
dV (~u)(~u)f (~u):
Example 10.1.27
121
Z
D
Example 10.1.28
dm(~u)f (~u) =
Z
D
dm(~u)f (~u) =
N
X
v=1
mv f (~uv ):
dm(~u)f (~u) =
N Z
X
v=1 Dv
(10.1.1)
dm(~u)(cv fv )(~u) = cv
dm(~u)fv (~u):
(10.1.2)
Remark 10.1.48 Suppose m is a mass distribution on D, and c 2 R, and S is an mmeasurable subset of D. Suppose f : D ! R is dened by f (~u) = c if ~u 2 S , f (~u) = 0 if
~u 62 S . Then f is integrable-dm and
Z
(10.1.3)
dm(~u)f (~u))
dm(~u)g(~u):
(10.1.4)
122
Remark 10.1.50 Suppose m is a mass distribution on D and f : D ! R is integrabledm. Then so is jf j : D ! R, and (by 10.1.4)
Z
Z
dm(~u)f (~u) dm(~u) jf (~u)j :
(10.1.5)
D
D
Amended version of remark 10.1.50:
ZD
h
i
dm(~u) cv (~vv f~) (~u)
DZ
= cv dm(~u)(~vv f~ )(~u) = cv Imf~(~vv ):
=
123
R dm(~u)f~(~u) and call it the integral of f~ with respect to m. From this denition and
D
(10.1.6), it follows that for every ~v 2 V
Z
Z
dm(~u)f~(~u) ~v = dm(~u)(~v f~)(~u)
(10.1.7)
D
D
R
and that the vector dm(~u)f~(~u) is uniquely determined by the demand that (10.1.7)
dm(~u)(QhqiT )(~u):
(10.1.8)
Here (QhqiT )(~u) := QhqiT (~u)]. If Q = ~v1~v2 ~vq then (QhqiT )(~u) = T (~u)]hqiQ =
T (~u)](~v1 ~vq ) so (10.1.8) implies the special case
Z
(10.1.9)
124
for V , with dual basis (~ 1 ~ n). Dene f i := ~ i f~. Then f i : D ! R is integrable-dm
and
Z
i Z
i
dm(~u)f~(~u) = dm(~u)f~ (~u):
(10.2.1)
D
Proof:
This is a special case of denitions (10.1.42, 10.1.43) with ~v = ~ i in (10.1.43).
Lemma 10.2.25 Suppose V1 Vq are Euclidean spaces and, for p 2 f1 qg, (~1(p) ~n(pp))
is a basis for Vp, with dual basis (~(1p) ~(npp)). Then the polyad bases f~i(1) ~i(qq)g and
i ~ iq g are dual to one another.
f~(1)
(q )
1
Proof:
~ (1) ~ (q) ~ j1 ~ jq
i1 iq hqi (1) (q) = i1 j1 iq jq .
dm(~u)T i1 iq (~u) =
Z
dm(~u)T (~u)
i1 iq
(10.2.2)
Proof:
Immediate from lemma 10.2.25 and remark 10.2.53 by setting, in remark
i1 ~ iq g.
10.2.53 , f~1 ~ng = f~i(1)
~i(1)q g and f~ 1 ~ ng = f~(1)
(q)
1
is integrable-dm.
125
Proof:
Let ~v 2 V , and vi = ~i ~v. Then ~v f~ = vif i. Each f i is integrable-dm, so vif i
is integrable-dm by remark 10.1.47. Thus, ~v f~ is integrable-dm. Since this is
true for any ~v 2 V , denition 10.1.42 is satised, and f~ is integrable-dm.
Proof:
Immediate from theorem 10.2.22 and lemma 10.2.25.
Now it becomes obvious that remarks 10.1.46, 10.1.47, 10.1.48 are true if f~ : D ! V
instead of f : D ! R, and if in remark 10.1.48, ~c 2 V . We simply apply those remarks to
the component functions of f~ relative to a basis for V . Remark 10.1.49 has no analogue
for vector-valued functions, because f~ < ~g is not dened for vectors. However, (10.1.5)
does have a vector analogue. Suppose f~ : D ! V , and suppose f~ and also kf~k : D ! R
are integrable-dm. Then
k D dm(~u)f~(~u)k D dm(~u)kf~(~u)k:
(10.2.3)
Proof:
For any xed ~v 2 V , ~v f~ is integrable-dm and so is k~vk kf~k. Also, j~v f~j
k~vk kf~k. Therefore, using (10.1.4),
Z
Z
Z
~v dm(~u)f~(~u) = dm(~u)(~v f~)(~u) dm(~u)k~vkkf~(~u)k
D
D
DZ
= k~vk dm(~u)kf~(~u)k:
D
R
If we set ~v = D dm(~u)f~(~u) in this inequality, we obtain
Z
k~vk2 k~vk D dm(~u) f~(~u) :
126
Z
dm(~u)(P T )(~u) = P dm(~u)T (~u)
D
D
Z
Z
dm(~u)(T Q)(~u) = dm(~u)T (~u) Q:
D
(10.2.4)
(10.2.5)
Proof:
We consider P T . The proof for T Q is similar. Choose bases for V , W , X , Y
and take components with respect to these bases. Then (P T )(~u) = P T (~u)]
so
(P T )ik (~u) = (P T )(~u)]ik = P T (~u)]ik = P i j T jk (~u):
By hypothesis, T is integrable-dm. Hence so is T jk. Hence so is P i j T jk .
Hence so is (P T )ik . Hence so is P T . And
Z
=
=
ik Z
dm(~u)(P T )(~u) =
dm(~u)(P T ik )(~u)
DZ
dm(~u)PjiT jk (~u) = P i j dm(~u)T jk (~u)
D
Z
jk D Z
ik
P i j dm(~u)T (~u) = P dm(~u)T (~u) :
D
D
DZ
Then
(10.2.6)
(10.2.7)
Chapter 11
Integral Identities
11.1 Linear mapping of integrals
Remark 11.1.55 Suppose U , V , W are Euclidean spaces, D U , m is a mass distribution on D, L 2 L(V ! W ), and f~ : D ! V is integrable-dm. Then L f~ : D ! W is
integrable-dm and
Z
~
~
dm(~u)(*L f )(~u) = L dm(~u)f (~u) :
(11.1.1)
D
D
R
In other words, L can be applied to D dm(~u)f~(~u) by applying it to the integrand.
Z
Proof:
$
Let L2 V W be the tensor corresponding to L. Then (L f~)(~u) = Lf~(~u)] =
$
$
$
f~(~u) L= (f~ L)(~u) so L f~ = f~ L, and remark 10.2.54 says this is integrable
and that
$
dm(~u)(f~ L)(~u)
$
ZD
=
dm(~u)f~(~u) L
D
Z
= L dm(~u)f~(~u) :
dm(~u)(L f~)(~u) =
QED.
127
128
u1
u2
( u )
Figure 11.1:
Z
dm(~u)T (~u) :
(11.1.2)
Proof:
A special case of remark 11.1.55, with V , W , L replaced by q V , q W and
q L.
curve in D whose two endpoints are ~u1 and ~u2. Suppose dl(~u) is the innitesimal element
129
of arc length on C , and ^(~u) is the unit vector tangent to C at ~u and pointing along C in
the direction from ~u1 to ~u2. Then
(11.2.1)
Proof:
We assume that the reader knows this theorem when V = R, and f~ is a realvalued function. Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis (~ 1 ~ n),
~ f i(~u)
and dene f i := ~ i f~. Since f~ is dierentiable at each ~u, so is f i. Thus r
~ ~i =$0 , so by equation (9.4.9), r
~ f i(~u) = r
~ (f~ ~i)(~u) =
exists. Moreover, r
r~ f~(~u) ~i . Both r~ f~ and ~i are continuous, and then so is r~ f~ ~i. Thus
f i : D ! R is continously dierentiable. By the known scalar version of
(11.2.1),
Z
~ f i(~u) = f i(~u2) ; f i(~u1):
dl(~u)^ r
C
~ f i(~u) ~i
dl(~u)^ r
ZC h
i
~ f i)~i (~u) by 10.2.7 with q = 0
=
dl(~u) (^ r
ZC
~ f~)(~u) because
=
dl(~u)(^ r
Ch
i
~ f i)~i = ^ (r
~ f i )~i = ^ r
~ (f i~i) = ^ r
~ f~:
(^ r
f~(~u2) ; f~(~u1) =
Z
QED.
Corollary 11.2.42 Suppose D is open and arcwise connected (any two points in D can
be joined by a smooth curve lying wholly in D). Suppose f~ : D ! V is continuously
~ f~(~u) =$0 for all ~u 2 D. Then f~ is a constant function.
dierentiable and r
Proof:
For any ~u1 ~u2 2 D, f~(~u1) = f~(~u2) by theorem 11.2.23.
130
innitesimal surface area element on @D respectively ( dV (~u) has dimension dim U , and
dA(~u) has dimension one less). Then
Z
Z
$
$
dA(~u)(^n f )(~u) = dV (~u)(@~ f )(~u):
(11.3.1)
@D
Proof:
We assume that the reader knows the corresponding theorem for vector-valued
functions, f~ : D( ! U . Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis
$
i
i $
(~ 1 ~ n). Dene f~ : D( ! U by f~ := f ~ i, so f~i(~u) = f (~u)~ i. Note that
i
i
f~ (~u) is not a component but a vector in U . By corollary 9.1.28, f~ : D( ! U
i
is continuous, and by section 9.4, f~ is dierentiable. By corollary 9.1.28,
i
i
i
@~f~ is continuous. Thus, f~ : D( ! U is continuous and f~ jD is continuously
i
dierentiable. Therefore, f~ obeys Gauss's theorem:
@D
i
dA(~u)(^n f~ )(~u) =
~ f~ i)(~u):
dV (~u)(r
If we multiply on the right by ~i and sum over i, (10.2.7) with q = 0 gives
Z
i
~ f~ i)~i (~u):
dA(~u) (^n f~ )~i (~u) = dV (~u) (r
(11.3.2)
@D
D
$
$
$ $ $
i
i
i
But f~ ~i = f (~ i~i) = f (~ i~i ) = ( f I V ) = f so (^nf~ )~i = n^ (f~ ~i) = n^ f~,
and by section 9.4
i
~ f~ ~i )
~ f~ i)~i = $I U h2ir
~ f~ i ~i =$I U h2i (r
(r
h ~ ~i ~ i $ ~ $ ~ $
$
= I U h2i r
(f i) = I U h2ir f = r f :
Z
131
Figure 11.2:
dene cross products and curls. Suppose D is an open subset of U , and S is a smooth
two-sided surface in D, with boundary curve @S . Suppose n^ : S ! U is one of the two
continuous functions such that n^(~u) is a unit vector in U perpendicular to S at ~u 2 S . If
~u 2 @S , let ^(~u) be the unit vector tangent to @S at ~u and pointing so that n^(~u)
^(~u)
$
points into S . Suppose that f : D ! U V is continuously dierentiable everywhere in
D. Suppose that dA(~u) is the element of area on S and dl(~u) is the element of arc length
on @S . Then
Z
Z
$
$
~
dl(~u)(^ f )(~u) = dA(~u) n^ (r
f ) (~u):
(11.4.1)
@S
Proof:
Again, we assume the reader knows this theorem when V = R, i.e. for
vector elds f~ : D ! U . Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis
i
(~ 1 ~ n), and dene f~i = f~ ~ i. Then we can use Stoke's theorem for f~ ,
$
i
i.e., replace f by f~ in (11.4.1). If we multiply both sides of the result on the
132
Z
i
~
f~ i) ~i (~u):
dl(~u) (^ f~ )~i (~u) = dA(~u) n^ (r
@S
S
$
$
i
i
i
As in the proof of Gauss's theorem, f~ ~i = f , so (^ f~ )~i = ^ (f~ ~i) = ^ f .
~
f~i)]~i = n^ (r
~
f~ i)~i]. Finally
And ^n (r
r~
f~ i ~i = Ah2ir~ f~ i ~i
i
~ f~ )~i
= Ah2i (r
i
$
~ (f~ ~i ) = Ah2i r
~ f
= Ah2i r
~
$
= r
f:
Z
R
continuous, and D0 dV (~u)f (~u) = 0 for every open subset D0 of D. Here dV (~u) is the
volume element in U . Then f (~u) = 0 for all ~u 2 D.
Proof:
Suppose ~u0 2 D and f (~u0) 6= 0. If f satises the hypotheses so does ;f , so
if f (~u)0) < 0 we may replace f by ;f . Therefore, we may assume f (~u0) > 0.
Then there is a > 0 such that if j~u ; ~u0 j < then ~u 2 D and jf (~u) ; f (~u0 )j <
f (~u0)=2. But then ;f (~u0)=2 < f (~u) ; f (~u0) < f (~u0)=2, so f (~u) > f (~u0)=2 if
~u 2 B (~u0 ), the open ball of radius centered at ~u0. Then
Z
Z
dV (~u)f (~u) >
dV (~u) f (2~u0) = jB (u~0 )j f (2~u0)
B(~u0 )
B(~u0 )
where jB (~u0 )j = volume of B (~u0 ). But jB (~u0 )jf (~u0)=2 > 0, and
R
B (~u0 ) is an open subset of D, so we must have B(~u0 ) dV (~u)f (~u) = 0.
This contradiction shows f (~u0) = 0.
133
W t
x
x
x
x III
x
II
x
x
K(t)
K(t+ t)
Figure 11.3:
Proof:
Let (~1 ~n) be a basis for V , with dual basis (~ 1 ~ n). Let f i =
~ i f~. Then f i : D ! R is continuous, and for every open subset D0 of D,
R dV (~u)f i(~u) = 0. Hence, f i = 0 by lemma 11.5.26. Hence f~ = f i~ = ~0 .
i
V
D0
134
(11.6.1)
F~ (t) =
Then
K (t)
dV (~u)f~(~u t):
Z
Z
F~ (t) = dV (~u)f~(~u t) + dV (~u)f~(~u t):
II
Z
Z I
~F (t + t) = dV (~u)f~(~u t + t) + dV (~u)f~(~u t + t):
II
III
135
dV (~u)f~(~u t) = ;(t)
I
Z
Z
~
dV (~u)f (~u t) = (t)
III
Z
@K (t);
@K (t)+
dA(~u)W f~(~u t)
Therefore,
III
Z
Z
dV (~u)f~(~u t) ; dV (~u)f~(~u t) = (t)
Also,
@K (t)
(11.6.2)
Z
h
i
dV (~u) f~(~u t + t) ; f~(~u t) = (t) dV (~u)@t f~(~u t)
II Z
II
Z
= (t)
dV (~u)@t f~(~u t) ; (t) dV (~u)@t f~(~u t):
K (t)
I
R
R
But I dV (~u)@t f~ = ;(t) @K (t); dA(~u)W@tf , correct to rst order in t. Therefore, correct to rst order in t,
Z
Z
h~
i
~
dV (~u) f (~u t + t) ; f (~u t) = (t)
dV (~u)@t f~(~u t):
(11.6.3)
II
K (t)
F~ (t + t) ; F~ (t) = t
"Z
@K (t)
dA(~u)W f~(~u t) +
K (t)
dV (~u)@t f~(~u t) :
136
Clearly A 2 nU , so there is a scalar kL such that A = kLAU . We denote this scalar by
det L and call it the determinant of L. Then
(11.7.1)
for all (~u1 ~un) 2 X nU . Note that det L changes sign if we replace either AU or AV by
its negative. Thus det L depends not only on L but on how U and V are oriented. For a
given L, det L can have two values, one the negative of the other, and which value it has
depends on which of the two unimodular alternating tensors AU and AV are used to
orient U and V .
$
If (^x1 x^n) is a pooob in U and (^y1 y^n) is a pooob in V and Lij = x^i L y^j ,
then1 L(^xi ) = Lij y^j and so
det L = (det L)AU (^x1 x^n) = AV L(^x1 ) L(^xn )]
(11.7.2)
@
r
j
f (rj y^j )dr1 drn = f ~r (xk x^k )] det @x dx1 dxn:
K
H
i
Z
(11.7.3)
The reader is presumed to know this formula for changing variables in a multiple integral.
The determinant det(@rj =@xi ) is the Jacobian of the coordinate transformation. We note
that @rj =@xi = @i rj , so by (11.7.2), at ~x 2 H
!
@r
j
~
det
@xi = det r ~r (~x):
(11.7.4)
137
The local volume elements in U and V are dVU (~x) = dx1 dxn and dVV (~r) = dr1 drn,
so (11.7.3) can be written
~ ~r (~x) (f~ ~r )(~x):
dVU (~x) det r
(11.7.5)
Now suppose W is another Euclidean space, with basis (~1 ~p) and dual basis
(~ 1 ~ p). Suppose f~ : K ! W is integrable. Then so is fi = ~i f~, and (11.7.5) holds
for each fi. If we multiply the resulting equations by ~ i and sum over i we obtain
dVV (~r)f~(~r) =
~ ~r (~x) (f~ ~r )(~x):
dVU (~x) det r
(11.7.6)
138
Part II
Elementary Continuum Mechanics
139
Chapter 12
Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions
of a Continuum
12.1 Discrete systems
For some purposes, some physical systems (for example, the solar system) can be regarded
as consisting of a nite number N of mass points. A complete description of the motion
of such a system consists simply of N vector-valued functions of time the value of the
'th function at time t is the position of the 'th particle at time t. If the values of the
positions ~r1(t) ~rN (t) of all particles are known for all times, nothing more can be said
about the system.
To predict the motion of such a \discrete" system, one must usually add other properties to the model. In the case of the solar system, one ascribes to each particle a mass,
m
being the mass of the 'th particle. Then, if all the velocities and positions are known
at some time t0, all the functions ~r
(t) can be calculated from Newton's laws of motion
and gravitation.
If the system of particles is a classical (pre-quantum) atom, one needs not only their
masses but their charges in order to calculate their motion.
And, of course, for some purposes the discrete model of the solar system is too crude.
It cannot model or predict the angular acceleration of the earth's moon due to the tidal
141
142
bulges on the earth. A point mass has no tidal bulges. Nevertheless, the discrete model
of the solar system is very useful. No one would suggest abandoning it because the solar
system has properties not described by such a model.
12.2 Continua
A parcel of air, water or rock consists of such a large number of particles that a discrete
model for it would be hopelessly complicated. A dierent sort of model has been developed
over the last three centuries to describe such physical systems. This model, called a
\continuum", exploits the fact that in air, water and rock nearby particles behave similarly.
The continuum model for a lump of material regards it as consisting of innitely many
points, in fact too many to count by labeling them even with all the integers. (There are
too many real numbers between 0 and 1 to label them as x1 x2 . Any innite sequence
of real numbers between 0 and 1 will omit most of the numbers in that interval. This
theorem was proved by Georg Cantor in about 1880.) Nearby points are given nearby
labels. One way to label the points in the continuum is to give the Cartesian coordinates of
their positions at some particular instant t0 , relative to some Cartesian coordinate system.
Then each particle is a point to which is attached a number triple (x1 x2 x3 ) giving the
Cartesian coordinates of that particle at the \labelling time" t0 . This number triple is a
label which moves with the particle and remains attached to it. Nearby particles have
nearly equal labels, and particles with nearly equal labels are close to one another. The
collection of all particles required to describe the motion will usually ll up an open set
in ordinary real 3-space.
Of course there are many ways to label the particles in a continuum. The label attached
to a particle could be the number triple (r
) giving the values of its radius, colatitude
and longitude in a system of polar spherical coordinates at the labelling time t0.
Another label would be simply the position vector ~x at time t0 of the particle relative
to some xed origin and axes which are unaccelerated and non-rotating (so that Newton's
laws can be used). In fact, labelling by number triples can also be thought of as labelling
12.2. CONTINUA
143
by vectors, since a number triple is a vector in the Euclidean vector space R3 . (Rn is the
set of real n-tuples, with addition and multiplication by scalars dened coordinate-wise
and with the dot product of (u1 un) and (v1 vn) dened to be uivi.)
In order to leave ourselves freedom to choose dierent ways of labelling, we will not
specify one particular scheme. We will simply assume that there is a three-dimensional
oriented real Euclidean space, (L AL ), from which the labels are chosen. The labels
describing a continuum will be the vectors ~x in a certain open and subset H of label
space L. We will denote real physical space by P , and we will orient it in the usual way,
denoting the \right handed" unimodular alternating tensor by AP , or simply A. We use
this notation:
(12.2.1)
The label ~x is in the open subset H of label space L, and the particle position ~r L(~x t)
is in P . One special case which is easy to visualize is to take L = P , and to choose
some xed time t0, and to label the particles by their positions at t0 . With this labelling
scheme, called \t0 -position labelling," we have
(12.2.2)
(12.2.4)
144
(12.2.5)
But (12.2.5) says that ~r L( t) : H ! K (t) is a bijection, whose inverse is ~x E ( t) :
K (t) ! H . If we know the function ~x E ( t), we can nd the function ~r L( t). For
any ~x 2 H , ~r L (~x t) is the unique solution ~r of the equation ~x = ~x E (~r t). Therefore,
knowing the label function ~x E is equivalent to knowing ~r L. Either function is a complete
description of the motion of the continuum, and either can be found from the other. For
any xed t,
~r L( t);1 = ~x E ( t):
(12.2.6)
In order to enforce that nearby particles have nearby labels we will assume not only
that ~r L and ~x E are continuous, but that they are continuously dierentiable as many
times as needed to make our arguments work. (Usually, twice continuously dierentiable
will su"ce.) Since (12.2.6) implies ~r L( t) ~x E ( t) = IP jK (t), the identity function
on P , restricted to K (t), and also ~x E ( t) ~r L( t) = ILjH , the identity function on
L, restricted to H , therefore the chain rule implies that if ~r = ~r L(~x t) or, equivalently,
~x = ~x E (~r t), then
8
>
L (~x t) r
E (~r t) = $
~
~
>
~
~
r
r
x
IL
>
<
(12.2.7)
>
>
$
>
~ ~x E (~r t) r
~ ~r L(~x t) = I P :
:r
145
A local physical property f can be described in two ways: at any instant t, we can
say what is the value of f at the particle labelled ~x, or we can say what is the value of f at
the particle whose position is ~r at time t. The two values are the same, but they are given
by dierent functions, which we denote by f L and f E . We call these the Lagrangian and
the Eulerian descriptions of f . They are dened thus:
f L(~x t) = value of physical quantity f at time t at the particle labelled ~x (12.3.1)
f E (~r t) = value of physical quantity
f at time t at the particle whose position is ~r at time t: (12.3.2)
The physical quantity f can be a scalar, vector or tensor. From the denitions, obviously
8
>
L
E
>
>
< if ~r = ~r (~x t) or ~x = ~x (~r t) then
>
>
>
:
f L(~x t) = f E (~r t):
(12.3.3)
8
h
i
>
L(~x t) = f E ~r L (~x t) t and
>
f
>
<
>
h
i
>
>
: f E (~r t) = f L ~x E (~r t) t :
(12.3.4)
8
>
L
L
E
>
>
< f ( t) = f ( t) ~r ( t)
>
>
> f E ( t) = f L( t) ~x E ( t):
:
(12.3.5)
If we have the Lagrangian description of the motion, the function ~r E , then we can nd
the labelling function ~x E . Then using (12.3.4) or (12.3.5), we can nd both f E and f L
if we know either one of them.
So far, our discussion of \physical quantities" has been somewhat intuitive. We have
found some mathematical rules which are satised by certain entities that we feel comfortable to call physical quantities. In the spirit of mathematical model building, it is
146
useful to give a precise denition to what will qualify as a \physical quantity". Because
of what we have learned above, we introduce
8
h
i
>
L (~x t) = f E ~r L (~x t) t or to
>
f
>
<
>
>
> f E (~r t) = f L h ~x E (~r t) ti for all t 2 R:
:
(12.3.6)
8
>
L
E
L
>
>
< f ( t) = f ( t) r ( t) or to
>
>
> f E ( t) = f L( t) ~x ( t) for all t 2 R:
:
(12.3.7)
Temperature, mass density, and the other items enumerated beginning on page 144
are physical quantities in the sense of denition 12.3.44. The advantage of having such
a formal denition is that it enables us to introduce new physical quantities to suit our
convenience. We can dene a new physical quantity f by giving either its Eulerian
description f E or its Lagrangian description f L. The missing description can be obtained
from (12.3.6) or (12.3.7), assuming that we have ~r L, the Lagrangian description of the
motion of the continuum. A somewhat trivial example is the f such that f L(~x t) = 7 for
all ~x t. Clearly f E (~r t) = 7, and we can regard 7 (or any other constant) as a physical
quantity.
147
(12.3.8)
From (12.3.6), its Lagrangian description is the ~r L of (12.2.1), the Lagrangian description of the motion.
Another interesting example is a physical quantity we call \particle label", and denote
by ~x . It is dened by requiring that its Lagrangian description be
(12.3.9)
From (12.3.6), its Eulerian description is ~x E the label function. The fact that the physical
quantity ~x is conserved at each particle turns out to be very useful in some variational
formulations of the equations of motion of a uid, although at rst glance the fact seems
rather trivial.
h
i
~ L(~x t) = r
~ f L( t) (~x) = gradient tensor of the function f L( t)
Df
at the particle label ~x:
(12.4.2)
f E (~r t + ) ; f E (~r t)
@t f E (~r t) = lim
!0
= time derivative of f E (~r t) at spatial position ~r:
(12.4.3)
h
i
~ f E ( t) (~r) = gradient tensor of the function f E ( t)
@~f E (~r t) = r
at the position ~r in P:
(12.4.4)
148
From these denitions, (12.3.7), and the chain rule, it is clear that if ~r = ~r L(~x t) (or
~x = ~x E (~r t)) then
~ L(~x t) = D~
~ r L(~x t) @~f E (~r t)
Df
(12.4.5)
~ L(~x t):
@~f E (~r t) = @~ ~x E (~r t) Df
(12.4.6)
It is also useful to relate Dtf L and @t f E . We will calculate the former from the latter.
We assume that ~r and ~x are chosen so
~r = ~r L(~x t):
Then we dene ~h( ) for any real by
8
>
L
~
~
>
>
< h( ) = Dt ~r (~x t) + R1 ( ) where
>
>
>
:
R~ 1 ( ) ! 0 as ! 0:
(12.4.7)
We also have
h
i
h
i
f L(~x t + ) = f E ~r L(~x t + ) t + = f E ~r + ~h( ) t +
h
h
i
R3 ( ) = R2 ( ) + @t f E ~r + ~h( ) t ; @t f E (~r t) :
8
>
>
R3 ( ) ! 0 as ! 0 and
>
<
>
h
i
>
>
: f L(~x t + ) = f E ~r + ~h( ) t + @t f E (~r t) + R3 ( ):
(12.4.8)
Also
8
>
E
E
~
~ ~ E
~ ~
>
>
< f (~r + h t) = f (~r t) + h @ f (~r t) + khkR4(h)
>
>
>
:
where R4 (~h) ! 0 as ~h ! ~0:
149
(12.4.9)
(12.4.10)
where
R5 ( ) = R~ 1 ( ) @~f E (~r t)
h i
+ Dt ~r L (~x t) + R~ 1 ( ) R4 ~h( ) :
Thus R5 ( ) ! 0 as ! 0. Moreover, f E (~r t) = f L(~x t), so substituting (12.4.10) in
(12.4.8) gives
h
i
f L(~x t + ) = f L(~x t) + @t f E (~r t) + Dt ~r L(~x t) @~f E (~r t)
+ R3 ( ) + R5( )]
(12.4.11)
where R3( ) + R5( ) ! 0 as ! 0. From 12.4.11 it follows immediately that
8
>
L
L
E
~ E
>
>
< Dt f (~x t) = @t f (~r t) + Dt ~r (~x t) @ f (~r t)
>
>
>
: where ~r = ~r L(~x t) ( or ~x = ~x E (~r t)):
(12.4.12)
~ L(~x t)
@t f E (~r t) = Dt f L(~x t) + @t ~x E (~r t) Df
where r = ~r L(~x t) (or ~x = ~x E (~r t)):
(12.4.13)
150
Alternatively, (12.4.13) can be computed in the same way as was (12.4.12). Note the
consequence of (12.4.12, 12.4.13) that for any physical quantity f ,
~ L(~x t) = 0:
Dt ~r L(~x t) @~f E (~r t) + @t ~x E (~r t) Df
(12.4.14)
The notation has become somewhat cumbersome, and can be greatly simplied by
introducing some new physical quantities.
Denition 12.4.45 Let ~r be the physical quantity \particle position" (see bottom of
~ , @~f ,
page 146) and let f be any physical quantity. The physical quantities ~v, ~a , Df
Dt f , @t f are dened as follows:
~vL(~x t)
~aL (~x t)
~ )L(~x t)
(Df
(@~f )E (~r t)
(Dt f )L(~x t)
(@t f )E (~r t)
= Dt ~r L (~x t)
(12.4.15)
= Dt~vL(~x t)
~ L(~x t)
= Df
= @~f E (~r t)
(12.4.16)
= Dtf L(~x t)
(12.4.17)
(12.4.18)
(12.4.19)
= @t f E (~r t):
(12.4.20)
~v = particle velocity
~a = particle acceleration
~ = label gradient of f
Df
@~f = spatial gradient of f
Dtf = substantial time derivative of f = material time derivative of f = time derivative
moving with the material.
@t f = partial time derivative of f .
151
With these denitions, the relations among the derivatives of a physical quantity become
~v
~a
~
Df
Dtf
@~f
@t f
= Dt ~r
= Dt~v
~ r @~f
= D~
= @t f + ~v @~f
~
= @~ ~x Df
~
= Dt f + @t ~x Df
(12.4.21)
(12.4.22)
(12.4.23)
(12.4.24)
(12.4.25)
(12.4.26)
The function ~vE is called the Eulerian description of the motion of the continuum.1
If the Lagrangian description is known, the Eulerian description can be obtained from
(12.4.21). The converse is true, in the following sense.
Remark 12.4.56 Suppose the Eulerian description ~vE of a continuum is given. Suppose
that at one instant t0 , the function ~r L( t0) is known that is, for each ~x, the position
at time t0 of the particle labelled ~x is known. Then the Lagrangian description of the
motion can be calculated. That is, the position ~r L(~x t) of the particle labelled ~x can be
calculated for every time t.
Proof:
By denition of ~v, we have for ~r = ~r L(~x t) the relation Dt ~r L(~x t) = ~vE (~r t)
or
h
i
Dt ~r L(~x t) = ~vE ~r L(~x t) t :
(12.4.27)
But (12.4.27) is an ordinary dierential equation in t if ~x is xed. Therefore,
for any xed particle label ~x, we can solve (12.4.27) for ~r L(~x t) if we know
~r L(~x t0 ) for one t0 .
QED
Corollary 12.4.43 If ~vE is known, then the Lagrangian description of the motion can
be calculated without further information if the particles are \t0 -position labelled", i.e. if
their labels are their positions at some tme t0 .
1
152
Proof:
With t0-position labelling ~r L (~x t0) = ~x, so ~r L(~x t0) is known for all particle
labels ~x.
Lemma 12.5.27 Suppose V and W are real vector spaces and f : V ! W . Suppose f
has the following properties, for any nonzero ~x ~y ~z 2 V :
i) f (~0) = ~0
ii) f (;~x) = ;f (~x)
iii) f (a~x) = af (~x) for any positive real a (i.e., a 2 R a > 0).
iv) If ~x + ~y + ~z = ~0 then f (~x) + f (~y) + f (~z) = ~0.
In that case, f is linear.
Proof:
a) For any c 2 R and ~v 2 V , f (c~v) = cf (~v)
a1) If c~v = ~0, either c = 0 or ~v = ~0, so f (c~v) = ~0 = cf (~v).
a2) If c~v 6= ~0 and c > 0, use iii) above.
a3) If c~v =
6 ~0 and c < 0, then f ((;c)~v) = (;c)f (~v) by iii) above. But
f ((;c)~v) = f (;c~v) = ;f (c~v) by ii) above.
Hence ;f (c~v) = ;cf (~v).
b) For any ~u~v 2 V , f (~u + ~v) = f (~u) + f (~v).
b1) If ~u or ~v is ~0, one of f (~u) and f (~v) is ~0 by i) above. E.g., if ~u = ~0,
f (~u + ~v) = f (~v) = f (~u) + f (~v).
153
b2) If ~u and ~v are nonzero but ~u + ~v = ~0, then ~v = ;~u so f (~u + ~v) =
f (~0) = ~0 = f (~u) ; f (~u) = f (~u) + f (;~u) = f (~u) + f (~v).
b3) If ~u, ~v and ~u +~v are nonzero, let w~ = ~u +~v. Then ~u +~v +(;w~ ) = ~0 so
by iv), f (~u)+ f (~v)+ f (;w~ ) = ~0. By ii) this is f (~u)+ f (~v) ; f (w~ ) = ~0,
or f (w~ ) = f (~u) + f (~v).
QED
The motion of a continuum is called \rigid body motion" if the distance separating
every pair of particles in the continuum is independent of time. We want to study rigid
body motions.
Step 1: Choose one particular particle in the continuum, and call it the pivot particle.
Step 2: Choose t0 2 R. Choose a reference frame for real physical space P so that its
origin is at the position of the pivot particle at time t0 .
Step 3: Introduce t0 -position labelling to give the Lagrangian description of the motion,
~r L. Let H denote the open subset of L = P consisting of the particle labels. The
pivot particle is labelled ~0, so ~0 2 H , and
~r L(~x t0 ) = ~x for all ~x 2 H:
(12.5.1)
for all ~x 2 H and t 2 R. Moreover, for any t 2 R and any particle labels ~x, ~y 2 H ,
~r L(~x t) ; ~r L(~y t) = ~rt (~x) ; ~rt(~y), so, by the denition of a rigid body,
(12.5.2)
154
(12.5.3)
(12.5.4)
Proof:
Lemma 1: kf (~x)k = k~xk for any ~x 2 H .
Proof: kf (~x)k = kf (~x) ; ~0k = kf (~x) ; f (~0)k = k~x ; ~0k = k~xk .
Lemma 2: f (~x) f (~y) = ~x ~y for all ~x ~y 2 H .
Proof: kf (~x) ; f (~y)k2 = k~x ; ~yk2 so
155
Lemma 3 then implies f (~x=k~xk) = =k~xkf (~x), and from ii) above,
obviously L(~x) = f (~x). Now for i)-iv) of lemma 12.5.27.
i) is obvious
ii) L(;~x) = (k; ~xk=) f (;~x=k; ~xk) = (k~xk=)f (;~x=k~xk): In lemma
3 above, take N = 1, a0 = ;1, ~x1 = ~x=k~xk. Then f (;~x=k~xk) =
;f (~x=k~xk): Thus L(;~x) = ;L(~x).
iii) L(a~x) = (ka~xk=)f (a~x=ka~xk) = a(k~xk=)f (a~x=ak~xk)
= a(k~xk=)f (~x=k~xk) = aL(~x) if a > 0 and ~x 6= ~0.
iv) Suppose ~x + ~y + ~z = ~0 and ~x ~y ~z nonzero. Choose so small
( 2 R > 0) that ~x + ~y + ~z 2 H . Then ~x + ~y + ~z = ~0, so,
using lemma 3 , ~0 = f (~0) = f (~x + ~y + ~z) = f (~x)+ f (~y)+ f (~z).
Since ~x 2 H , f (~x) = L(~x), and similarly for ~y ~z. Thus ~0 =
L(~x) + L(~y) + L(~z). By iii) above, L(~x) = L(~x), etc., so
~0 = L(~x) + L(~y) + L(~z)]. Thus L(~x) + L(~y) + L(~z) = ~0.
It follows from lemma 4 above and lemma 12.5.27 that L : P ! P is
linear. For any ~x 6= ~0 in P , choose so small ( 2 R, > 0) that
~x 2 H . Then (kL(~x)k ; k~xk) = kL(~x)k ; k~xk = kL(~x)k ; k~xk =
kf (~x)k ; k~xk = k~xk ; k~xk = 0.
Thus kL(~x)k = k~xk for all ~x 2 P . Therefore L 2 #(P ).
QED
$
By theorem (12.5.27), for each t 2 R there is an orthogonal tensor L (t) 2 P P such
that in equation (12.5.1) we can write
$
~r L(~x t) = R~ (t) + ~x L (t)
for all ~x 2 H:
(12.5.5)
Then clearly
for all ~x 2 H:
(12.5.6)
156
(12.5.8)
Every rigid motion can be written as in (12.5.5) with (12.5.7) and (12.5.8).
Now let us nd the Eulerian description of the motion whose Lagrangian description
is (12.5.5). We have
$
~vL(~x t) = Dt ~r L (~x t) = t R~ (t) + ~x t L (t):
(12.5.9)
$
Note: Since R~ and L are functions of t alone, we write their time derivatives as t R~ and
$
t L, so as not to confuse them with @t or Dt.]
To obtain the Eulerian description from (12.5.9) we must express ~x in terms of ~r,
where as usual
~r = ~r L(~x t) or
$
~r = R~ (t) + ~x L (t):
(12.5.10)
$
$T $;1
Since L2 #+(P ), L =L . Therefore the solution of (12.5.10) is
h
i $T
~x = ~r ; R~ (t) L :
(12.5.11)
$
Note: It follows that x E (~r t) = ~r ; R~ (t)] L (t)T .] Substituting this (12.5.9) and using
~vL(~x t) = ~vE (~r t) gives
h
i $
$
~vE (~r t) = t R~ (t) + ~r ; R~ (t) L (t)T t L (t):
We introduce these abbreviations:
V~ (t) = t R~ (t)
(12.5.12)
$
$
$
+ (t) =L (t)T t L (t):
Then the Eulerian description of the motion is
h
i $
~vE (~r t) = V~ (t) + ~r ; R~ (t) + (t):
Remark 12.5.57 t $L (t)]T = t LT (t).
157
(12.5.13)
(12.5.14)
Proof:
$
$
$
$
For any ~x 2 P , ~x L (t) =LT (t) ~x, so ~x t L (t)] = t LT (t)] ~x. But
$
$
$
$
~x t L] = (t L)T ~x, so t L (t)]T ~x = t LT (t)] ~x for all ~x 2 P .
$
$ $ $
$
$
$
Since L (t) is orthogonal, LT (t) L (t) = I P for all t. Hence, (t LT ) L + LT
$
$
T
(t $L) = t $I P =$0 for all t. But $+ = $L t $L and +T = (t $L)T (LT )T =
$ $
$ $ $
(t LT ) (L). Thus +T + += 0 .
QED
Now dene
$
$
1
(12.5.15)
+ (t) = 2 Ah2i + (t)
where A is the unimodular alternating tensor we have chosen to orient real physical space
P . By exercise 6,
$
(12.5.16)
+ (t) = A +~ (t):
We claim that for any vector ~x 2 P we have
$
~x + (t) = +~ (t)
~x:
(12.5.17)
Proof:
Take components relative to a pooob. Then
$
~x + = ~x A +~ j = xi "ijk+k
j
= "kij +k xi = Ah2i+~ ~x j = +~
~x j :
158
h
i
~vE (~r t) = V~ (t) + +~ (t)
~r ; R~ (t)
~
V = tR~ :
(12.5.18)
The vector +~ (t) is called the angular velocity of the motion relative to the pivot particle.
Obviously V~ (t) is the velocity of the pivot particle, and R~ (t) is its position.
An obvious question not answered by the foregoing discussion is this: if we are given
two arbitrary dierentiable functions R~ : R ! P , +~ : R ! P , and dene V~ = t R~ , then
(12.5.18) gives the Eulerian description of a continuum motion. Is this always a rigid
body motion, or do rigid body motions produce particular kinds of functions R~ : R ! P
and +~ : R ! P ?
In fact, any choice of R~ and +~ will make (12.5.18) the Eulerian description of a
$
$
rigid body motion. To see this, use the given + (t) as in (12.5.16). + (t) is, of course,
$
antisymmetric. Now dene L (t) as follows:
$ $ $
t L = L + :
(12.5.19)
$ $
$
(This is obtained from 12.5.13 as if LT =L;1, but we don't assume that.) We obtain L (t)
$ $T
$ $T $ $T
t L L = t L L + L t L
$ $ $T $ $ $T
= L+L +L L+
$ $ $T $ $T $T
= L+L +L+ L
$ $ $T $T $ $ $T $
= L + + + L =L O L =O :
$
$
$
Thus, L (t) L (t)T is independent of t. At t = t0, it is I P , so it is always
$
$
$
I P . This proves L (t) 2 #(P ). And det L (t) is continuous in t and always
1 and +1 at t0, so it is always +1. Thus $L (t) 2 #+(P ) for all t. QED
159
Now we can write (12.5.18) in the form (12.5.14). As we have seen in deriving (12.5.18),
the motion whose Lagrangian description is (12.5.5) then has Eulerian description (12.5.14)
or, equivalently (12.5.18). But as long as L(t) 2 #+(P ) for all t, (12.5.5) is a rigid-body
$
motion. Indeed, for any ~x and ~y 2 P , k ~r L(~x t) ; ~r L(~y t)k = k(~x ; ~y) L (t)k = k~x ; ~yk
if L(t) 2 #(P ).
160
Figure 12.1:
will dier from hi
(~r t) by only a very small fraction. Therefore, the average physical
conditions must not change appreciably over a length .
For example, if we want to use a continuum approximation to study sound waves
of wavelength in air, we must use << in (12.6.1), and yet we must have >>
average distance between nearest neighbors. Actually, to do all of continuum mechanics
accurately (including momentum and heat) we must have >> mean free path of air
molecules. We cannot nd such a to use in (12.6.1) unless >> mean free path of air
molecules. This mfp varies from 10;5 cm at sea level to 10 cm at 100 km altitude, and
determines the shortest sound wave treatable by continuum mechanics.
In the spirit of (9.2.3), we would dene the average momentum in B (~r ) at time t as
(12.6.2)
hp~i
(~r t) = jB (~r1 )j P~t B (~r )]
where P~t B (~r )] is the sum of the momenta m~v for all the molecules in B (~r ) at time
t. Then we dene the average velocity at ~r t to be
~
h~vi
(~r t) = hhp~ii
((~~rr tt)) = MPt BB((~r~r)])] :
(12.6.3)
t
If is the shortest length scale in our gas over which occur appreciable fractional changes
in average physical properties, and if >> mean free path, we can choose any in
mfp << << , and model our gas as a continuum whose Eulerian velocity function is
(12.6.4)
161
162
Chapter 13
Conservation Laws in a Continuum
In this whole chapter we will use the following notation. (L AL) is oriented label space and
(P AP ) is oriented real physical space. H is the open subset of L consisting of the labels ~x
of all the particles making up the continuum and H 0 is any open subset of H with piecewise
smooth boundary @H 0 (i.e. @H 0 consists of a nite number of smooth pieces). The open
set in P occupied by the particles at time t will be written K (t), and the open subset of
K (t) consisting of the particles with labels in H 0 will be written K 0(t). As t varies, K (t)
and K 0 (t) will change position in P , but will always contain the same particles. The sets
K (t) and K 0 (t) are said to move with the material. The outward normal velocity W (~r t)
of @K 0 (t) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t), to be used in (11.6.1), is W (~r t) = n^P (~r t) ~vE (~r t), where ~v is
the particle velocity and n^ P (~r t) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t).
We will use dVL(~x) to denote a very small open subset of H 0 containing the particle
label ~x. We will denote the positive numerical volume in L of this small set by the same
symbol, dVL(~x). We use dVP (~r) to denote a very small open subset of K 0(t) containing the
particle position ~r we also use dVP (~r) for the positive numerical volume of this small set
in P . We will always assume when using this notation for the sets that ~r = ~r L(~x t) and
dVP (~r) = ~r L( t)]dVL(~x)], so dVP (~r) consists of the positions at time t of the particles
whose labels are in dVL(~x). It follows that, for the numerical volumes,
~ r L(~x t) dVL(~x):
dVP (~r) = det D~
163
(13.0.1)
164
We assume that the reader knows this Jacobian formula from calculus. (We will accidentally prove it later.) Note that L means Lagrangian description and L means label
space.
(13.1.1)
where E (~r t) is the mass per unit of volume in physical space. This is our mathematical
model of how mass is distributed in a continuum.
Because of (13.0.1), we can also write
dm = ~L(~x t)dVL(~x)
(13.1.2)
(13.1.3)
The physical quantity ~ is the mass per unit of volume in label space.
The material with labels in H 0 always consists of the same particles, so it cannot
change its mass. Therefore, dm in (13.1.2) must be independent of time. Since dVL(~x) is
dened in a way independent of time, it follows that ~L(~x t) must be independent of t.
Therefore, for all ~x 2 H and all t, t0 2 R,
(13.1.4)
Dt ~ = 0:
(13.1.5)
165
Either equation (13.1.4) or (13.1.5) expresses the content of a physical law, the law of
conservation of mass. The mathematical identity (13.1.3) makes this law useful. From
(13.1.3) and (13.1.4) we deduce
~ r L(~x t) = L(~x t0) det D~
~ r L (~x t0)
L (~x t) det D~
(13.1.6)
for all ~x 2 H and all t, t0 2 R. If we use t0 -position labelling, then r~L(~x t0) = ~x,
~ r L (~x t0) =$I P and det D~
~ r L(~x t0) = det I$p= det IP = 1. Thus, with t0-position
so D~
labelling,
~ r L(~x t) = L (~x t0):
L(~x t) det D~
(13.1.7)
M E K 0 (t)] =
K 0 (t)
(13.1.8)
h
~ (~v)iE (~r t) = 0:
dV
(
~
r
)
@
+
@
P
t
0
(13.1.11)
166
Now let K 0 be any open subset of K (t), with piecewise smooth boundary @K 0 . Let
H 0 be the set of labels belonging to particles which are in K 0 at time t. Then for this
set of particles, K 0(t) = K 0, so (13.1.11) holds. In other words, (13.1.11) holds for every
open subset K 0 of K (t), as long as @K 0 is piecewise smooth. Therefore, by the vanishing
integral theorem, @t + @~ (~v)]E (~r t) = 0 for all t 2 R and all ~r 2 K (t). Therefore
@t + @~ (~v) = 0:
(13.1.12)
Equation (13.1.12) is the Eulerian form of the law of mass conservation. It is called the
\continuity equation".
Since @~ (~v) = (@~) ~v + (@~ ~v) and Dt = @t + ~v (@~), the continuity equation
can also be written
Dt + (@~ ~v) = 0:
(13.1.13)
By the chain rule for ordinary dierentiation, Dt ln = Dt=, so
Dt (ln ) + @~ ~v = 0:
(13.1.14)
@~ ~v = 0:
(13.1.15)
Lemma 13.1.28 Suppose U and V are Euclidean spaces, D is an open subset of U , and
f~ : D ! U and ~g : D ! V are dierentiable. Then
@~ (f~~g) = (@~ f~)~g + f~ (@~~g):
(13.1.16)
167
Proof:
Take components relative to orthonormal bases in U and V . Then (13.1.16)
is equivalent to @i (figj ) = (@i fi)gj + fi(@i gj ). But this is the elementary rule
for the partial derivative of a product.
Remark 13.1.60 Suppose f~ is any physical quantity taking values in a Euclidean space
V . Suppose K 0(t) is any open set moving with the material in a continuum (i.e., always
consisting of the same particles). Then
d Z dV (~r)(f~)E (~r t) = Z dV (~r)(D f~)E (~r t):
(13.1.17)
P
t
dt K 0(t) P
K 0 (t)
Proof:
By (11.6.1), we have
d Z dV (~r) f~E (~r t) = Z dV (~r)@ (f~)E (~r t)
p
t
dt K 0(tZ) P
K 0 (t)
+ 0 dAP (~r)^nP (~vf~)E (~r t)
@K (t)
where n^P is the unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) and dAP is an element of area.
Applying Gauss's theorem to the surface integral gives
d Z dV (~r)(f~)E (~r t)
dt K 0(tZ) P
h
iE
= 0 dVP (~r) @t (f~) + @~ ~vf~ (~r t):
K (t)
The integrand is (@t )f~ + (@t f~) + @~ (~v) f~ + ~v (@~f~) because of lemma
(13.1.28). This integrand can therefore be written @t + @~ (~v)]f~ + @t f~ + ~v
(@~f~)]. From (12.4.21-12.4.26) and (13.1.12) this is 0f~ + Dt f~, which proves
(13.1.17).
An alternative proof of (13.1.17) may be physically more enlightening. We
use (13.0.1) to change the variable of integration in (13.1.17) to ~x instead of
~r. Then
K 0 (t)
168
QED
d P~ E K 0(t)] = F~ E K 0(t)]
dt
(13.2.1)
where F~ E K 0 (t)] is the total force at time t on the material in K 0 (t). As it stands, (13.2.1)
is essentially a denition of F~ E K 0(t)], and our task is to calculate this force and then to
extract from (13.2.1) a local form of the law of conservation of momentum in the same
way that (13.1.12) was extracted from (13.1.9). To do this, we also need an expression
for P~ E K 0(t)], but this is simple. The mass in dVP (~r) is dVP (~r)E (~r t) at time t, so its
momentum is dVP (~r)E (~r t)~vE (~r t). Summing over all the volume elements dVP (~r) in
K 0(t) gives
Z
P~ E K 0 (t)] = 0 dVP (~r)(~v)E (~r t)
(13.2.2)
K (t)
169
If we apply to this equation both (13.1.17) and (12.4.21-12.4.26) we obtain the identity
where
(13.2.4)
~
f~ = ~g + QE~ + J~
B:
(13.2.5)
F~BE K 0 (t)] =
K 0 (t)
(13.2.6)
This is called the \body force" on K 0(t), and f~ is the body force density per unit of
physical volume, the physical density of body force.
If we accept F~BE as a good model for F~ E , the only force acting on a cubic centimeter
of ocean or rock is ~g (assuming E~ = B~ = ~0), and yet neither is observed to fall at
981cm2=sec. Something important is still missing in our model of F~ E .
The physical origin of our di"culty is clear. The forces in (13.2.5) are calculated from
the average distribution of molecules and charge carriers, as in Figure 12.1. In addition
to these long range average forces, we expect that the molecules just outside @K 0 (t), will
exert forces on the molecules just inside @K 0 (t), and these contribute to F~ E K 0(t)]. Also,
in gases and, to some extent, in liquids, individual molecules will cross @K 0 (t), and the
entering molecules may have, on average, dierent momenta from the exiting molecules.
170
S
^
nP ( r )
nt
o
Fr
Ba
ck
dAP ( r )
Figure 13.1:
This will result in a net contribution to the rate of change of the total momentum in
K 0(t). Therefore, it is part of dP~ K 0 (t)]=dt and hence, by (13.2.1), part of F~ E K 0 (t)].
Both the intermolecular force and the momentum transfer by molecular motion can be
modelled as follows: Fix time t and choose a xed ~r 2 K (t). Choose a very small nearby
plane surface S in K (t) such that S passes through ~r. Choose an even smaller surface
dAP (~r) which passes through ~r and lies in S . Arbitrarily designate one side of S as its
\front", and let n^P (~r) be the unit normal to S extending in front of S . Assume that S
is so small that the molecular statistics do not change appreciably across S , but that S is
considerably larger in diameter than the intermolecular distance or the mean free path.
Then the total force exerted by the molecules just in front of dAP (~r) on the molecules
just behind dAP (~r) will be proportional1 to the area of dAP (~r). We write this area as
dAP (~r). The proportionality constant is a vector, which we write S~force. It depends on ~r
and t, and it may also depend on the orientation of the surface S , i.e. on the unit normal
n^P (~r). If the material is a gas or liquid, there will also be a net transfer of momentum
from front to back across dAP (~r) because molecules cross dAP (~r) and collide just after
crossing, and the population of molecules one mean free path in front of dAP (~r) may be
1
171
^n
r
dAP (r )
K
( t)
Figure 13.2:
statistically dierent from the population one mean free path behind dAP (~r). The net
rate of momentum transfer from just in front of dA(~r) to just behind dAP (~r) will produce
a time rate of change of momentum of the material just behind dAP (~r) that is, it will
exert a net force on that material. This force will also be proportional to dAP (~r), and
the proportionality constant is another vector, which we write S~mfp. This vector also
depends on ~r,t and n^P (~r). The sum S~ (~r t n^P ) = S~force(~r t n^P ) + S~mfp (~r t n^P ) is called
the stress on the surface (S n^P ). The total force exerted by the material just in front of
dAP (~r) on the material just behind dAP (~r) is
(13.2.7)
This is called the surface force on dAP (~r). Summing (13.2.7) over all the elements of area
dAP (~r) on @K 0 (t) gives
F~SE K 0(t)] =
Z
@K 0(t)
(13.2.8)
where n^P (~r t) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t). The expression
(13.2.8) is called the surface force on K 0 (t). It is the total force exerted on the material
just inside @K 0 (t) by the material just outside @K 0 (t). The total force on K 0(t) is the sum
172
of the body and surface forces, F~ E K 0(t)] = F~BE K 0(t)] + F~SE K 0(t)], so
F~ E K 0 (t)] =
K 0 (t)
@K 0(t)
(13.2.9)
Combining the physical law (13.2.1) with the mathematical expressions (13.2.3) and
(13.2.9) gives
@K 0
(13.2.10)
Z
E
$E
~ $
dA
(
~
r
)^
n
(
~
r
)
dV
(
~
r
)
@
(
~
r
t
)
=
(~r t):
S
S
P
P
P
@K 0
K0
173
$E
~
~
dV (~r) ~a ; f ; @ S (~r t) = 0:
K0
Since this is true for all open subsets K 0 of K (t) with piecewise smooth boundaries @K 0 ,
the vanishing integral theorem implies that the integrand vanishes for all ~r 2 K (t) if, as
we shall assume, it is continuous. Therefore
$
~a = @~ S +f~:
(13.2.12)
$E
This is the Eulerian form of the momentum equation. The tensor S (~r t) called the
$
Cauchy stress tensor at (~r t). The physical quantity S is also called the Cauchy stress
tensor.
The argument which led Cauchy from (13.2.10) to (13.2.11) is fundamental to continuum mechanics, so we examine it in detail. In (13.2.10), t appears only as a parameter,
so we will ignore it. Then (13.2.10) implies (13.2.11) because of
dV (~r)f~(~r) =
0 U
@K 0
(13.2.13)
where n^U (~r) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 at ~r 2 @K 0 . Then for each ~r 2 K there
$
is a unique S (~r) 2 U V such that for all n^ 2 NU ,
$
S~ (~r n^ ) = n^ S (~r):
(13.2.14)
This theorem is true for any value of dim U 2. We give the proof only for dim U = 3,
the case of interest to us. For other values of dim U , a proof can be given in exactly the
same way except that ~u1
~u2 must be replaced by the vector in Exercise 7.]
Proof:
174
Figure 13.3:
Two lemmas are required.
Lemma 13.2.29 Suppose f~ and S~ satisfy the hypotheses of theorem 13.2.28. Let ~r0
be any point in K and let K 0 be any open bounded (i.e., there is a real M such that
~r 2 K 0 ) k~rk M ) subset of U , with piecewise smooth boundary @K 0 . We don't need
K 0 K . Then
Z
dAU (~r)S~ ~r0 n^ U (~r)] = ~0V
(13.2.15)
0
@K
if n^U (~r) is the unit outward normal to @K 0 at ~r 2 @K 0 and dAU (~r) is the element of area
on @K 0 .
175
geometric similarity
dA
(~r
) = 2dA(~r):
(13.2.16)
Let n^(~r) be the unit outward normal to @K 0 at ~r, and let n^
(~r
) be the unit outward
normal to @K
0 at ~r
. By similarity, n^(~r) and n^
(~r
) point in the same direction.
n^
(~r
) = n^(~r):
Since ~r0 is xed, it follows that
~ ^
(~r
)] = 2
0 dA
(~r
)S ~r0 n
@K
Z
@K 0
(13.2.17)
(13.2.18)
~
0 dV (~r)f (~r) =
K
n~
o
~ ~r0 n^
(~r
)]
dA
(
~
r
)
S
~
r
n
^
(
~
r
)]
;
S
K0
Z
+ 0 dA
(~r
)S~ ~r0 n^
(~r
)] :
@K
Z
~ ~r0 n^ (~r)] = 12 dV (~r)f~(~r)
dA
(
~
r
)
S
K0
@K 0
Z
+ 12 0 dA
(~r
)
@K
~S ~r0 n^
(~r
)] ; S~ ~r
n^
(~r
)] : (13.2.19)
Let mS~ () = maximum value of kS~ (~r0 n^) ; S~ (~r n^)k for all ~r 2 @K
0 and all n^ 2 NU .
Let mf~() = maximum value of jf~(~r)j for all ~r 2 K
0 .
Let j@K
0 j = area of @K
0 , j@K 0 j = area of @K 0 .
Let jK
0 j = volume of K
0 , jK 0j = volume of K 0.
Z
dA(~r)S~ ~r0 n^(~r)] jK 0jmf~() + j@K 0 jmS~ ():
@K 0
(13.2.20)
176
Lemma 13.2.30 Suppose S~ : NU ! V . Suppose that for any open set K 0 with piecewise
smooth boundary @K 0 , S~ satises
@K 0
(13.2.21)
Proof of Lemma 13.2.30: a) F (;~u) = ;F (~u) for all ~u 2 U . To prove this, it su"ces
to prove
(13.2.23)
Let K 0 be the at rectangular box shown at upper right. For this box, (13.2.21)
gives
h
i
L2 S~ (^n) + L2S~ (;n^ ) + "L S~ (^n1) + S~ (;n^1 ) + S~ (^n2 ) + S~ (;n^2 ) = ~0V :
Hold L xed and let " ! 0. Then divide by L2 and (13.2.23) is the result.
b) If c 2 R and ~u 2 U , F (c~u) = cF (~u).
i) If c = 0 or ~u = ~0U , this is obvious from F (~0U ) = ~0V .
ii) If c > 0 and ~u 6= ~0U , F (c~u) = kc~ukkS~ (c~u=kc~uk) = ck~ukS~ (c~u=ck~uk) =
ck~ukS~ (~u=k~uk) = cF (~u) .
177
n2
-n1
-n
-n2
Figure 13.4:
178
(13.2.24)
To prove (13.2.24) note that since ~u1 , ~u2 are linearly independent, we can dene the unit
vector ^ = (~u1
~u2)=k~u1
~u2k. We place the plane of this paper so that it contains ~u1
and ~u2, and ^ points out of the paper. The vectors ~u1, ~u2, ~u3 form the three sides of a
nondegenerate triangle in the plane of the paper. ^
~ui is obtained by rotating ~ui 90
counterclockwise. If we rotate the triangle with sides ~u1 , ~u2, ~u3 90 counterclockwise,
we obtain a triangle with sides ^
~u1, ^
~u2, ^
~u3. The length of side ^
~ui is
k^
~uik = k~uik, and ~ui is perpendicular to that side and points out of the triangle. Let
K 0 be the right cylinder whose base is the triangle with sides ^
~ui and whose generators
perpendicular to the base have length L. The base and top of the cylinder have area
A = k~u1
~u2k=2 and their unit outward normals are ~ and ;~ . The three rectangular
faces of K 0 have areas Lk~uik and unit outward normals ~u(i) =k~u(i)k. Applying (13.2.21) to
this K 0 gives
3
X
AS~ (^ ) + AS~ (;^) + Lk~uikS~ (~ui=k~uik) = ~0V :
i=1
But S~ (^ ) = ;S~ (;^) so dividing by L and using (13.2.22) gives (13.2.23).
Corollary 13.2.44 (to Lemma 13.2.30.) Under the hypotheses of lemma 13.2.30, there
$
is a unique S 2 U V such that for all n^ 2 NU
$
S~ (^n) = n^ S :
(13.2.25)
179
u3
^ x
u1
u
^ x
u1
u2
^ x
u2
^ x u 3
^ x
^
^ x u
Figure 13.5:
180
Proof:
181
^n
P
front
dAP
back
Figure 13.6:
and (13.2.27),
F~SE K 0] =
Z
@K
$E
~
dA
(
r
)^
n
(
~
r
)
(~r t):
S
P
P
0
(13.2.28)
F~SE K 0 ] =
E
~ $
dV
(
~
r
)
@
(~r t):
S
P
0
(13.2.29)
The total force on the matter in K 0 is, according to (13.2.9) and (13.2.29),
E
Z
~F E K 0] = dVP (~r) f~ + @~ $
(13.2.30)
S (~r t):
0
K
182
Figure 13.7:
Cut out a slice, close the gap by pressure, weld, and remove the pressure,
as in gure 13.7 The resulting doughnut will contain a nonzero static stress
eld. The net force on every lump of iron in the doughnut vanishes because
the body force vanishes and the surface force sums to ~0.
Denition 13.2.46
$
Sn(^n) := n^ S~ (^n) = n^ S n^
$
~SS (^n) := S~ (^n) ; n^Sn(^n) = n^ $
S ;n^ n^ S n^
$
pn(^n) := ;Sn (^n) = ;n^ S n^:
(13.2.33)
(13.2.34)
(13.2.35)
The vector n^Sn(^n) is called the normal stress acting on the oriented surface (dA n^), the
vector S~S (^n) is called the tangential or shear stress acting on (dA n^), and pn(^n) is the
183
Corollary 13.2.45
n^ S~S (^n) = 0
S~ (^n) = n^Sn(^n) + S~S (^n) = ;n^ pn(^n) + S~S (^n):
(13.2.36)
(13.2.37)
The shear stress is always perpendicular to n^, parallel to dA. The normal stress acts
oppositely to n^ if pn(^n) > 0.
To visualize S~ as a function of n^, note that the set NP of unit vectors n^ 2 P is precisely
@B (~0 1), the spherical surface of radius 1 centered on ~0 in P . Thus S~ attaches to each n^
on the unit sphere NP a vector S~ (^n) whose radial part is n^SN (^n) and whose tangential
part is S~S (^n). This suggests
Denition 13.2.47 The average value of pn(^n) for all n^ 2 NP is called the average or
mean pressure at ~r t. It is written hpni(~r t). We do not write the (~r t) in this chapter.
Thus
Z
1
hpni = 4 N dA(^n)pn(^n)
P
where dA(^n) is the element of area on NP .
Remark 13.2.61 hpni = ;1=3 tr S$
(13.2.38)
Proof:
Let y^1 y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for P , and take components relative to
this basis. Then
$
pn(^n) = ;n^ S n^ = ;niSij nj = ;Sij ninj :
By the symmetry of NP ,
dA(^n)ni nj = 0 if i 6= j and
Z
Z
Z
Z
2
2
2
dA(^n)n21 = dA(^n)n22 = dA(^n)n23 = dA(^n) (n1 + n32 + n3) = 43 :
NP
NP
NP
NP
NP
184
Therefore,
Z
NP
$
Only part of S produces the shear stress S~S (^n). To see this we need a brief discussion
of tensors in U U , where U is any Euclidean space.
$
$
Let y^1 y^n be an orthonormal basis for U . Then I U = y^iy^i and tr I U =
y^i y^i = n = dim U .
$
$
$
$
With y^i as above, tr S = Sii = ij Sij = ( I U )ij Sij = I U h2i S .
$
$
The isotropic tensors are the scalar multiples of I U . But S is orthogonal to
$ $ $ ^
I U ,S h2i I U = 0. Now use lemma 13.2.32.
Remark 13.2.62 If S$2 U U , there is exactly one isotropic tensor $I U and one
$
deviator S D such that
$ $ $
(13.2.39)
S= I U + SD :
185
Proof:
$
Thus is uniquely determined by S . Then, from (13.2.39), the same is true
$
of S D .
$
Existence. Choose = (tr $S )= dim U and dene SD by (13.2.39). Then
$
$
$
$ $
$
tr S = (tr I U ) + tr S D = tr S +tr S D so tr S D = 0.
Denition 13.2.49 In (13.2.39), $I U is the isotropic part of S$, and $S D is the deviatoric
$
$
$
part of S . If U = P and S is a Cauchy stress tensor, S D is the stress deviator.
Remark 13.2.63 Suppose $I P and S$D are the isotropic and deviatoric parts of Cauchy
$
stress tensor S . Then
i) hpni = ;
$ $
$ $
$
ii) If S = I P (i.e., S D = 0 ) then pn(^n) = ; for all n^ and S S (^n) = ~0 for all n^
$ $
iii) S and S D produce the same shear stress for all n^ (i.e., the shear stress is due entirely
$
to the deviatoric part of S ).
Proof:
$
$
i) By (13.2.39) tr S = 3. By remark (13.2.61), tr S = ;3hpni.
$
$
ii) Substitute I P for S in (13.2.35) and (13.2.34).
$
iii) From (13.2.34), if n^ is xed, S~S (^n) depends linearly on S . By (13.2.39),
$
$
S~S (^n) is the sum of a contribution from I P and one from S D . By ii)
$
above, the contribution from I P vanishes.
Remark 13.2.64 If a Cauchy stress tensor produces no shear stress for any n^ , it is
isotropic.
Proof:
186
$
The hypothesis is, from (13.2.34), that n^ S = n^ Sn(^n) for all unit vectors n^.
Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for P . Then setting n^ = y^i gives
$
$ $ $
$
$
y^i S = y^(i) Sn(^y(i)). But S = I P S = (^yiy^i) S = y^i(^yi S ) = P y^iy^iSn(^yi).
That is
3
$ X
=
y^iy^iSn(^yi):
S
i=1
$T $
$
$
But then S =S , so n^ S y^i = y^i S n^, and thus n^Sn(^n) y^i = y^iSn(^yi) n^ , or
Sn(^n)(^n y^i) = Sn(^yi)(^n y^i). This is true for any n^ , so we may choose an n^
with n^ y^i 6= 0 for all of i = 1 2 3. Then Sn(^n) = Sn(^y1) = Sn(^y2) = Sn(^y3),
$
$
so S = Sn(^n)^yiy^i = Sn(^n) I P .
QED
Fluid Motion:
Denition 13.2.50 A uid is a material which cannot support shear stresses when it
is in static equilibrium. A non-viscous uid is a material which can never support shear
stresses.
$E
$
From remark (13.2.64), S (~r t) = (~r t) I P . From remark 13.2.63, i),
= ;hpni.
(13.2.40)
187
Proof:
$
$
$
$ $
$
By exercise 11a, @~ (p I P ) = @~p I P +p@~ I P . But @~ I P = I P h2i@~ I P = 0
$
$
$
because I P is constant and @~ I P = 0. Also @~p I P = @~p.
QED.
Therefore, the Eulerian momentum equation in a non-viscous uid is
(13.2.41)
@t~u + ~u @~~u = ;@~p + f~:
(13.2.42)
@~p = f~:
(13.2.43)
sure and density of the uid are constant on gravitational equipotential surfaces which
are arcwise connected.
Proof:
Let , be the gravitational potential. Then f~ = ;@~,, so (13.2.43) shows
that @~p is a scalar multiple of @~,. And @~
f~ = ;@~
@~,. Since @~
f~ = ~0,
@~ is also a scalar multiple of @~,. Therefore, if C is any curve lying in a
gravitational equipotential surface, and if ^(~r) is the unit tangent vector to C
at ~r, then ~ (~r) @~(~r) = ^(~r) @~p(~r) = 0. Therefore, by theorem 11.2.23,
and p are the same at both ends of C .
188
P~tL H 0] =
H0
dVL
(~x)~L(~x)~vL(~x t) =
H0
dVL(~x)(~~v)L(~x t):
Let F~tLH 0] denote the total force exerted on those particles at time t. Then the law of
conservation of momentum requires
d P~ L H 0] = F~ L H 0] :
(13.3.1)
t
dt t
Since the set H 0 does not vary with time, we also have the mathematical identity
d P~ L H 0] = Z dV (~x)~L(~x)D ~vL(~x t)
L
t
dt t
H0
or
d P~ L H 0] = Z dV (~x) (~~a)L (~x t) :
(13.3.2)
L
dt t
H0
The particles whose labels are in H 0 occupy the set K 0 (t) in physical space P at time
t. Therefore P~tLH 0] = P~ E K 0 (t)], and (13.3.2) should agree with (13.2.3). That it does
or
det D~
~ r L(~x t) f~L(~x t)
dV
(
~
x
)
L
0
L H 0 ] =
F~Bt
Z
H
~f~L (~x t)
dV
(
~
x
)
L
0
(13.3.3)
189
^n
L
front
dAL ( x )
back
Figure 13.8:
where
~f~ = det D~
~ r f~:
(13.3.4)
The vector ~f~ is the body force density per unit of label-space volume. Formula (13.3.4)
can be seen physically as follows. The body force on the particles in the small set dVP (~r)
is dVP (~r)f~E (~r t) at time t. But these are the particles whose labels are in dVL(~x), so by
L
(13.0.1) this force is dVL(~x)~f~ (~x t) with ~f~ given by (13.3.4).
The surface force at time t exerted by the particles whose labels are just outside @H 0
L H 0 ]. The particles
on the particles whose labels are just inside @H 0 we will denote by F~St
with labels just outside (inside) @H 0 are those whose positions at time t are just outside
(inside) @K 0 (t), so
F~StL H 0] = F~SE K 0 (t)] :
(13.3.5)
L H 0 ] + F
L H 0 ]. It remains to study the surface force F
L H 0 ].
~St
~St
Then F~tL H 0] = F~Bt
Let dAL(~x) be any small nearly plane patch of surface in label space L containing the
label ~x 2 H . Choose one side of dAL to be the front, and let n^L be the unit normal to
dAL(~x) on its front side. Figure 13.8 is the same as gure (13.6) except for the labelling.
Now, however, the picture is of a small patch of surface in label space, not physical space.
The force dF~S exerted by the particles with labels just in front of dAL on the particles
with labels just behind dAL is proportional to dAL, as long as the orientation of that small
surface does not change, i.e., as long as n^ L is xed. We denote the vector \constant" of
~~ L. The vector S~~ will change if n^L changes, and it
proportionality by S~~. Then dF~SL = SdA
190
Figure 13.9:
also will depend on ~x and t, so at time t at label ~x
where n^L(~x) is the unit outward normal to @H 0 at ~x 2 @H 0 . Now we can combine (13.3.3)
and (13.3.7) to obtain
F~tL H 0] =
dV (~x)f~L(~x t) +
0 L
(13.3.8)
(13.3.9)
@H 0
L
Z
~
~
dV
(
~
x
)
~
~
a
;
f
(
~
x
t
)
=
0 L
@H 0
Equation (13.3.9) is true for every open subset H 0 of H for which @H 0 is piecewise smooth.
It is mathematically of the same form as (13.2.10) and the same application of Cauchy's
$L
theorem (13.2.28) shows that there is a unique tensor S~ (~x t) 2 L P such that for every
unit vector n^L 2 L,
~S~(~x t n^ L) = n^L S$L (~x t):
(13.3.10)
$L
The tensor S~ (~x t) is the Piola-Kircho or body stress tensor. We would prefer to call
it the label stress tensor, but history prevents us. Proceeding in the way which led from
191
@H
$!L
~
~
~
dVL(~x) ~~a ; f ; D S~ (~x t) = 0:
H0
Since this is true for all open H 0 H with @H 0 piecewise smooth, the vanishing integral
theorem gives
$
~
~~a = ~f~ + D~ S:
(13.3.11)
This is the Lagrangian form of the momentum equation. Equation (13.3.6) can now be
written
$L
L
~
dFS = dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t)
(13.3.12)
where dF~SL, dAL(~x) and n^L refer to gure 13.8.
Equations (13.3.11) and (13.2.12) refer to the same motion. The relation between ~
and is (13.1.3). The relation between ~f~ and f~ is (13.3.4), which can also be written
~f~ f~
(13.3.13)
~ =
both sides of this equation being the force per unit mass on the material. But what is the
$
$
relation between S~ and S ?
Suppose that dAL(~x) is a small nearly plane surface in label space L, and that we
have chosen one of its sides as the front. Let n^ L be the unit normal to dAL(~x) on its
front side. At time t, let ~r = ~r L(~x t). Let dAP (~r) be the small nearly plane surface
in physical space P consisting of all positions at time t of particles whose labels are in
dAL(~x). Let dAL(~x) and dAP (~r) denote both the sets of points which make up the small
surfaces and also the areas of those sets. Choose the front side of dAP (~r) so that particles
are just in front of dAP (~r) if their labels are just in front of dAL(~x). Let n^ P be the unit
normal to dAP (~r) on its front side. Then the force exerted on the particles just behind
$E
dAP (~r) by the particles just in front can be written either as dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t) or as
$L
dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t). Therefore, these two expressions must be equal:
$L
$E
dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t) = dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t)
(13.3.14)
192
^n P
front
front
dAP ( r )
dAL ( x )
back
back
Figure 13.10:
if
and
~r = ~r L(~x t)
(13.3.15)
h
i
dAP (~r) = ~r L ( t) dAL(~x)] :
(13.3.16)
Notice that in (13.3.14), dAP and dAL are positive real numbers, areas, while in (13.3.16)
they stand for sets, the small surfaces whose areas appear in (13.3.14).
Our program is to express dAP (~r)^nP in terms of dAL(^x)^nL in (13.3.14), to cancel
$
$
dAL(^x)^nL , and thus to obtain the relation between S and S~. Equation 13.3.14 holds,
whatever the shape of dAL(~x). It is convenient to take it to be a small parallelogram
whose vertices are ~x, ~x + ~1, ~x + ~2, ~x + ~1 + ~2. Then dAP (~r) will be a very slightly
distorted parallelogram with vertices
~r
~r + ~1
~r + ~2
~r + ~1 + ~2
= ~r L(~x t)
= ~r L(~x + ~1 t)
= ~r L(~x + ~2 t)
= ~r L(~x + ~1 + ~2 t):
~ r L(~x t)
~r + ~i = ~r L(~x t) + ~i D~
so
~ r L(~x t):
~i = ~i D~
(13.3.17)
193
^n
P
^n
L
front
x +
2
2
x + +
1
2
dA L ( x )
r+
dAP ( r )
back
1
r+
x +
1
r+ +
1
Figure 13.11:
We naturally take ~1 and ~2 in dierent directions, so k~1
~2 k 6= 0 (recall that L and P are
oriented 3-spaces, so cross products are dened). We number ~1 and ~2 in the order which
ensures that ~1
~2 points into the region in front of dAL(~x), so ~1
~2 = k~1
~2kn^L.
But k~1
~2k = dAL(~x), so
dAL(~x)^nL = ~1
~2:
(13.3.18)
Also, clearly, k~1
~2 k = dAP (~r), and ~1
~2 is perpendicular to dAP (~r), so ~1
~2 =
k~1
~2 kn^P . Thus
dAP (~r)^nP = ~1
~2:
(13.3.19)
But which sign is correct? We have to work out which is the front side of dAP (~r), because
that is where we put n^ P . If ~3 2 L is small, ~x + ~3 is in front of dAL(~x) , ~3 n^L > 0,
and hence ,
~3 ~1
~2 > 0:
(13.3.20)
The particle with label ~x + ~3 has position ~r + ~3 , with ~3 given by (13.3.17). Then
8
>
~3 (~1
~2 ) = AP (~3 ~1 ~2) = AP (~1 ~2 ~3 )
>
>
>
>
>
<
~ ~ L ~ ~ L ~ ~ L
=
A
1 D~r 2 D~r 3 D~r
P
>
>
>
>
>
h ~ L i ~ ~ ~
i
>
~ r L(~x t) AL ~1 ~2 ~3 = det D~
: = hdet D~
r (~x t) 3 1
2 :
(13.3.21)
194
Thus the position ~r + ~3 is in front of dAP (~r) , ~3 (~1
~2) has the same sign as
~ r L(~x t). Let sgn c stand for the sign of the real number c. That is, sgn c = +1 if
det D~
c > 0, = ;1 if c < 0, and = 0 if c = 0. Then position ~r + ~3 is in front of dAP (~r) ,
~ r L(~x t):
sgn ~3 (~1
~2) = sgn det D~
(13.3.22)
We have chosen the front of dAP (~r), and the direction of n^ P , so that ~r + "n^P is in front
~ r L (~x t). Thus
of dAP (~r) when " > 0. Therefore sgn n^P (~1
~2 ) = sgn det D~
~ r L(~x t)
~1
~2 = k~1
~2 kn^P sgn det D~
and
~ r L(~x t):
dAP (~r)^nP = (~
~2) sgn det D~
(13.3.23)
Using (13.3.18) and (13.3.23), we hope to relate to dAP n^P and dALn^L , so we try to
relate ~1
~2 and ~1
~2. The two ends of (13.3.21) give
~
~3 (~1
~2) = ~3 ~1
~2 det D~
r L(~x t)
(13.3.24)
for any ~1, ~2, ~3 2 L, if ~1 , ~2 , ~3 are given by (13.3.17).
Substituting (13.3.18) and (13.3.23) in (13.3.24) and using c sgn c = jcj, we nd
~ r L(~x t) :
~3 dAP (~r)^nP ] = ~3 dAL(~x)^nL ] det D~
~ r L(~x t), so
But ~3 = ~3 D~
~ r L(~x t) dAP (~r)^nP ] = ~3 dAL(~x)^nL] det D~
~ r L(~x t) :
~3 D~
~ r :(~x t) dAP (~r)^nP ] = dAL(~x)^nL det D~
~ r L(~x t)
D~
h ~ L iT
~ r L(~x t) :
dAP (~r)^nP D~
r (~x t) = dAL(~x)^nL det D~
(13.3.25)
$L
If we dot S~ (~x t) on the right of each side of (13.3.25), we obtain
$L
~ r L(~x t)T S~ (~x t)
dAP (~r)^nP D~
$L
~ r L(~x t) :
= dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t) det D~
195
(13.3.26)
$L
$E
~
dFS = dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t) = dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t)
where ~r = ~r L (~x t). Thus
$L
$L
dAL(~x)^nL S~ (~x t) = dAP (~r)^nP S (~x t):
(13.3.27)
We have proved (13.3.27) when dAP is a small parallelogram, as in Figure (13.3.14). But
~1 and ~2 can be arbitrary as long as they are small. Hence so can dAP (~r)^nP = ~1
~2 .
Thus (13.3.27) is true when dAP (~r)^nP is any small vector in P . Since (13.3.27) is linear
in dAP (~r)^nP , it is true whatever the size of that vector. Therefore (13.3.27) implies
$L
~ r L(~x t)T S~ (~x t) = S$L(~x t) det D~
~ r L (~x t)
D~
or
~ T $~ $ ~
D~r S = S det D~r :
(13.3.28)
$
$
~ r L (~x t) has an inverse, @~ ~x E (~r t),
This gives S in terms of S~. By (12.2.7, 13.3.24), D~
~ r L(~x t)T has the inverse @~ ~x E (~r t)T . Dotting this on the left
where ~r = ~r L (~x t), so D~
in (13.3.28) gives
$ T $
;1
S~ = @~ ~x S det @~ ~x
(13.3.29)
~ r );1 = (det D~
~ r);1 .
where we use det(D~
196
0$1
0 $1
B@ S~ CA = @~ ~x T @ S A :
~
(13.3.30)
(13.3.31)
h
i
~r
dVP (~r)(~v)E (~r t) = dVP (~r)(~r
~v)E (~r t):
It is possible that the individual atoms in dVP (~r) might have angular momentum this
might be from the orbits of electrons not in closed shells, from the spins of unpaired electrons, or from nuclear spin. Orbital angular momentum is quantized in integer multiples
of h( , while spin angular momentum is in units of h( =2. Here h( = h=2 and h is Planck's
constant, so h( = 1:0544
1;34 joule sec. If the atoms are not randomly aligned, there
may be an intrinsic atomic angular momentum of ~lE (~r t) per kilogram at position ~r at
time t. Then the intrinsic angular momentum in dVP (~r) is dVP (~r)(~l)E (~r t), and the total
angular momentum in dVP (~r) is
h
iE
dL~E = dVP (~r) ~r
~v + ~l (~r t):
197
Figure 13.12:
The total angular momentum in K 0(t) is
LE K 0(t)] =
From (13.1.12),
Now
so
K 0 (t)
h
iE
dVP (~r) ~r
~v + ~l (~r t):
198
back
dAP ( r )
Figure 13.13:
Therefore, the torque about O~ P which is exerted on the particles in K 0 (t) by the body
and surface force acting on them is
$ E
Z
E
~
dVP (~r) vecr
f (~r t) ; 0 dAP (~r)^nP S
~r (~r t):
K 0(t)
@K (t)
By applying Gauss's theorem to the surface integral, we can write this torque as
$ E
~
~
dVP (~r) ~r
f ; @ S
~r (~r t):
K 0 (t)
(13.4.3)
In addition to this torque, there may be a torque acting on each atom in dVP (~r).
This would be true, for example, if the material were a solid bar of magnetized iron
placed in a magnetic eld B~ . If the magnetization density was M~ , there would be a
torque dVP (~r)M~
B~ acting on dVP (~r) and not included in (13.4.3). In general, we might
want to allow for an intrinsic body torque of m
~ joules/meter3, so that (13.4.3) must be
supplemented by a term
Z
dVP (~r)m
~ E (~r t):
0
K (t)
Finally, in a magnetized iron bar, atoms just outside @K 0 (t) exert a torque on atoms
just inside @K 0 (t), so there is a \torque stress" acting on @K 0 (t). The torque exerted on
the material just behind dAP (~r) by the material just in front is proportional to dAP as
long as the orientation of that small patch of surface, i.e., its unit normal, stays xed.
We write the proportionality constant as M~ (~r t n^ P ). The torque exerted on the material
$E
just behind dAP by the material just in front, other than that due to n^P S (~r t), is
199
@K 0(t)
(13.4.4)
(13.4.5)
This equation has the same mathematical form as (13.2.10), and leads via Cauchy's the$
orem to the same conclusion. At ~r t there is a unique tensor M E (~r t) 2 P P , which
we call the (Cauchy) torque-stress tensor, such that for every unit vector n^P 2 P we have
$
M~ (~r t n^P ) = n^P M E (~r t ):
(13.4.6)
Substituting this on the right in (13.4.5), applying Gauss's theorem to the surface integral,
and the vanishing integral theorem to the volume integral, gives
$
~
~r
~a + Dt~l ; ~r
f~ + @~ S
~r ; m
~ = @~ M:
(13.4.7)
Before we accept this as the Eulerian angular momentum equation, we note that it can be
greatly simplied by using the momentum equation (13.2.12). We have (~r
~a) = ~r
f~
$
= ~r
~a ; f~ = ~r
(@~ S ), so (13.4.7) is
$
$
$
~
~
~
Dt l + ~r
@ S + @ S
~r = m
~ + @~ M :
(13.4.8)
This can be still further simplied. Let y^1 , y^2, y^3 be a poob in P , (^x1 x^2 x^3) a pooob in
L, and take components relative to these bases. Then
$
$
~
~r
(@ S ) = "ijk rj (@~ S )k = "ijk rj @l Slk :
i
200
Also, for ~u , ~v, w~ 2 P , (~u~v)
w~ = ~u(~v
w~ ) (this is how we use the lifting theorem to
$
$
dene Q
w~ for Q2 P P and w~ 2 P ) so
(~u~v)
w~ ]ij = ~u (~v
w~ )]ij = ui (~v
w~ )j
= ui"jklk wl
= (~u~v)ik "jklw:
$
Therefore for any Q2 P P ,
$
Q
w~ = Qik "jklwl :
ij
Therefore
$
S
~r li = Slk "ikj rj
$
$
@~ S
~r
= @l S
~r = @l Slk "ikj rj ]
i
li
= "ikj @l (Slk rj )
= "ikj (@l Slk ) rj + Slk @l rj ] :
$
~
~
~
~r
@ S + @ S
~r = "ikj Slk @l rj :
i
$
But @l rj = lj , so this is "ikj Sjk = ;ijk Sjk = ; AP h2i S . Thus
i
$
$
$
~r
@~ S + @~ S
~r = ;AP h2i S :
Thus (13.4.8) is
$
$
Dt~l = AP h2i S +m
~ + @~ M :
(13.4.9)
(13.4.10)
This is the Eulerian form of the angular momentum equation. In non-magnetic materials
$
it is believed that ~l, m
~ are M and all negligible, and that the essential content of (13.4.10)
is
$
AP h2i S = ~0:
(13.4.11)
201
That is, "ijk Sjk = 0. Multiply by "ilm and sum on i, and this becomes (see page D-9)
(jlkm ; jmkl) Sjk = 0
or
Slm ; Sml = 0
or
$ $
S T =S :
(13.4.12)
The conservation of angular momentum requires that the Cauchy stress tensor be symmetric, if intrinsic angular momentum, body torque and torque stress are all negligible.
$
$
S = ax^x^ + by^y^ + cz^z^:
(13.4.14)
(13.4.15)
202
The unit vectors x^, y^, z^ are called \principal axes of stress" and a, b, c are \principal
stresses." By relabelling, if necessary, we can always assume that a b c. Also if we
change the sign of any of x^ y^ z^ both (13.4.14) and (13.4.15) remain unchanged. Therefore
we may assume that (^x y^ z^) is positively oriented.
For any vector ~n 2 P we write
(13.4.16)
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1:
(13.4.17)
$
The pressure pn(^n) acting on (dA n^) is pn(^n) = ;n^ S n^ = ;(ax2 + by2 + cz2 ). It can be
thought of as a function of position n^ = xx^ + yy^ + zz^ on the spherical surface (13.4.17).
In the earth, pn > 0, so it is convenient to introduce the principal pressures A, B , C ,
dened by
A = ;a B = ;b C = ;c:
(13.4.18)
Then A B C . The cases where equality occurs are special and are left to the reader.
We will examine the usual case,
A < B < C:
(13.4.19)
We want to try to visualize pn(^n) and the shear stress S~S (^n) acting on (dA n^ ) as functioning of n^ , i.e., as functions on the spherical surface (13.4.17).
We have
pn(^n) = Ax2 + By2 + Cz2
(13.4.20)
$
and, since S~ (^n) = n^ S ,
(13.4.21)
(13.4.22)
First consider pn. Its value is unchanged if we replace any of x y z by its negative
in (13.4.16). Therefore pn is symmetric under reections in the coordinate planes x = 0,
203
Hence, it satises
(13.4.24)
(A ; p) x2 + (B ; p) y2 + (C ; p) z2 = 0:
(13.4.26)
(13.4.25)
A p C
(13.4.27)
so the values of pn(^n) all lie in the interval (13.4.27). The value p = A requires y = z = 0,
x = 1, so pn(^n) = A only for n^ = x^. The value p = C requires x = y = 0, so pn(^n) = C
p
p
only for n^ = z^. The value of p = B makes (13.4.25) into x B ; A = z C ; B ,
and these two planes intersect the sphere (13.4.17) in great circles, one of which lies in
(13.4.23). For any value of p in A < p < C , (13.4.25) and (13.4.26) imply all three of the
following:
8
>
>
(C ; A) x2 + (C ; B ) y2 = C ; p
>
<
(13.4.28)
(B ; A) x2 ; (C ; B ) z2 = B ; p
>
>
>
: (B ; A) y2 + (C ; A) z2 = p ; A:
Therefore the projection of the level curve (13.4.25), (13.4.17) onto the xy or yz plane is
part or all of an ellipse, and its projection on the xz plane is part of a hyperbola with
p
p
asymptotes x B ; A = z C ; B . The level lines pn(^n) = B on Np, with p = B ,
p
p
are the great circles where Np intersects the planes x B ; A = z C ; B . The level
lines of pn on NP are the dashed curves in gure 13.14. Next, consider the shear stress
S~S (^n). At any n^ 2 NP , this is a vector tangent to NP . It is dened by (13.4.21), and
from (13.4.22) S~ (^n) = ;1=2 @~pn(^n) where pn is to be considered as a function dened
for all ~n 2 P by (13.4.20), even when k~nk 6= 1. At a point n^ 2 NP , let ^(^n) be the unit
204
^z
pn = C
pn = B
^y
pn = B
^x
pn = A
Figure 13.14:
205
vector tangent to the level curve of pn passing through n^ . Then n^ ^(^n) = 0, and since
^(^n) is tangent to a curve lying in the level surface pn(~n) = constant in P , it follows that
^(^n) @~pn(^n) = 0. Therefore, from (13.4.29), we have
^(^n) S~ (^n) = 0
and
^(^n) n^ = 0:
Then from (13.4.21), ^(^n) S~S (^n) = 0. Thus the shear stress S~S (^n) at n^ 2 NP is
perpendicular to the level line of pn which passes through n^. The \lines of force" of the
shear stress on NP are the curves which are everywhere tangent to S~S (^n). They are the
solid curves in gure 13.14, and are everywhere perpendicular to the level lines of pn.
These \lines of force" give the direction of S~S (^n) everywhere on NP .
Finally, we would like to nd kS~S (^n)k on NP , which we abbreviate as
(13.4.29)
Again we consider only the rst octant, x 0, y 0, z 0. The other octants are
obtained by reection in the three coordinate planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0. First consider
the edges of the rst octant, where x = 0 or y = 0 or z = 0. On the quarter circle
n^ = x^ cos
+ y^ sin
, 0
=2, subjecting (13.4.20) and (13.4.21), (13.4.22) to a little
algebra yields
(13.4.30)
(13.4.31)
(13.4.32)
(13.4.33)
This reaches a maximum value of (B ; A)=2 at
= =4, half way between x^ and y^ on
the quarter circle. And (^x) = (^y) = 0. Similarly
206
Lemma 13.4.33 On any level line of pn in the rst octant on NP , (^n) decreases monotonically as y increases.
Proof:
From (13.4.21), kS~ (^n)k2 = (^n)2 + pn(^n)2 so
(13.4.34)
0 1 0
;y^ n^
S~ (^n) = x y z = ;xz(C ; A):
Ax By Cz
Thus = 1=xz(C ; A), and
1
dn^ =
~
dy xz(C ; A) n^
S (^n):
(13.4.37)
207
By the chain rule, dyd kS~ (^n)k2 = ddyn^ @~kS~ (^n)k2 . From (13.4.22),
h ~ i 2
d kS~ (^n)k2 =
2
2 y y^ + C 2 z z^
n
^
S
(^
n
)
A
x
x
^
+
B
dy
xz(C ; A)
y
z
x
1 1 1
= xz(C2; A) ;Ax ;By ;Cz = ; (C 2;y A) A B C
2
2 2 2
A x B 2 y C 2z
A B C
= ;2y(C ; B )(B ; A) < 0:
This proves lemma 13.4.30 .
QED.
From (13.4.31, 13.4.32, 13.4.33) and lemma 13.4.33, we infer that the largest value of
p
(^n), the magnitude of the shear stress, is (C ; A)=2, and this occurs at n^ = (x^ z^)= 2,
and for no other n^.
It is of some interest to see which pairs (pn(^n) (^n)) are possible on NP . On the three
quarter-circles in (13.4.31, 13.4.32, 13.4.33) we have
0
1 0
1
A+B ; B;A cos 2
p
(^
n
)
B
CA if n^ = x^ cos
+ y^ sin
(z = 0)
@ n CA = B@ 2 B;A 2
n(^n)
2 sin 2
1
0
1 0
C
;
A
A
+
C
; cos 2
C if n^ = x^ cos
+ z^ sin
(y = 0)
p (^n)
B
@ n CA = B@ 2 C ;A 2
A
sin
2
n (^n)
2
1
0
1 0
C
;
B
B
+
C
; cos 2
C if n^ = y^ cos
+ z^ sin
: (x = 0)
p (^n)
B
A
@ n CA = B@ 2 C ;B 2
sin
2
n(^n)
2
(13.4.38)
(13.4.39)
(13.4.40)
For z = 0, the possible pairs (pn(^n) (^n)) are given by (13.4.38) and trace out the
seimicircle marked z = 0 in Figure 13.15. For y = 0, the possible pairs are given by
208
MOHR
( ^n )
MOHR
.
.
start
stop
y=0
z=0
x=0
Figure 13.15:
p n ( ^n )
209
(13.4.39) and trace out the semicircle marked y = 0 in Figure 13.15. For x = 0, use the
third semicircle in Figure 13.4.38.
In gure 13.14, suppose we start at a point with y = 0 and move along the level line
of pn till we hit either x = 0 or z = 0. Then in the ( pn) plane we will start at the point
marked \start" in Figure 13.15, and we will remain on the vertical dashed line pn = p.
According to lemma 13.4.33, as we increase y on the level curve pn ; p in Figure (13.14),
we will decrease (^n), so we move down the dashed line in Figure 13.15 until we strike
the point marked \stop." Therefore, the possible pairs (pn(^n) (^n)) which can occur on
NP are precisely the points in the shaded region in Figure 13.15.
Coulomb suggested that a rock will break when the maximum value of (^n) exceeds
a critical value characteristic of that rock. Navier pointed out that when two plates are
pressed together, the greater this pressure the harder it is to slide one over the other.
Navier suggested that the fracture criterion is that there be an orientation n^ for which
(^n) > c +pn(^n), where c and are constants characteristic of the rock (when p(^n) = 0,
Navier's fracture criterion reduces to Coulomb's). The constant is a sort of internal
coe"cient of friction. Mohr suggested that Coulomb and Navier had over-simplied the
problem, and that the true fracture criterion is (n) > f p(^n)], where f is a function
characteristic of the rock, which must be measured empirically, and about which one can
say in advance only that
f (p) > 0
df=dp > 0:
(13.4.41)
Even with such a general criterion, much can be said. The curve = f (p) is marked
\MOHR" in Figure 13.15. If A, B , C are moved so as to produce an overlap of the
shaded region with the Mohr curve, the rock will break at rst contact of the curve and
the shaded region. This rst contact will always occur on the plane y = 0, at a value of
in 13.4.32 which is between 0 and =4, so the normal to the plane of fracture will lie in
the xz plane, closer to x^ than to z^. The circles in Figure 13.15 are called Mohr circles.
210
(13.5.1)
so
Moreover,
MLt (H 0) =
(13.5.2)
~ L
dV
(
~
x
)
~r
f~ + m
~ (~x t)
L
H0
" $L!
#
Z
~
+ 0 dAL (~x) ~r
n^L S~ + M~ (~x t n^ L (~x))
Z
Therefore
$ !#
"
R dV (~x) ~ D ~l + ~r
~a ; ~r
~f~ ; m
~ + D~ S~
~r
t
H0 L
R
~~ ~x t n^ L(~x)] :
= 0 dAL (~x) M
@H
(13.5.5)
211
Applying Cauchy's theorem to (13.5.5) shows that for each (~x t) there is a unique
$
M~ L (~x t) 2 L P such that for any unit vector n^ 2 L,
$
$L
M~ ~x t n^] = n^ M~ (~x t) :
(13.5.6)
If we substitute this on the right in (13.5.5) and use Gauss's theorem and the vanishing
integral theorem, we obtain
$ !
$
~
~
~
~
~
~
~Dtl + ~~r
~a ; ~r
f ; m~ + D S~
~r = D~ M:
Using the Lagrangian momentum equation (13.3.11), we can write this as
$!
$ !
$
~
~
~
~
~
~
~Dtl + ~r
D S + D S
~r = D M~ + m:
~
Finally, by the sort of argument which led to (13.4.9), we can show
$!
$ !
" T $#
~
~
~
~
~ r S~
~r
D S + D S
~r = ;AP h2i D~
so the Lagrangian form of the angular momentum equation is
" T $#
$ $
~ r S~ :
~Dt~l = D~ M~ + m~ + AP h2i D~
(13.5.7)
$
$
$
$
The relation between M~ and M~ is the same as that between S~ and S . If the intrinsic
$
angular momentum ~l, body torque m~ , and torque stress M~ are all negligible, (13.5.7)
reduces to
" T $#
~ r S~ = 0:
AP h2i D~
(13.5.8)
A glance at (13.3.30) shows that (13.5.8) is the same as (13.4.11), so we learn nothing
new from (13.5.7) in this case.
212
potential energy of the intermolecular forces. The sum of these latter is called the internal
energy. We denote by U E (~r t) the internal energy per kilogram in the matter at ~r t. Then
the total energy in dVP is
The total energy in K 0(t) is
1
E
2
dVP (~r) 2 v + U (~r t) :
E E K 0 (t)] =
1
E
2
dVP (~r) 2 v + U (~r t) :
K 0 (t)
(13.6.1)
d E E K 0(t)] = W E K 0(t)]
(13.6.2)
dt
where W E K 0 (t)] is the rate at which energy is being added to the matter in K 0(t), i.e.,
the rate at which work is being done on that matter.
The body force f~ does work on dVP (~r) at the rate of dVP (~r)(~v f~)E (~r t) watts. If
$E
~r 2 @K 0 (t) then the surface stress n^P S (~r t) does work on the particles just inside
$E
@K 0 (t) at the rate of dAP (~r)^nP S (~r t) ~vE (~r t) watts. Thus the purely mechanical
component of W E K 0(t)] is
$ E
Z
Z
~E
dVP (~r) ~v f (~r t) + 0 dAP (~r)^nP S ~v (~r t) :
0
K (t)
@K (t)
K 0 (t)
$ E
dVP (~r) ~v f~ + @~ S ~v (~r t) :
(13.6.3)
In addition to this mechanical method of adding energy to K 0 (t) there are nonmechanical methods. Examples are
i) ohmic \heating" at a rate of dVP (~r)kJ~k2= watts, where J~ = electric current density
and = electrical conductivity.
ii) \heating" by absorption of light (e.g., sunlight in muddy water).
iii) radioactive \heating".
213
front
^n
P
r
back
dAP ( r )
Figure 13.16:
All these \heating" mechanisms together will add energy to dVP (~r) at a total rate of
dVP (~r)hE (~r t), where hE is the sum of the heating rates per unit volume. The resulting
contribution to W E K 0(t)] is
K 0 (t)
(13.6.4)
Finally, energy can leak into K 0(t) through the boundary, @K 0 (t). The physical mechanisms for this are molecular collision and diusion, but that does not concern us. We are
interested only in the possibility that if dAP (~r) is a small nearly plane surface containing
~r, with a designated front to which a unit normal n^P is attached, the energy can leak
across dAP (~r) from front to back at a rate proportional to dAP as long as the orientation
of dAP is not varied, i.e., as long as n^P is xed. We write the constant of proportionality
as ;H (~r t n^ P ), so that energy ows from front to back across dA(~r) at a net rate of
;H (~r t n^ P )dAP (~r) watts. This \heat ow" contributes to W E K 0 (t)] the term
@K 0 (t)
The minus sign in the denition of the proportionality constant is a convention established
for two centuries, and we must accept it. Indeed, there is aesthetic reason to put a minus
$
$
sign in the denition of S~ , to avoid the ;p I term. Our choice of signs for S~ and S was
also dictated by history, and it is unfortunate that the same choice was not made in both
cases.
214
The sum of all the foregoing rates at which energy is added to the matter in K 0 (t)
gives
W E K 0(t)] =
KZ0 (t)
$ E
dVP (~r) ~v f~ + @~ S ~v + h (~r t)
@K 0(t)
(13.6.5)
(13.6.6)
(13.6.7)
$ E
1
2 + U ; ~v f~ ; @~ S
v
~v ; h (~r t)
dV
(
~
r
)
D
P
t
2
K 0 (t)
Z
= ; 0 dA (~r) H (~r t n^ ) :
@K (t)
(13.6.8)
(13.6.9)
Applying Cauchy's theorem 13.2.28 to (13.6.9) shows that at each (~r t) there is a
unique vector H~ E (~r t) 2 P such that for all unit vectors n^ 2 P
H (~r t n^ ) = n^ H~ E (~r t) :
(13.6.10)
The vector H~ E (~r t) is called the heat-ow vector. Heat ows from front to back across
(dAP n^P ) at the rate of ;dAP (~r)^nP H~ E (~r t) watts. Inserting (13.6.10) in (13.6.9) and
applying Gauss's theorem converts (13.6.9) to
$
E
1
2 + U ; ~v f~ ; @~ S
~
~
dV
(
~
r
)
D
v
~
v
;
h
+
@
H
(~r t) : (13.6.11)
P
t
2
K 0 (t)
Since K 0 (t) can be any open subset of K (t) with piecewise smooth boundary, the vanishing
0=
$
Dt 12 v2 + U + @~ H~ = h + ~v f~ + @~ S ~v :
Dt v2 = Dt (~v ~v) = 2~v Dt~v = 2~v ~a:
(13.6.12)
215
(13.6.13)
(13.6.14)
Therefore (13.6.12) is
$
$
~a ~v + Dt U + @~ H~ = h + f~ ~v + @~ S ~v+ S h2i@~~v:
$
But the momentum equation says ~a = f~ + @~ S , so those terms cancel, leaving only
$
Dt U + @~ H~ = h+ S h2i@~~v:
(13.6.15)
This is the Eulerian form of the internal energy equation, or heat equation.
WtL H 0]
"
$ ! #L
~
= 0 dVL (~x) f~ ~v + D~ S~ ~v + h( (~x t)
H
Z
; @H 0 dAL (~x) 6 H (~x t n^ L(~x)) :
Z
(13.6.17)
(13.6.18)
216
At any (~x t), Cauchy's theorem 13.2.28 assures us of the existence of a unique vector
6 H~ L(~x t) 2 L such that for any unit vector n^ 2 L, 6 H (~x t n^) = n^ 6 H^ L(~x t). Substituting
this on the right in (13.6.21), and applying Gauss's theorem and the vanishing integral
theorem gives
1
~
$
2
~
~
~
~Dt 2 v + U ; f ~v ; D S ~v h( = ;D~ 6 H:
But Dt v2 = 2~v Dt~v = @~v ~a, and
$ ! $ !
$
~v
D~ S~ ~v = D~ S~ ~v + S~h2iD~
so
$!
$ ~
~
~
~~a ~v + ~Dt U = f~ ~v ; D~ S~ ~v; S h2iD~
v ; h( = ;D~ 6 H:
$
The Lagrangian momentum equation, ~~a ; ~f~ ; D~ S~ = ~0, permits some cancellation and
leaves us with
$
~ v:
(13.6.22)
~Dt U + D~ 6 H~ = h( + S~h2iD~
This is the Lagrangian form of the internal energy equation.
Using (13.3.25) and the identity
~
dAP n^ H~ = dALn^ L 6 H
one proves
H~ = D~
~ r T 6 H~
~
in the same manner as (13.3.30) was proved.
(13.6.23)
13.7 Stu
Mass, momentum, angular momentum and energy are all examples of a general mathematical object which we call a \stu." The idea has produced some confusion, so we
discuss it here.
13.7. STUFF
217
$E
Denition 13.7.52 A \stu" is an ordered pair of functions ( ~ E F ) with these properties: V is a Euclidean space, and for each t 2 R, K (t) is an open subset of physical
space P and
~ E ( t) : K (t) ! V
(13.7.1)
$E
(13.7.2)
F ( t) : K (t) ! P V:
$E
E
The function ~ is called the spatial density of the stu F is the spatial current density
or spatial ux density of the stu. And ~ E , the creation rate of the stu, is dened to be
$E
E
~ E = @t ~ + @~ F :
(13.7.3)
Denition 13.7.53 Suppose t 2 R, ~r 2 K (t), and dV (~r) is a small open subset of K (t)
containing ~r dV (~r) will also denote the volume of that subset. Suppose dA(~r t) is a small
nearly plane oriented surface containing ~r, and n^ is the unit normal on the front side of
dA(~r t). We also use dA(~r t) to denote the area of the small surface. Suppose dA(~r t)
moves with speed W normal to itself, with W > 0 when the motion is in the direction of
n^. Then
E
i) dV (~r) ~ (~r t) is called the amount of stu in dV (~r) at time t
$E
E
ii) dA(~r t)^n F (~r t) ; W ~ (~r t)] is called the rate at which the stu ows across
dA(~r t) n^] from back to front.
iii) dV (~r)~ E (~r t) is called the rate at which stu is created in dV (~r) at time t.
Denition 13.7.54 Let K 0 (t) be any open subset of K (t), with piecewise continuous
boundary @K 0 (t) and unit outward normal n^(~r) at ~r 2 @K 0 (t). Suppose K 0(t) moves so
that the outward velocity of @K 0 (t) normal to itself at ~r 2 @K 0 (t) is W (~r t). Then
i)
~
K 0 (t) dV (~r)
-~ K 0 (t)]
"
#
$E
R
E
ii) @K 0(t) dA(~r) n^ (~r) F (~r t) ; W (~r t) ~ (~r t) is called the rate at which stu ows
out of K 0(t) across @K 0 (t) at time t. Denote it by F~ K 0 (t)].
218
iii)
K 0 (t) dV (~r)~
E (~r t)
Remark 13.7.68 d=dt -~ K 0(t)] = ~;K 0 (t)] ; F~ K 0 (t)] for any open subset K 0(t) of K (t),
@K 0 (t)
Therefore,
!
E
d -~ K 0(t)] + F~ K 0(t)] = Z dV (~r) @ ~ E + @~ $
F
t
dt
K 0 (t)
Z
= 0 dV (~r)~ E (~r t) = ~; K 0(t)] :
K (t)
Denition 13.7.55 Suppose the K (t) in denition 13.7.52 is the set of positions occu-
pied by the particles of a certain continuum at time t. Suppose and ~v are the density
of mass and the particle velocity in the contiuum. Then dene
E
i) ~E (~r t) = ~ (~r t)=E (~r t)
$E
$E
E
ii) F (~r t) = F (~r t) ; ~vE (~r t) ~ (~r t).
$ $
Let ~, ~ , F , F be, respectively the physical quantities whose Eulerian descriptions
$E
E $E $ E
are ~E , ~ , F , F . Then the denitions of ~ E and F imply
~ = ~ = or ~ = ~
(13.7.4)
$
$ $
~ = F ;~v ~ or F =F +~v~:
(13.7.5)
The physical quantity ~ is called the density of stu per unit mass of continuum material
(\material density of the stu," for short), while ~ is the density of stu per unit volume
$
of physical space. The physical quantity F is the ux density of the stu relative to the
$
material in the continuum, or the material ux density, while F is the ux density of the
stu in space.
13.7. STUFF
219
Remark 13.7.69 Suppose the two pairs of functions ( ~ F ) and ( F~ ) are related by
(13.7.4). Then
$
$
@t ~ + @~ F = Dt ~ + @~ F
$
so the creation rate of the stu ( ~ F ) is
$
~ = Dt ~ + @~ F :
(13.7.6)
(13.7.7)
Proof:
@t ~ = (@t ) ~ + @t ~
i
$ h
@~ F~ = @~ F + @~ (~v) ~ + (~v) @~~
h
i
h
i
$
@t + @~ F~ = @t + @~ (~v) ~ + @t ~ + ~v @~~ + @~ F
$
= 0~ + Dt ~ + @~ F :
QED.
Stus can be added if their densities and uxes have the same domain and same range.
We have
$
Denition 13.7.56 Suppose ( ~
F
) for each v = 1 N is a stu, and that all
these stus have the same K (t) and V in denition (13.7.1). Suppose c1 cN 2 R.
$
$
Then PN
=1 c
( ~
F
) stands for the stu (PN
=1 c
~
) (PN
=1 c
F
).
$
Corollary 13.7.48 The stu PN
=1 c
( ~
F
) has creation rate PN
=1 c
.
Proof:
Obvious from (13.7.3).
Corollary 13.7.49 In a continuum with particle velocity ~v and density , the material
density and material ux density of the stu PN
=1 c
(
F~
) are, respectively PN
=1 c
and PN
=1 c
F~ v.
220
Proof:
Obvious from (13.7.4) and (13.7.5).
Now we consider a number of stus which arise out of the conservation laws. The
name of each stu is capitalized and underlined, and then its spatial density ~ , spatial
$
$
ux F , material density ~, material ux F , and creation rate ~ are given. The stu is
$
$
not dened by ~ or ~ alone. Both ~ and F , or both ~ and F must be given. Then
$
is calculated from (13.7.3). The choice of F is dictated by convenience in applications.
$
$
~ = ( ~r
~v) F = ~v( ~r + ~v)+ S
~r
$ $
~ = ~r
~v F =S
~r
$
$
$
~ = Dt ( ~r
~v) + @~ S
~r = ~r
~a ; ~r
@~ S ; AP h2i S
$
~ = ~r
f~ ; AP h2i S :
$
$ $
~ = ~l + ~r
~v F = ~v ~l + ~r
~v ; M + S
~r
$
$ $
= ~l + ~r
~v F = ; M + S
~r :
Since total angular momentum is the sum of intrinsic and kinetic angular momentum
in the sense of denition (13.7.4), its creation rate is the sum of their creation rates,
by corollary (13.7.48). Thus
~ = m
~ + ~r
f~:
13.7. STUFF
221
Internal Energy:
= U F~ = ~vU + H~
= U F~ = H~
= Dt U + @~ H~
so
$
= h+ S h2i@~~v:
(13.7.8)
We can regard U + nuc as total internal energy density, and dene a stu called
TOTAL INTERNAL ENERGY with
= (U + nuc) F~ = ~v (U + nuc) + H~
~
= U + nuc
F~ = H:
The creation rate of this energy is = Dt + @~ F~ = Dt U + @~ H~ + Dt nuc
$
$
= h+ S h2i@~~v ; hnuc. If h = hnuc, then =S h2i@~~v.
This \total internal energy" is not very useful when the value of nuc is unaected
by what happens to the material. That is the situation at the low temperatures and
pressures inside the earth (with one possible small exception see Stacey, Physics of
the Earth, p. 28). In such situations, hnuc= is a property of the material which is
222
known at any particle ~x at any time t, independent of the motion of the continuum.
By contrast, the molecular U is not known at ~x t until we have solved the problem
of nding how the continuum moves. In the deep interiors of stars, pressures and
temperatures are high enough to aect nuclear reaction rates, so it is useful to
include nuc with U .
Kinetic Energy:
=
=
=
=
=
~F = ~v 1 v2 ; S$ ~v
2
$
F~ = ; S ~v
$
1
2
~
~
~
Dt + @ F = 2 Dt v ; @ S ~v
~v Dt~v ; @i (Sij vj ) relative to an orthonormal basis for P
~v ~a ; (@i Sij ) vj ; Sij @ivj
$
$
~a ; @~ S ~v; S h2i@~~v
$
f~ ~v; S h2i@~~v:
= 12 v2
= 12 v2
Potential Energy: Suppose the body force density f~ is given by f~ = ;@~ where
=
=
F~ = ~0
F~ = ~v
13.7. STUFF
223
$
= 12 v2 + U + F~ = H~ ; S ~v
1
1
$
2
2
~
= 2 v + U + F = ~v 2 v + U + + H~ ; S ~v:
By corollary 13.7.48, is the sum of the three 's for kinetic, internal and potential
energy, so = h. If we include nuclear potential energy in U and neglect other
sources of h (e.g. solar heating), then = 0. Usually, this is not done, and IKP
energy is called \total energy."
224
+
front
back
Figure 13.17:
normal to itself at point ~r 2 S (t), and we take W > 0 if the motion is in the direction of
^, W < 0 if opposite.
If the surface is given in physical space P , we write it as S E (t). If it is given in label
space L, we write it as S L(t). If is any physical quantity with a jump discontinuity
across S (t), we write E (~r0 t)+ for the limiting value of E (~r t) as ~r ! ~ro 2 S E (t) from
in front of S E (t). We write E (~r0 t); for the limit of E (~r t) as ~r ! ~r0 from behind
S E (t). And we dene
i+
E (~r0 t) ; = E (~r0 t)+ ; E (~r0 t);:
(13.7.9)
This quantity is called the jump in E across S E (t). We introduce a similar notation for
label space, with
hL
i+
(~x0 t) ; = L (~x0 t)+ ; L (~x0 t); :
We will need the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem. This says that if
V is a Euclidean vector space, S is a surface in P or L, and f~ : S ! V is continuous, and
R dA(~r)f~(~r) = O~ for every open patch S 0 on S , then f~(~r) = O~ for all ~r 2 S . Here an
V
V
S0
\open patch" on S is any set S 0 = K 0 \ S , where K 0 is an open subset of P or L. The
13.7. STUFF
225
proof of the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem is essentially the same as
the proof of the original theorem 11.5.26, so we omit it.
We will consider only the Eulerian forms of the conservation laws, so we will omit the
superscript E . The reader can easily work out the Lagrangian forms of the law.
We use the notation introduced on page 163, but now we assume that the surface S (t)
passes through K 0 (t). Therefore, we must augment the notation. We use K 0 (t)+ for the
part (excluding S (t)) of K 0(t) which is in front of S (t), @ + K 0(t) for the part of @K 0 (t) in
front of S (t), and @K 0 (t)+ for the whole boundary of K 0 (t)+, including K 0(t) \ S (t). If
is a function dened and continuous on the closed set K 0 (t) = K 0 (t) @K 0 (t), except for a
jump discontinuity on S (t), we write + for the continuous function on K 0(t)+ dened as
except on K 0(t) \ S (t), where its value is the + of equation (13.7.9). We label objects
behind S (t) in the same way, except that + is replaced by ;. The unit outward normal to
@K 0 (t)+ will be written n^+ . The unit outward normal to @K 0 (t); will be written n^ ;. The
unit outward normal to @K 0 (t) will be written n^ . Then n^+ = n^ on @ + K 0(t) and n^ + = ;^
on K 0 (t) \ S (t). And n^; = n^ on @ ; K 0(t), while n^; = ^ on K 0 (t) \ S (t). As on page 163,
we choose K 0(t) so that it always consists of the same particles. Then the outward normal
velocity of @K 0 (t)+ relative to itself is n^ ~ on @ + K 0(t) and ;W on K 0(t) \ S (t). Here ~v is
the particle velocity in the continuum. The outward normal velocity of @K 0 (t); relative
to itself is n^ ~v on @ ; K 0 (t) and W on K 0(t) \ S (t).
This looks obvious until we recognize that there are physical situations which we might
want to model by placing a mass per unit area on S (t), which would have to be added
226
Figure 13.18:
13.7. STUFF
227
to (13.7.11). Examples are S (t) = the soap lm in a soap bubble in air, or S (t) = the ice
pack on a polar sea. We ignore these possibilities and assume
mass on S (t) = 0:
(13.7.12)
h
i
h
i
M K 0(t)] = M K 0 (t)+ + M K 0(t); with
h
i Z
M K 0(t)+ = 0 + dV (~r)+(~r t)
K (t)
h 0 ;i Z
M K (t) = 0 ; dV (~r); (~r t):
(13.7.13)
(13.7.14)
(13.7.15)
K (t)
The two integrands in (13.7.14) and (13.7.15) are continuous, so we can apply (11.6.1) to
obtain
Z
Z
d M hK 0 (t)+i = Z
++
++ ;
dV
(
~
r
)
@
dA
n
^
~
v
dA W+: (13.7.16)
t
dt
K 0 (t)+
@ + K 0 (t)
K 0 (t)\S (t)
We would like to use Gauss's theorem on the right in (13.7.16), but @ + K 0 (t) is not a
closed surface.
To close it we must add K 0(t) \ S (t). Then
@ + K 0(t)
dAn^ (~v)+
=
=
Z@K 0(t)+
dA n^ + (~v)+ ;
dV @~ (~v)+ +
+
K 0 (t)
K 0 (t)\S (t)
K 0(t)\S (t)
dA n^ + (~v)+
dA ^ (~v)+
d M hK 0 (t)+i = Z
dA (^ ~v ; W )]+ :
0
dt
K (t)\S (t)
By an exactly similar argument,
d M hK 0 (t);i = Z
dA (^ ~v ; W )]; :
dt
K 0 (t)\S (t)
(13.7.17)
(13.7.18)
228
Therefore,
d M K 0(t)] = Z
dA (^ ~v ; W )]+; :
dt
K 0(t)\S (t)
Combining (13.7.10) and (13.7.19) gives for K 0 = K 0(t)
(13.7.19)
dA (^ ~v ; W )]+; = 0:
(13.7.20)
Since K 0 can be any open subset of K (t), K 0 \ S (t) can be any open patch on S (t).
Therefore, by the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem
K 0 (t)\S (t)
(^ ~v ; W )]+; = 0
on S (t):
(13.7.21)
By analogy with denition 13.7.53 ii), we call either (^ ~v ; W )]+ or (^ ~v ; W )];
the ux of mass across S (t), and write it m(~r t) since it depends on ~r and t. Thus
(13.7.22)
^ v~ + = ^ ^; = W:
(13.7.23)
d P~ K 0 (t)] = F~ K 0 (t)] :
dt
(13.7.24)
We must nd mathematical identities for the two sides of (13.7.24). Because of (13.7.12),
we have
Z
P~ K 0(t)] = 0 dV ~v:
(13.7.25)
K (t)
13.7. STUFF
229
h
i Z
~P K 0 (t)+ =
dV (~v)+
K 0 (t)+
h
i Z
P~ K 0(t); = 0 ; dV (~v);:
K (t)
d P~ hK 0 (t)+i = Z
dV @t (~v)+
dt
KZ0 (t)+
+ + 0 dA n^ (~v~v )+
Z@ K (t)
; K 0(t)\S(t) dA W (~v)+
and
Z
@ K 0 (t)
+
dA n^ (~v~v)+
Z
@K 0 (t)+
;
=
K 0 (t)\S (t)
KZ0 (t)+
+
Thus
dA n^ + (~v~v)+
dA n^ + (~v~v)+
dV @~ (~v~v)+
dA ^ (~v~v)+ :
h
d P~ hK 0 (t)+i = Z
~ (~v~v)i+
dV
@
(
~
v
)
+
@
t
dt
KZ0 (t)+
+ 0
dA (^ ~v ; W ) ~v ]+ :
K (t)\S (t)
Now
h
i
h
i
@t (~v) + @~ (~v~v) = @t + @~ (~v) ~v + @t~v + ~v @~~v
$
= Dt~v = ~a = @~ S +f~
(13.7.27)
(13.7.28)
230
$+
d P~ hK 0(t)+i = Z
+ S
dA
n
^
dt
@K
Z 0(t)+
Z
~
+ 0 + dV f + 0
dA (^ ~v ; W ) ~v]+
Z K (t)
Z K (t)\S(t) $
= 0 + dV f~ + + 0 dA n^ S
K (t)
@ K (t$)
+
Z
+ 0
dA ;^ S + ((^ ~v) ; W ) ~v :
K (t)\S (t)
Using 13.7.22, we nally get
Z
$
d P~ hK 0 (t)+i = Z
~++
dV
f
dA
n
^
S
+ 0
dt
K 0 (t)+
@ K$(t) +
Z
+ 0
dA ;^ S +m~v :
(13.7.29)
K (t)\S (t)
An exactly similar argument gives
Z
$
d P~ hK 0(t); i = Z
~+
dV
f
dA
n
^
S
dt
K 0(t);
@ ; K 0 (t)
Z
$;
; K 0(t)\S(t) dA m~v ; ^ S :
(13.7.30)
Therefore, adding (13.7.29) and (13.7.30),
$
d P~ K 0(t)] = Z dV f~ + Z
dA
n
^
S
dt
K 0 (t)
@K 0 (t)
Z
$+
+ 0
dA m~v ; ^ S :
(13.7.31)
K (t)\S (t)
;
We still need a mathematical identity for F~ K 0 (t)] in (13.7.24). This seems easy:
Z
Z
$
~
~F K 0 (t)] =
dV
f
+
dA
n
^
:
(13.7.32)
S
0
0
K (t)
@K (t)
But (13.7.32) does involve assumptions. If S (t) is an air-water interface holding an electric
charge per unit area, there will be an electrostatic force per unit area on S (t) which must
be added to (13.7.32). In addition, the surface integral on the right in (13.7.32) assumes
that the stress on the material just inside @K 0 (t) by the material just outside @K 0 (t)
$;
$+
is n^ S behind S (t) and n^ S in front of S (t), all the way to S (t). In fact, if S (t)
is an air-water interface, for example, the water molecules just behind S (t) and the air
13.7. STUFF
231
molecules just in front will be arranged dierently from those in the bulk of the air and
water. Therefore, along the curve @K 0 (t) \ S (t) there will be an additional force per unit
length exerted by the molecules just outside @K 0 (t) on the molecules just inside @K 0 (t).
This force per unit length is called the surface stress in S (t). For an air-water interface it
is tangent to S (t) and normal to @K 0 (t) \ S (t), and its magnitude is the surface tension.
We assume
there is no surface stress or surface force per unit area on S (t):
(13.7.33)
Then (13.7.32) is correct, and substituting (13.7.31) and (13.7.32) in (13.7.24) gives
Z
$+
dA m~v ; ^ S = 0
(13.7.34)
K 0\S (t)
;
for any open subset K 0 of K (t). By the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem,
it follows that
$+
m~v ; ^ S = 0 on S (t):
(13.7.35)
;
If S (t) is a boundary between two materials rather than a shock, then m = 0 so
(13.7.35) reduces to
$+
^ S = 0 on S (t):
(13.7.36)
;
At a boundary between two materials (a contact surface), the stress on the boundary (the
\normal stress") is continuous across that boundary.
Equation (13.7.35) has a simple physical interpretation. Consider a small patch dA
on S (t). Mass mt dA crosses dA from back to front in time t, and gains momentum
mt ~v]+; dA = m~v]+; tdA. Therefore, the patch requires momentum to be supplied to
it at the rate m~v ]+;dA per second. Where does this come from? In the material the
$
ux density of momentum is ; S , so momentum arrives at the back of dA at the rate
+
;
;^ $S dA and leaves the front at the rate ;^ S$ dA. The net momentum accumulation
$
$+
rate in dA, available to supply the required m~v]+;dA, is ;^ S ; dA + ^ S +dA
$
= ^ S ]+;dA. Thus (13.7.35) simply says that the dierence in momentum ux into the
two sides of dA supplies the momentum needed to accelerate the material crossing dA. If
m = 0, this reduces to action = reaction, i.e. (13.7.36).
232
d E K 0(t)] = W K 0(t)]
dt
(13.7.37)
where E K 0(t)] is the total kinetic plus internal energy in K 0(t) and W K 0 (t)] is the rate
at which energy is being added. We refer again to gure 13.18 and follow the by now
well-trodden path to nd mathematical identities for both sides of (13.7.37). We have
h
i h
i
E K 0(t)] = E K 0 (t)+ + E K 0 (t);
where
+
h
i Z
E K 0 (t)+ = K 0(t) dV 12 v2 + U
with a similar formula for E K 0(t); ]. Then
(13.7.38)
1
+
d E hK 0(t)+ i = Z
2+U
dV
@
v
t
dt
2
K 0(t)+
1
+ Z
Z
+ + 0 dA n^ ~v 2 v2 + U ;
@ K (t)
1
+
2+U
dA
W
v
:
2
K 0(t)\S (t)
Also
R
=
Thus,
K 0(t)+
h
i
h
i
^
@ K 0 (t) dA n
+
1
1
+
d E hK 0(t)+i = Z
2
2
~
dV @t 2 v + U + @ ~v 2 v + U
dt
K 0(t)+
+
1
Z
2
+ 0
dA (^ ~v ; W ) 2 v + U :
K (t)\S (t)
1
-= 2
v2 + U
1
$
2
~
F = ~v 2 v + U + H~ ; S ~v:
13.7. STUFF
233
+
d E hK 0(t)+i = Z
~ H~ + @~ S$ ~v ; h + f~ ~v
dV
;
@
dt
K 0(t)+
+
Z
+ 0
dA m 21 v2 + U
Z K (t)\S(t)
+ Z
$ +
+
~
~
= 0 + dV h + f ~v + 0 + dA n^ ;H + S ~v
K (t)
@K (t)
+
1
Z
2
+ 0
dA m 2 v + U
K (t)\S (t)
~ + Z
$
d E hK 0 (t)+i = Z
~
dV h + f ~v + + 0 dA n^ ;H + S ~v
dt
K 0 (t)+
@ K (t)
1
$ +
Z
2
+ 0
dA m 2 v + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v : (13.7.39)
K (t)\S (t)
Similarly,
~ ; Z
$
d E hK 0(t);i = Z
~
dV h + f ~v + + 0 dA n^ ;H + S ~v
dt
K 0 (t);
@ K (t)
1
$ ;
Z
2
; K 0(t)\S(t) dA m 2 v + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v : (13.7.40)
Therefore
d E K 0(t)] = Z dV h + f~ ~v + Z
~ + S$ ~v
dA
n
^
;
H
dt
K 0 (t)
@ + K 0(t)
1
$ +
Z
+ 0
dA m 2 v2 + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v : (13.7.41)
K (t)\S (t)
;
Also,
W K 0(t)] =
~ Z
~ ~
dV
h
+
f
~
v
+
dA
n
^
;H + S ~v :
K 0(t)
@K 0(t)
1
$ +
2
dA m 2 v + U + ^ H~ ; S ~v = 0
(13.7.42)
K 0 \S (t)
;
for every open subset K 0 of K (t). By the surface version of the vanishing integral theorem,
1
$ +
(13.7.43)
m 2 v2 + U + ^ H~ ; ^ S ~v = 0 on S (t):
;
Z
234
1
Dene
$
mv2 ; ^ S ~v
+
$+
$; + $+ ~; $; ~;
1
+
= 2 ^ ; S v~ ; S v~ + S v + S v
;
$+ $;
= ;^ 1 S + S ~v]+; :
2
$ + 1 $+ $;
hS i; = 2 S + S = average S$ on S:
Then (13.7.43) can be written in general as
h ~
i+
$
^ H + m U ; = ^ hS i+; ~v]+; :
(13.7.46)
(13.7.47)
Chapter 14
Strain and Deformation
14.1 Finite deformation
Consider a continuum which at time t occupies open subset K (t) of physical space P .
Suppose K 0 (t0) is a very small open subset of K (t0 ). We would like to be able to visualize
the particles in K 0(t0 ), and to see their spatial positions at a particular later time t. The
time dierence t ; t0 is not small, but K 0 (t0) is a very small set, in a sense to be made
precise shortly.
We use t0 -position labelling. Then label space L is the same as physical space P ,
and ~r L(~x t) = position at time t of the particle which was at position ~x at time t0 . The
particles in which we are interested have their labels in the set H 0 = K 0(t0 ). First choose
a particular particle ~xA 2 K 0(t0 ). Let ~rA be its position at time t. Then ~rA = ~r L(~xA t).
Consider any other particle ~x 2 K 0(t0 ), and let ~r be its position at time t. Then ~r =
~r L(~x t). Dene ~ = ~r ; ~rA, ~ = ~x ; ~xA. Then
~ r L (~xA t) + k~kR~ ~
~ = ~ D~
(14.1.1)
236
.
.
( , t)
rA
K (t)
H =K (t 0 )
Figure 14.1:
Now we assume that K 0 (t0) has been chosen so small that for every ~x 2 K 0(t0 ),
~ r L (~xA t) k:
kR~ ~ k << kD~
(14.1.2)
This is the sense in which K 0 (t0) must be a small set. If (14.1.2) is satised, then we can
neglect the remainder term in (14.1.1) and write
~ r L (~xA t) :
~ = ~ D~
(14.1.3)
~ r L (~xA t) > 0:
det D~
(14.1.4)
It follows from the polar decomposition theorem (page D-27) that there are unique tensors
$
$
C and R2 P P with these properties:
237
$
i) C is symmetric and positive denite,
$
ii) R is proper orthogonal (i.e., a rotation through some angle
between 0 and about
some axis w^).
iii)
Thus (14.1.3) is
$
~ r L (~xA t) =C$ R
D~
:
(14.1.5)
$ $
~ = ~ C R :
(14.1.6)
Thus the eect of the motion on K 0 (t0) is to displace ~xA to ~rA then to subject the relative
position vectors (relative to particle ~xA) to the symmetric operator C and then to rotate
everything through angle
about an axis passing through ~rA in the direction of w^.
$
The displacement ~xA 7;! ~rA and the rotation R are easy to visualize. The mapping
$ $
$
C may be worth discussing. Since C T =C there is an orthonormal basis y^1, y^2, y^3 for P
which consists of eigenvectors of C. That is, there are scalars c1, c2, c3 such that
238
^y
c2
^y
c3
^y
1
^y
^y
c1
^y
Figure 14.2:
239
ii) to stretch or compress it by the factor ci in the direction y^i, as shown in Figure 14.2
iii) to rotate it through angle
, with 0
, about an axis passing through ~rA in the
direction w^.
Now (14.1.5) implies
$ $0
~ r L (~xA t) =R
D~
C
(14.1.9)
where
3 $ $
$0 $;1 $ $ X
C =R C R= ci y^i R y^i R :
(14.1.10)
i=1
$
Therefore we can perform the rotation R as step ii), and the stretching or compression
as step iii). But then, from (14.1.10), the orthogonal axes along which stretching or
$ $ $
compression occurs are the rotated axes y^1 R, y^2 R, y^3 R.
All this motivates the following denition:
$
$
R in (14.1.5) and (14.1.9) is called the \local rotation at particle ~xA", and C in (14.1.5)
$
is the \prerotation stretch tensor at ~xA ", while C 0 in (14.1.9,14.1.10) is the \postrotation
$
$ L
~ r L(~xA t) as G
stretch tensor at ~xA ." We will write D~
t0 (~xA t). For any t0 , Gt0 , is a
physical quantity.
$ $
Various tensors obtained from C or C 0 are called nite strain tensors. The commonest
$ $
is probably C ; I P , and the most useful is probably
3
X
(ln ci) y^iy^i:
i=1
All these strain tensors reduce to the innitesimal strain tensor when the deformation is
$
$
nearly the identity mapping (see next section), and to 0 when ~r L( t) = I P .
In the foregoing discussion, the displacement of particle ~xA to position ~rA was so easy
to visualize that we said very little about it. It is worth considering. If we x t0 , the
240
(14.1.11)
As the notation indicates, we will consider the physical quantity ~s, called displacement,
whose Lagrangian description is the ~sL dened by (14.1.11). The denition requires that
we x t0. If we change it, we change the denition of ~s.
For t0 -position labelling, ~r L(~x t0 ) = ~x = ~x L (~x t) so ~sL(~x t) = ~r L ; ~x L (~x t).
Therefore
~s = ~r ; ~x for t0-position labelling:
(14.1.12)
Equation (14.1.12) makes it convenient to use t0 -position labelling when studying dis~ x =$I P so D~ ~x =$I P .
placements. In particular, for such labelling, (D~ ~x )L(~x t) = D~
Thus, from (14.1.12)
~ r =$I P +D~
~ s for t0-position labelling:
D~
$
$
Also, (@~ ~r )E (~r t) = @~~r = I P so @~ ~r = I P . Then from (14.1.12)
(14.1.13)
$
@~ ~x = I P ;@~~s for t0 -position labelling:
(14.1.14)
~ r ) =$I P , so from (14.1.13) and (14.1.14), ($I P ; $@ ~s) ($I P +D~
~ s) =$I P , or
But (@~ ~x ) (D~
$ ~ ~ ~ ~ $
I P +D~s ; @~s ; @~s D~s = I P , or
~ s = @~~s + @~~s D~
~ s = @~~s $I P +D~
~s :
D~
(14.1.15)
241
N
X
n=M
$
(;1)n T n k
N
X
$ n k T$ kM
kT k
$ :
1;k T k
n=M
$ $ X
N
N
N
$
$n
$n X
X
n
n
(;1) T + (;1)n T n+1
I P + T (;1) T =
n=0
n=0
n=0
N
+1
$ $
X n $n NX
$N +1
=
(;1) T ; (;1)n T n= I P +(;1)N T :
n=0
n=1
$N +1
$
But k T k k T kN +1, so letting N ! 1 on both sides gives
$ $ X
1
$ $
+
(;1)n T n= I P :
IP T
n=0
QED
(14.2.1)
Proof:
$ ~ ;1
n ~ s n . Then
By remark 14.1.14, ( I P +D~
s) exists and equals P1
n=0 (;1) D~
~ s);1k P1
~ skn = 1=(1 ; kD~sk). By (14.1.15) , @~~s = D~
~ s ($I P
k($I P +D~
n=0 kD~
~ s );1, so
+D~
~ skk IP + D~
~ s ;1 k kD~
~ sk= 1 ; kD~
~ sk :
k@~sk kD~
242
0 1
$ $1=2 X
1 B 12 C $n
IP + T = @ A T
n=0 n
where
(14.2.2)
0 1
B@ N CA = N (N ; 1) (N ; n + 1)=n! (= 1 if n = 0):
n
Proof:
$
$ $
If k T k < 1, all T 's eigenvalues lie between ;1 and 1. Therefore I P + T has
all itseigenvalues
between 0 and 2. Therefore, it is positive denite. That
$
P1 1n=2 T n exists, is positive denite, and when squared gives $ + $
IP T
n=0
can be proved
in the same way as remark (14.2.70). Alternatively, the eect
1=2 $
of PNn=0 n T n can be studied on each of the vectors in an orthonormal
$
basis for P consisting of eigenvectors of T . Then one simply uses the known
$
$
validity of (14.2.2) when I P is replaced by 1 and T by any of its eigenvalues.
$
Corollary 14.2.51 Suppose T T =T$ and k T$ k < 1. Then correct to rst order in k T$ k,
$ $1=2 $ 1 $
I P + T =I P +2 T :
Theorem 14.2.29 Use the notation of denition (14.1.9), and dene the displacement ~s
~ sk << 1. Then to rst order in D~
~ s we have
by (14.1.12). Suppose that kD~
~s
@~~s = D~
i
$ $0 $ 1 h ~
~ s (~xA t)T
s (~xA t) + D~
C =C = I P + 2 D~
i
$ $ 1 h~
~ s (~xA t)T :
s (~xA t) ; D~
R= I P + 2 D~
Proof:
(14.2.3)
(14.2.4)
(14.2.5)
243
~ s(~xA t) as T$.
We have already proved (14.2.3). For the rest, abbreviate D~
$
$ $T $T $ $ $;1
~ r =C$ R
~ r ) (D~
~ r )T =C$ R
Since D~
we have (D~
R C =C R R
$ $ $ $ $2
C =C I P C =C , so
T 1=2 "$ $ $ $ !#1=2
$
~ r D~
~r
= IP + T IP + TT
C = D~
"$ $ $ $ $ #1=2
= IP + T + TT + T TT
( $ $ $ $ )
$ 1 $ $T $ $T !
= I P + 2 T + T + T T + O k T + T T + T T T k2
! $
$ 1 $ $T
= I P + T + T + O k T k2 :
2
$ $0 ~ T ~ $0T $T $ $0 $0 $;1 $ $0
~ r =R
Also, D~
C , so D~r D~r =C R R C = C R R C
$0 $ $0 $02
=C I P C = C so
$
$ $ ! n o! $ $
$
1
R = I P ; 2 T + T T + O kT~ k2 I P + T
n o
$ 1 $ $T !
= I P + 2 T ; T + O kT~ k2 :
QED.
(14.2.6)
244
(14.2.7)
(14.2.8)
Corollary 14.2.52 w~ L(~x t) can be written 1=2D~
~sL(~x t) or 1=2 @~
~s L (~x t) because
~ s,
and, to rst order in D~
~ sL (~x t)
w~ L (~x t) = 12 AP h2iD~
(14.2.9)
L
w~ L (~x t) = 12 AP h2i @~~s (~x t) :
(14.2.10)
Proof:
(14.2.10) follows from (14.2.9) and (14.2.3). To prove (14.2.9) note that for
$
any tensor T we have
$
$
AP h2i T T = ;AP h2i T :
(14.2.11)
To see this, look at components relative to a pooob in P . Then (14.2.11)
is equivalent to "ijk Tkj = ;"ijk Tjk . But by changing index names we get
"ijk Tkj = "ijkTjk = ;"ijk Tjk . Applying (14.2.11) to (14.2.7, 14.2.8) with
$ ~ L
s (~x t) gives (14.2.9).
QED
T = D~
Corollary 14.2.53 Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for P consisting of eigenvectors
~ sL(~xA t),
of $ (~xA t), where ~xA is as in denition 14.1.9. Then to rst order in D~
3
X
$ $0 $ $
=
=
+
(
~
x
t
)
=
(1 + i ) y^iy^i
(14.2.12)
C C IP
A
i=1
where 1 , 2, 3 are the eigenvalues of $ (~xA t) belonging to the eigenvectors y^1 , y^2, y^3.
$
And R is a rotation in the right-handed-screw sense through angle kw~ L(~xA t)k about the
axis through O~ P in the direction w~ L(~xA t).
245
sin
OP
Figure 14.3:
Proof:
We show $ (~xA t) = P3i=1 i y^iy^i in the same way we showed (14.1.8). The
$
rest of (14.2.12) follows from (14.2.4). To prove the results about R, we note
from exercise 9c that
$ $
R= I P +AP w~ L(~xA t):
$
If we apply R to a vector ~, the result is
$
~ R= ~ + ~ AP w~ L (~xA t) :
We claim ~ AP ~v = ~v
~. Looking at components relative to a pooob,
(~ Ap ~v)i = j "jik vk = "ikj vk j ~v
~ i. Therefore
$
~ R= ~ + w~ L (~xA t)
~:
(14.2.13)
246
Now suppose
t = t0 + t
(14.2.14)
(14.2.15)
(14.2.16)
i
$ L (~x t) =$ L (~x t + t) = t 1 hD~
~ vL (~x t0 ) + D~
~ vL (~x t0 )T
0
2
h~ L
i
~ vL (~x t0)T
w$L (~x t) =w$L (~x t0 + t) = t 1 D~
v
(
~
x
t
)
;
D~
0
2
h~ L
i
w$L (~x t) =w$L (~x t0 + t) = t 1 Aph2i D~
v
(
~
x
t
)
0
2
= t 12 D~
~vL (~x t0) :
(14.2.17)
(14.2.18)
(14.2.19)
Consider the material near particle ~xA at various times t0 + t, with small t. Relative to
particle ~xA, the material stretches as in (14.2.12), the fractional stretching i being proporh~ L
i
~ vL (~xA t0)T ,
tional to t, i = _ it, where _ i is one of the eigenvalues of 1=2 D~
v (~xA t0) + D~
and y^i in (14.2.12) is the corresponding eigenvector. And relative to particle ~xA , the material also rotates through angle tk 12 D~
~vL (~xA t)k about an axis through ~xA and in direction
1~
L
~ L
2 D
~v (~x0 t). In other words, it rotates with angular velocity 1=2D
~v (~xA t). To rst
$ $
order in t C 0=C , so the rotation can occur before or after the stretching. We prefer to
think of them as occurring simultaneously. The foregoing analysis began by choosing a
time t0 at which to introduce t0-position labels. We can choose t0 to be any time we like
the foregoing results are true for all t0 2 R. Therefore, we can dene physical quantities
$_ , w$_ , w~_ by requiring for any ~x 2 P and any t 2 r that
0
i
$_ E (~x t ) = 1 hD~
~ vL (~x t0) + D~
~ vL (~x t0)T
0
2
(14.2.20)
247
h~ L
i
E
~ vL (~x t0)T
w$_ (~x t0 ) = 1 D~
v
(
~
x
t
(14.2.21)
0 ) ; D~
2
E
w$_ (~x t0 ) = 1 D~
~vL (~x t0)
:
(14.2.22)
2
Here it is understood that to evaluate the left side of (14.2.20, 14.2.21, 14.2.22) at any
particular t0 , we use that t0 to establish t0 -position labels in establishing the Lagrangian
descriptions needed on the right. Each t0 on the left calls for a new Lagrangian description
on the right, the one using t0-position labels.
~ r L(~x t0) =$I P , so @~E f E (~x t0) = D~ Lf L(~x t0 ) for any
But with t0-position labels, D~
~ vL can be replaced by @~~vE on the right in 14.2.20. Since
physical quantity f . Therefore D~
the Eulerian description of physical quantities are independent of the way particles are
labelled, this replacement leads to the conclusions
$_ = 1 @~~v + @~~vT
(14.2.23)
2
w$_ = 1 @~~v ; @~~v T
(14.2.24)
2
(14.2.25)
w~_ = 21 @~
~v:
The quantity 2w~_ is called the vorticity, and $_ is the strain-rate tensor.
248
Chapter 15
Constitutive Relations
15.1 Introduction
Let us examine the conservation laws as a system. They are
Eulerian Form
Lagrangian Form
Mass
Dt + @~ ~v = 0
Dt ~ = 0
(15.1.1)
$
$
Momentum Dt~v = @~ S +f~
~Dt~v = D~ S~ +~f~
(15.1.2)
$
$
~ = h~ + S~ h2iD~
~ v:
Internal Energy Dt U + @~ H~ = h+ S h2i@~v ~DtU + D~ H
(15.1.3)
If we knew the initial values of , ~v and U , or ~, ~v and U , at some instant t0 , we might
hope to integrate (15.1.3) forward in time to nd later values of these quantities. To do
this, clearly we must know f~ and h, or ~f~ and h~ , and we will assume henceforth that these
$
$ ~
are given to us. But there still remains the question of nding H~ and S , or H
and S~. The
equations which give their values when the state of the material is known are called the
\constitutive equations" of the material. Ideally, we would like to be able to deduce these
from the molecular pictures of matter, but theory and computational techniques are not
yet adequate to this task for most materials. We must rely on experimental measurements.
The outcomes of these experiments suggest idealized mathematical models for various
classes of real materials.
249
250
^n
K
K
Figure 15.1:
In modelling a real material, one usually begins by considering its homogeneous thermostatic equilibrium states (HTES). Then one studies small deviations from thermostatic
equilibrium, by linearizing in those deviations. Large deviations from thermodynamic
equilibrium are not fully understood, and we will not consider them. They make plasma
physics di"cult, for example.
A homogeneous thermostatic equilibrium state (HTES) is said to exist in a material
when no macroscopically measurable property of that material changes with time, and
when the macroscopic environments of any two particles are the same. The second law of
thermodynamics then implies that there can be no heat ow in the material. The material
can have a constant velocity, but if it does we study it from a laboratory moving with
the same velocity, so we may assume ~v = ~0 in an HTES. Then DtU = @t U . But @t U = 0
$
so, from (15.1.3), h = 0. The Cauchy stress tensor S must be the same everywhere at all
$
times in an HTES, so @~ S = ~0, and (15.1.3 momentum]) implies f~ = ~0. Therefore, in an
HTES we have
= constant H~ = ~0 ~v = ~0:
U = constant h = 0
$
S = constant f~ = ~0
If the material occupies a volume K with boundary @K and unit outward normal n^ ,
then in order to maintain the material in an HTES we must apply to the surface @K a
15.1. INTRODUCTION
251
$
stress n^ S , and we must prevent surface heat ow and volume heating. That is we need
8
$
>
>
surface
stress
applied
to
@K
at
~
r
is
n
^
(
~
r
)
S
>
<
(15.1.4)
n^(~r) H~ = 0 at every ~r 2 @K
>
>
>
: h = 0 at every ~r 2 K:
Two HTES's are dierent if they dier in any macroscopically measurable quantity,
including chemical composition. Most pure substances require only the values of a few of
their physical properties in order to specify their HTES's. For example, two isotropically
pure samples of H2O (no deuterium, only O16) liquid which have the same density and
the same internal energy per unit mass will have the same values of pressure, temperature,
entropy per gram, electrical resistivity, index of refraction for yellow light, neutron mean
absorption length at 15 kev, etc. For water, the set of all possible HTES's is a twoparameter family. (We have ignored, and will ignore, electrical properties. It is possible
to alter U for water by polarizing it with an electric eld.)
Changes from one HTES to another are produced by violating some of the conditions
(15.1.4). Changes produced by altering the surface stress applied to @K are said to \do
work," while changes produced by letting h 6= 0 are said to involve \internal heating or
cooling," and n^ H~ 6= 0 on @K involves \heat ow at @K ." For the materials in which
we are interested, these changes can be described as follows. We pick one HTES as a
reference state, and call it HTES0 We use t0 -position labelling, where t0 is any time when
the material is in HTES0 . We carry out a change by violating (15.1.4), and wait until time
t1 when the material has settled into a steady state, HTES1. The Lagrangian description
of the motion is ~r L(~x t), and it is independent of t for t t0 and for t t1 . We write
(15.1.5)
(15.1.6)
Since the environments of all particles must be alike in HTES1 , they must have been
subjected to the same stretch and the same rotation so
$
(15.1.7)
G01 is constant, independent of ~x:
252
$
(G01 is called the deformation gradient of HTES1 relative to HTES0.) Then from (15.1.6),
$
~r 01 (~x) = ~x G01 + ~r 01 (~0). If ~r 01 (~0) 6= ~0, we may move the material with a uniform
displacement so ~r 01 (~0) = ~0. Thus we may assume
$
~r 01 (~x) = ~x G01 :
(15.1.8)
$
Here ~x is particle position in HTES0 and ~x G01 is particle position in HTES1. If we
want to study another HTES, say HTES2, we can adopt either HTES0 or HTES1 as the
$
reference state. If we use HTES1 for refrence, then particle position in HTES2 is ~x1 G12
$
where ~x1 is particle position in HTES1 and G12 is calculated from (15.1.6) but with t1
$
position labelling. If a particle has position ~x in HTES0, then ~x1 = ~x G01 and so ~x2 =
$
$ $
$
position in HTES2 = ~x1 G12 = ~x G01 G12 . But also ~x2 = ~x G02 , so
$ $ $
(15.1.9)
G02 =G01 G12
for any HTES0 , HTES1, HTES2.
Denition 15.2.60 An elastic material is one whose HTES's have these properties:
$
$
i) If HTES0 is any HTES, there is an M0 > 0 such that for any G2 P P with k G
; $I P k < M0 , there is an HTES1 whose deformation gradient relative to HTES0 is
$ $
G10 =G
ii) Once a reference state HTES0 is chosen, any other equilibrium state HTES1 is com$
pletely determined by its deformation gradient G01 relative to HTES0 , and by its
entropy per unit mass N1.
iii) U , the internal energy per unit mass, is unchanged by rigid rotations. That is, if
$
$
G2 P P and R2 #+(P ) then
$
$ $
U G N = U G R N :
(15.2.1)
253
Now consider two dierent HTES's of an elastic material, say HTES1 and HTES2 ,
neither of them the reference state HTES0 . Suppose ~r L : K0
R ! P is the Lagrangian
description of the motion which carries the material from state 1 to state 2. Here K0 is
the region occupied by the material in HTES0 , so the total mass of the material is
M = jK0j~
(15.2.2)
(15.2.3)
Let 412W be the work done on the material and 412 Q the heat added to it in going from
HTES1 to HTES2 . Energy conservation requires
412 W + 412 Q = U 2 ; U 1 :
(15.2.4)
Now suppose HTES1 and HTES2 are not very dierent. Then we will write df = f2 ;f1
for any property f of the two states. Thus (15.2.4) is d U = 412W + 412Q. According
to the second law of thermodynamics, correct to rst order in small changes,
412Q d N = ( N 2 ; N 1)
(15.2.5)
(15.2.6)
~
K0
dVL(~x)Dt U =
K0
dVLh~ ;
@K0
Z
$
~
~v
~
dAL n^L H + dVL S~ h2iD~
K0
254
or
d U = Q_ + Z dV $~ h2iD~
LS ~ v
dt
K0
where Q_ is the rate at which heat is added to the material. Thus, integrating from t1 to
t2
Z t2 Z
$
~ v:
U 2 ; U 1 = 412Q + dt dVL S~ h2iD~
t1
K0
Z t2 Z
$
~ v:
dt dVL S~ h2iD~
t1
K0
$
Now if the transformation is done slowly, S~ will be nearly constant, about equal to its
412W =
Z
K0
dVL
Z t2
~ v:
dtD~
t1
~r L(~x t)
~ v = DD
~ t ~r , (D~
~ v)L(~x t) = DD
~ t
~ r L (~x t)
But ~v = dt ~r so D~
= Dt D~
$
$
~ v = Dt G
= (Dt G)L(~x t). Thus, D~
, and
$
$ Z
$
~
412W =S h2i K dVL(~x) G (~x t2) ; G (~x t1) :
0
$
$
But G (~x t1 ) and G (~x t2 ) refer to HTES's. They are independent of ~x. Thus
$
412W = jK0j S~ h2id G$ :
(15.2.7)
$
$
From (15.2.4), (15.2.6) and (15.2.7), d U = jK0j S~ h2id G +jK0j ~
dN . Since
d U = jK0j~dU , dividing by jK0j~ gives
$
$ S~
dU = d G h2i ~ +
dN
(15.2.8)
$
for small reversible changes between HTES's. Here
and S~ refer to either the initial or
the nal state, since they are close.
$
But U is a function of G and N . Equation (15.2.8) says this function is dierentiable,
and that
$ @ $
(15.2.9)
G N = @N U G N
255
$ $
S~ (G N ) = @~$ U $ N
(15.2.10)
G
G
~
h
i
$
where @~$G U (G N ) is an abbreviation for @~U ( N ) (G~ ). Since P P is a Euclidean space,
the theory of such gradients is already worked out. In particular, if y^1, y^2, y^3 is a pooob
for P , then the dyads y^iy^j are an orthonormal basis for P P , and
$
(15.2.11)
G= Gij y^iy^j :
Then
so, from (15.2.10)
$
$
@U
(
G
@$G U G N = y^iy^j @G N )
ij
$
S~ij = @U (G N ) :
@Gij
To obtain the Cauchy stress tensor we use (13.3.30), namely
0 $1 $ 0$ 1
@ S A =GT B@ S~ CA :
~
The equation
$
U = U G N
(15.2.12)
(15.2.13)
(15.2.14)
is called the equation of state of the elastic material. It can be solved for N as a function
$
of G and U ,
$
N = N G U :
(15.2.15)
This serves as the basis for
Denition 15.2.61 A perfectly elastic material is one in which the small region near
$
any particle ~x at any time t behaves as if it were in an HTES with G= D~ r~L(~x t) and
U = U L (~x t).
$
In a perfectly elastic material, we will have (see page 250) h = 0, H~ = ~0, and S~ will be
given by (15.2.10), so the missing information needed to integrate (15.1.1, 15.1.2, 15.1.3)
is supplied by (15.2.12), which is known if the equation of state is known.
256
(15.3.1)
~ sL (~x t) k << 1:
kD~
(15.3.2)
$ $
$
G= I P + G
(15.3.3)
$ ~
G= D~
s
k G$ k << 1:
(15.3.4)
We want to study HTES's which are close to the zeroth or initial state in the sense
of (15.3.4). We use subscripts 0 to refer to the initial state. Then, since particles are
labelled by their positions in HTES0 ,
$ $
(15.3.5)
G0 = I P
~0 = 0
$ $
S~=S0 :
(15.3.6)
(15.3.7)
257
$
$
$ $
$
$
If GT = ; G, then G= I P + G is a rotation to rst order in G, and therefore N = 0
implies U = 0. Consequently,
$
$
$
$
S 0 h2i G= 0 if GT = ; G :
$ $T!
$T
$ $ $
$
But then for any G, S 0 h2i G ; G = 0, so S0 ; S0 h2i G= 0: Thus
$ $
S0=S0T :
(15.3.8)
$
$$ ~ $~ $
~
~
Q0 = @$G S G0 N0 = ~0 @$G @$G U G0 N0
$
@ $~ $ N = ~ @ @~$ U $ N
=
W0
@N S G0 0 @N G G0 0
$
$
= ~@~$G @ U G0 N0 = ~0@~$G
@~G0 N0
@N
$ @ 2 $
@
B0 = @N
G0 N0 = @N 2 U G0 N0 :
Then
0 1
$ @ W$ 0 A
= NB0 + G h2i ~
0
(Note: ~ = .) Also
$
$
$ $$
~
S = N W 0 + G h2i Q0 :
(15.3.9)
(15.3.10)
(15.3.11)
(15.3.12)
(15.3.13)
258
$
Furthermore, if y^1, y^2, y^3 is any pooob for P , and we write G as in (15.2.11) and write
$$
Q0= Qijkly^iy^j y^k y^l
then
so
$$ $$
Qijkl = Qklij or (13)(24) Q0 =Q0 :
(15.3.14)
$ $ $
We would also like to calculate S =S 1 ; S 0, the change in the Cauchy stress tensor.
From (15.2.13) and (13.1.3),
$ $ ;1 $T $~
S 1= det G01 G 01 S 1 :
$
Now det G (t) depends continuously on t in going from HTES0 to HTES1 , and can never
$
$
vanish. It is 1 in HTES0, so is always > 0. Hence j det G j = det G and
$ $ ;1 $T $~
(15.3.15)
S 1= det G01 G 01 S 1:
$ $ $
$
Now G01 =G= I P + G and, taking components relative to y^1, y^2, y^3
1 + G11 G12
G13
$
det G = G21 1 + G22 G23
G32 1 + G33
G31
$
$
$
= 1 + Gii + O k G k2 = 1 + tr G +Ok Gk2:
Thus
Then
$;1
$ $ 2
det G = 1 ; tr G +O k G k :
(15.3.16)
$T ! $ $~
$
$ $
S 1 = 1 ; tr G I P + G S 0 + S
$
where we have used (15.3.15) and have linearized in G. Keeping only terms up to rst
$
order in G, we have
$ $ $~
$ $
$
S 1=S 0 ; tr (G)] S 0 + GT S 0 + S
or
259
$T $ $ $
$ $~
S = S + G S 0 ; S 0 tr G :
(15.3.17)
If we take components relative to the pooob, y^1, y^2, y^3 from P , and write
$
S 0= Sij y^iy^j
(15.3.18)
$ $ $ $
$
$$ $
F 0=Q0 +(24) S 0 I P ; I P S 0 :
(15.3.19)
(15.3.20)
$ $ $$
$
S = G h2i F 0 +N W 0 :
(15.3.21)
$T $
W 0 =W 0 :
(15.3.22)
$$
$$
This equation is of exactly the same form as (15.3.13), but Q0 is replaced by F 0 .
$
$
Now S is the dierence between the Cauchy stress tensors in two HTES's, so S T =
$
$
$
S for any G whatever and any N . First, take G= 0. Then we must have
260
so
$
for every G. Hence
or
(15.3.23)
$$ $$
(34) F 0=F 0 :
(15.3.24)
$
Now in general, G is a joint property of two HTES's, the zeroth
or initial state used
$
$$
$
$
$
to label particles, and the nal state. However, S 0, B0 , W 0 , Q0 and F 0 are properties
$$
$
$
of the initial state alone,$HTES0 . As we have seen S 0 and W 0 are symmetric, and Q0
$
satises (15.3.14), while F 0 satises (15.3.24). If the initial HTES is isotropic, all these
tensors must be isotropic. From this follows
(15.3.25)
Proof:
$$
In our discussion of I #+(P )] we proved all of this except that for F we proved
only the existence of three scalars , , such that
Fijkl = ij kl + ik jl + il kj :
But by (15.3.23), ik jl + il kj = iljk + ik lj , or ( ; )(ik jl ; il jk ) =
0. Setting i = $k = 1, j = l = 2 gives ; = 0, so = , and we have the
$
expression for F given in the remark 15.3.72.
261
8
>
<
= (N ) B ; tr $ (=)
(15.3.26)
>
: S$= tr $ $I P +2u $
~ T
$ $T
$
~
where = 1=2( G + G ) = 1=2 D~s + D~s = innitesimal strain tensor.
In most cases, the HTES0 of the elastic material is not isotropic, either because the
$$
$
material itself is anisotropic or because S 0 is anisotropic. Then the stiness tensor F 0
$
$
$
gives the response of S to small changes G in the deformation gradient G away from
$ $
G0= I P . The stiness tensor has two sets of symmetries (see 15.3.23):
Fijkl = Fijlk :
(15.3.27)
(15.3.28)
(15.3.29)
Since Fijkl have to be measured experimentally, and there are 81 such components, we
would like to use (15.3.27) and (15.3.29) to see how many of these components are indpendent. Only those need be measured and recorded.
To answer this question we need one more symmetry, deducible from (15.3.27) and
(15.3.29). We have from those two equations
(15.3.30)
262
$$
Now dene E 02 4 P by
Eijkl = 41 Fijkl + Fjikl + Fklij + Flkij ] :
(15.3.31)
Fijkl = Eijkl + 12 kl Sij ; ij Skl + jlSik ; ik Sjl + jk Sil ; il Sjk ]
(15.3.32)
263
where we have used ij = ji and Sij = Sji. Now we must measure the six independ$$
ent components of Sij and the components of Eijkl in order to know F 0 . How many
$$
independent components does E have? From (15.3.31)
(15.3.33)
Therefore we can think of Eijkl as a 6
6 matrix whose rows are counted by (ij ) = (11),
(12), (13), (22), (23), (33) and whose columns are counted by (kl) = (11), (12), (13),
(22), (23), (33). We need not consider (ij ) = (21), (31), or (32) because of the rst of
equations (15.3.33). The fact that Eijkl = Eklij means that this 6
6 matrix is symmetric.
Therefore it contains only 21 independent components. These can be chosen arbitrarily
but not all choices describe stable materials.
A tensor in 4 P with the symmetries (15.3.33) is called an \elastic tensor." The set
of all such tensors in a subspace of 4P , which $we call E 4(P ). We have just proved
$
that dim E 4(P ) = 21. We have also shown that if F 2 4 P has the$ symmetries (15.3.27,
$ 4
15.3.28,
15.3.29)
then
it
can
be
written
in
the
form
(15.3.32)
with
2 E (P ). Conversely,
E
$$
$
$
$
$
$
$
if E 2 E 4(P ) and S T =S and F is given by (15.3.32), then F has the symmetries (15.3.27,
15.3.28, 15.3.29), a fact which is easily veried and is left to the reader.
$$ Therefore it is not
possible to reduce the problem further. In principle, to measure F 0 , it may be necessary
$
to
measure
the
six
independent
components
of
S 0 and the 21 independent components of
$$
$
$
E 0. Actually, only ve of the components of S 0 need be measured. Suppose 40 is the
$
stress deviator for S 0 , so
$
$ $
$
(15.3.34)
S 0 = ;p0 I P + 40 with ; 3p0 = tr S 0 :
$
Then substituting
(15.3.34)
in
(15.3.27)
shows
that
the
isotropic
part
of
S
0 makes no
$$
contribution to F 0 , and we can rewrite (15.3.32) as
Fijkl = Eijkl + 12 kl 4ij ; ij 4kl + jl 4ik ; ik 4jl + jk 4il ; il 4jk] :
$$
$$
$$
Therefore F 0 has 26 independent components, 21 in E 0 and 5 in 40 .
(15.3.35)
264
$$ $$
Suppose a material is originally$isotropic in an HTES with S 0= 0 . Suppose the mater$
$
ial is strongly compressed so that S 0= ;p0 I P where p0 is very large (say of the order
$$ $$of
mantle pressure, 0.1 to 1.35 megabar). The new HTES will still be isotropic, and F 0 =E 0
will have the form (15.3.25), which involves only two constants, the Lam/e parameters
$
and . Suppose then that a small (a few kilobars) stress deviator is$ added, say 40. Then
$$
$$
$$
$
will
change
by
a
small
amount
which
depends
linearly
on
4
,
and
E0 $ $
E
F 0 will change
0
$
$
$
$
$ $
$
by F = E + terms involving 40 in (15.3.35). Now E = J0h2i 40 where J0 2 6P .
This tensor is a property of the original highly compressed isotropic HTES. Therefore it is
a member of I 6(
+(V )), i.e. it is isotropic. By Weyl's theorem, it is a linear combination
$ $ $
of all possible permutations of I P I P I P . These are as follows:
ij kl mn ij kmln ij knlm
ik jl mn ik jmln ik jnlm
il jk mn il jmkn il jnkm
im jk ln im jl kn imjnkl
in jk lm in jlkm injmkl :
Since 4mn = 4nm, we can combine two terms which dier only in interchanging m and n.
Since 4mm = 0, we can discard terms with mn . Thus there are scalars , , , ", such
that 2Jijklmn = (ij kmln + ij knlm)+ (ik jm ln + ik jnlm) + (il jmkn + il jnkm)
+(im jk ln + injk lm) +"(imjl kn + injl km) + (imjnkl + in jmkl). Moreover,
Jijklmn must satisfy (15.3.33) for any xed m, n, so = = = " and = . Therefore
J0 involves only two independent constants, and
2Jijklmn = ij((kmln + kllm ) + kl (im jn + in jm)
+ ik (jmln + jnlm) + il (jmkn + jnkm)
)
+jk (im ln + inlm ) + jl (im kn + in km) :
Then
265
The body force is f~ (~x) = f~~0 (~x) = 0(~x)~g0(~x) where ~g is the acceleration of gravity, and
~g0 is its equilibrium value. The conservation equations reduce to
~0 = @~ S$0 ;0~g0 = D~ S$~ 0 ; ~0~g0:
(15.4.2)
266
with
(15.4.3)
(15.4.4)
Then
$
$
GL (~x t) = D~ r~L (~x t) = I P +D~ s~L (~x t) :
(15.4.5)
~ s is quite small, and it is almost always possible to
For earthquakes, ~s as well as D~
replace the exact conservation laws and constitutive relations by linearized versions in
~ s higher than the rst are omitted. In these problems it is
which all powers of ~s or D~
useful to be able to convert easily between Eulerian and Lagrangian representations. For
example, gravity is easy to calculate in the Eulerian representation, and the constitutive
relations are simple in the Lagrangian representation. We discuss this conversion now.
For any physical quantity f , we have
f L (~x t) = f E (~r t) where ~r = ~r L (~x t) :
If ~r L(~x t) = ~x + ~s L(~x t) then to rst order in ~s we have
f L (~x t) = f E ~x + ~sL (~x t) t = f E (~x t)
+~s L (~x t) @~f E (~x t) :
(15.4.6)
(15.4.7)
If f is small of order ~s, there is no need to distinguish between its Eulerian and Lagrangian
representations, so we can write both f E (~x t) and f L (~x t) simply as f (~x t). That is
(15.4.8)
This is true in particular for f = ~s. If f is of order ~s, we can use f not merely for the pair
of functions (f L f E ) but for either function alone, since to order ~s they are equal. Even
267
when f is not small of order ~s, f E (~x t) ; f0 (~x) is, so to rst order in ~s, ~sL(~x t) @~f E (~x t)
= ~s(~x t) @~f0(~x) and (15.4.6) for any f is
(15.4.9)
f L = f E + ~s @~f0
(15.4.10)
Dt f = @t f if f = Ok~sk:
(15.4.12)
(15.4.14)
(15.4.15)
For any physical quantity f we dene Lf and E f , the Lagrangian and Eulerian
derivatives of f from its equilibrium value. Both are physical quantities, and they are
dened by
L L
f (~x t) = f L (~x t) ; f0 (~x)
(15.4.16)
268
E
E f (~r t) = f E (~r t) ; f0 (~r) :
(15.4.17)
Both Lf and E f are small of order k~sk, so we can apply to them the convention (15.4.8)
even when f is not small of order ~s. Thus, for the functions,
Lf = f L ; f0
(15.4.18)
E f = f E ; f0:
(15.4.19)
(15.4.20)
(15.4.21)
With the help of this machinery, the Eulerian and Lagrangian conservation equations and the constitutive relations can be linearized. They produce either Eulerian or
Lagrangian equations of motion, and it is conventional to work with the former, even
in seismology. We will give the derivation of these equations, based on the Lagrangian
constitutive relations and Eulerian conservation equations.
The Eulerian mass conservation equation is
@t E + @~ (0~v) = 0:
h
i
@t E + @~ (0~s) = 0:
E = ;@~ (0~s) :
(15.4.22)
269
(15.4.23)
We nd E from (15.4.22). We nd E~g as E (;@~) = ;@~E + @~0 = ;@~(E ; 0), so
E~g = ;@~ E
(15.4.24)
@ 2 E = 4;E :
(15.4.25)
$
In order to solve (15.4.23), it remains to express E S in terms of ~s. We approximate
$
the neighborhood of each particle in the earth as a HTES, and we assume that S can be
calculated everywhere at all times as if the local material were in such a state. Thus at
each particle ~x we can use (15.4.20):
$
$ L $ $$
L
S = G h2i F 0 (~x) + LN W 0 (~x) :
(15.4.26)
We must use the Lagrangian representation here, because (15.3.21) applies to a particular
lump of matter, the matter close to particle ~x. The initial HTES0 at particle ~x is the HTES
appropriate for the region near that particle before
Thus this HTES0 will
$$ the earthquake.
$
vary from particle to particle, and the tensors F 0 and W 0 really will depend on ~x. The
heat conductivity of the earth is so low that during the passage of earthquake waves almost
no heat has time to ow, so there is no change in entropy per gram at each particular
particle. That is
LN = 0 everywhere at all times.
(15.4.27)
270
$
$
Thus equation (15.4.26) gives L S in terms of ~s, since L G= @~~s. And then (15.4.20)
$
gives E S as
$
$
$
E S = L S ;~s @~!S 0
$$
$
$
E
~
S = @~sh2i F 0 ; ~s @~ S 0 :
Thus (15.4.23) nally becomes, to rst order in ~s,
" $$ #
$
2
~
~
~
0@t ~s = @ @~s h2i F 0 (~x) ; @ ~s @~ S 0
h
i
;0 E~g + @~ (0~s) ~g0
(15.4.28)
" $$ #
@~s h2i F 0 = @~ ~s kl + (@k sl + @l sk )
kl
~ $$
$
h
i
@~s h2i F 0 = @~ ~s I P + @~ ~s + (@~s)T :
0 @t2~s = ( + ) @~ @~ ~s + @ 2~s
h
i
= ( + 2) @~ @~ ~s + @ 2~s ; @~ @~ ~s
= ( + 2) @~ @~ ~s ; @
@~
~s :
Divide this equation by 0 and dene
c2p = + 2 c2s = :
0
(15.4.29)
Then
@t2~s = c2p@~ @~ ~s ; c2s @~
@~
~s :
271
(15.4.30)
Since we are assuming 0 , , independent of ~x, the same is true of c2p and c2s . Taking
the divergence of (15.4.30) gives
@t2 @~ ~s = c2p@ 2 @~ ~s :
(15.4.31)
The scalar @~ ~s propagates in waves with velocity cp. These are called P -waves (primary
waves) or compression waves. Taking the curl of (15.4.30) and using @~
@~
~v = @~ @~ ~v ;
@ 2~v gives
@t2 @~
~s = c2S @ 2 @~
~s :
(15.4.32)
The vector @~
~s propagates in wave with velocity cs. These are called S -waves (secondary
$
$
For a pure shear, ~s(~r) = (~r y^3)^y1, we have G= y^3y^1 so S = (^y1y^3 + y^3y^1) and
$
y^3 S = y^1. If 0, the material either does not resist shear or aids it once it has
begun, so we must have
> 0:
(15.4.33)
$ $
$
$
For a pure dilatation ~s(~r) = "~r, we have G= " I P , so S = "(3 + 2) I P . If " > 0,
the material expands slightly. If this does not produce a drop in pressure, the material
will explode. Therefore
3 + 2 > 0:
(15.4.34)
Combining these two relations gives 3( + 2) > 4 > 0, so
2
0 < cs2 < 3 0 < cs < 0:866:
(15.4.35)
cp 4
cp
Therefore the P wave always travels faster than the S wave, and arrives rst. Hence it is
the \primary" wave.
272
dU = ;pd + dN so
(15.5.2)
p ( N ) = ; @U (@ N )
(15.5.3)
( N )
( N ) = @U@N
(15.5.4)
$
$
S = ;p I P :
(15.5.5)
Now suppose the uid deviates slightly from an HTES. At each point in space, ~r, and
each instant t, there will be a well dened density E (~r t) and a well dened energy per
unit mass, U E (~r t). We set = 1=E (~r t), U = U E (~r t) and use (15.5.1) to calculate
N E (~r t) as if the uid were in an HTES at (~r t). Then with N = N E (~r t) and =
1=E (~r t) we use (15.5.3) to calculate pE (~r t) as if the uid were in an HTES at (~r t).
We call this pressure the thermostatic equilibrium pressure at ~r t and write it pEHTES(~r t).
The uid at (~r t) is not in fact in the HTES dened by U E (~r t) and E (~r t), so the actual
$
Cauchy stress tensor S E (~r t) is not given by (15.5.5) but by
$
$
$
S E (~r t) = ;pEHTES (~r t) I P + V E (~r t)
(15.5.6)
$
$
where (15.5.6) denes V E . The tensor V E (~r t) is called the viscous stress tensor at (~r t).
It vanishes in HTES's.
273
The deviation from an HTES can be measured by the failure of
to be constant and
$
by the failure of ~v to vanish. Thus V E (~r t) can be expected to depend on the functions
$
E and ~vE in the whole uid. We expect V E to vanish when
E is constant for all ~r t. In
fact, ~vE = constant for all ~r t is simply an HTES moving with constant velocity, so we
expect
$
$
V E (~r t) = 0 if
E and v~E are constant
for all ~r and t:
$
For ordinary uids, we would also expect V E (~r t) to be aected only by the behavior of
the functions
E and ~vE near ~r t. This behavior is determined by the derivatives, so we
$
would expect V E (~r t) to be determined by the values at (~r t) of
8
>
E
~E
>
< @
@t
>
>
: @~v~E @t v~E
(15.5.7)
We will assume that the deviation from an HTES is small. In that case, V~ E (~r t) can be
expanded in Taylor series in the quantities (15.5.7), and we can drop all but the linear
terms. We will also assume that the inuence of distant uid on (~r t) drops o very rapidly
with distance in either space or time, so that only rst derivatives need be considered in
(15.5.7). In fact, physical arguments suggest that a term @~m @tn
E or @~m @tn v~E in (15.5.7)
$
contributes to V (~r t) in the ratio (=L)m (t=T )n where and t are mean free path and
mean time between collisions for a molecule and L and T are the macroscopic wavelength
and time period of the disturbance being studied.
$
On the basis of the foregoing approximations, we expect that V E (~r t) will depend
linearly on @~
E (~r t), @t
E (~r t), @~~vE (~r t) and @t~vE (~r t).
$$
We$are thus led to
a model in which at any point (~r t) there are tensors F E (~r t) 2
$
$
$
$
4 P , J E (~r t) and K E (~r t) 2 3 P , and H E (~r t) 2 2 P such that
!$
$ ~ $$ ~ !$
$
=
@
~
v
h
2
i
+
@
+
(
@
~
v
)
(15.5.8)
V
F
J
K + (@t
) H :
t
274
It seems$reasonable
to assume that the uid is skew isotropic. Then the same must be
!
!
$ $ $
$
true of F , J , K , and H . Therefore at each (~r t) there are scalars , , , , , such
that relative to any pooob for P
Fijkl
Jijk
Kijk
Hij
Vij = ij @~ ~v + (@i vj + @j vi) + ij @t
:
(15.5.9)
If ~vE = ;"~r, the uid is being compressed at a uniform rate. If @t
= 0 then (15.5.9)
gives Vij = ;ij (3 + 2)". An extra pressure, over and above pHTES , is required to
conpress the uid at a nite rate. The quantity = + 2=3 is therefore called the bulk
viscosity:
= + 2=3:
(15.5.10)
Then
Vij = ij @~ ~v + @ivj + @j vi ; 23 ij @~ ~v + ij @t
:
(15.5.11)
The quantity is called the shear viscosity because in a pure shear ow, ~vE (~r) = w~r y^3y^1,
$
$
$
V = w(^y3y^1 + y^1y^3) and y^3 V = y^1w. The tangential stress y^3 V is times the rate of
shear, w. In the ocean, = 100. However, except in sound waves, @~ ~v 0, so the
large value of in the ocean is not noticed except in the damping of short sound waves.
The second law of thermodynamics gives more information about (15.5.11), namely
= 0 0 0:
(15.5.12)
275
(15.5.13)
There are no other candidates for
and N , So we drop the subscripts HTES on
and N .
$
We do not do so on pHTES, because ;1=3 tr S is another candidate for the pressure and
we do not want to confuse the two. If we multiply (15.5.9) by and use (13.6.15) we
obtain
;@~ H~ + h+ S$ h2i@~~v = ;pHTES Dt +
Dt N:
(15.5.14)
But Dt = ;1 Dt = Dt ln = ;Dt ln = @~ ~v. Therefore (15.5.14) is
Dt N + @ H = h + S h2i@~v + pHTES @~ ~v :
(15.5.15)
$
$
$
$
But pHTES(@~ ~v) = pHTES I P h2i@~~v so S h2i@~~v + pHTES(@~ ~v) = (S +pHTES I P )h2i(@~~v)
$
~ )=
=V h2i@~~v from (15.5.6). If we divide (15.5.15) by
and use the identity @~ (H=
(@~ H~ )=
+ H @~(1=
), (15.5.15) becomes
0 1
~
$
DtN + @~ @ H
A = h
+
1 V h2i@~~v + H~ @~ 1
:
(15.5.16)
If we dene the stu \entropy" as the stu whose density per unit mass is N and
~ , then (15.5.16) shows that its creation rate is
whose material ux density is H=
$
= h
+ H~ @~ 1
+ 1
V h2i@~~v:
(15.5.17)
Now h can be positive (e.g. ohmic heating) or negative (e.g. heat radiation by a transparent liquid into empty space if the liquid is a blob in interstellar space). However,
276
; h=
is the creation rate of entropy by local events in the uid. The second law of
thermodynamics is generalized to motions near HTES by requiring that everywhere at all
times
; h
0:
(15.5.18)
$
To use (15.5.18), we must calculate V h2i@~~v in (15.5.17). Since Vij = Vij , we have
$
1
1
1
V h2i@~~v = Vij @ivj = 2 (Vij + Vji) @i vj = 2 Vij @ivj + 2 Vji@vj
= 1 Vij @i vj + 1 Vij @j vi = Vij 1 (@i vj + @j vi)
2
2
2
$ 1 ~ ~ T
= V h2i @~v + @~v :
2
Now suppose we write (15.5.10) as
~
2
~
Vij = ij @ ~v + @t
+ @i vj + @j vi ; 3 ij @ ~v
(15.5.19)
and write
1 (@ v + @ v ) = 1 @~ ~v + 1 @ v + @ v ; 2 @~ ~v :
(15.5.20)
ij
2 ij j i
3
2 i j j i 3 ij
$
Then we have expressed V and 1=2@~~v +(@~~v)T ] as the sum of their isotropic and deviatoric
parts. Since an isotropic and a deviatoric tensor are orthogonal, there are no cross terms
$
when we calculate V h2i 21 @~~v + (@~~v)T ] from (15.5.19) and (15.5.20). Therefore
T 2 $
$
V h2i@~~v = @~ ~v @~ ~v + @t
+ 2 k@~~v + @~~v ; 3 I P @~ ~vk2 :
Thus for a viscous uid (15.5.18) requires
1 2
~ T 2 $ ~ 2 ~
~
~
~
~
H @
+ @ ~v + 2 @~v + @~v ; 3 I P @ ~v + @ ~v @t
0: (15.5.21)
We can arrange experiments in which @~
= ~0, and @t
= 0, and ~vE (~r t) = "~r + (~r
y^3)^y1. Then @~~v = "Ip + y^3y^1, @~ ~v = 3", and (15.5.21) becomes 9"2 + 2 2 0. Since
this inequality must hold for " = 0, 6= 0 and for " 6= 0, = 0, we must have 0,
0. We can also arrange experiments with ~vE (~r t) = "~r, @~
= ~0, and @t
of any value.
In such an experiment, (15.5.21) becomes
9"2 + 3"@t
0:
(15.5.22)
277
If 6= 0, take " > 0 and @t
< ;3". Then (15.5.22) is violated. Therefore we must
have = 0. The fact that (15.5.12) are observed experimentally is one of the arguments
for (15.5.18) as an extension of the second law of thermodynamics.
278
Part III
Exercises
279
Set One
Exercise 1
Let (~b1 ~bn) be an ordered basis for Euclidean vector space V . Let (~b1 ~bn ) be its
dual basis. Let gij and gij be its covariant and contravariant metric matrices. Prove
a) ~bi = gij~bj
b) ~bi = gij~bj
c) gij gjk = i k
d) gij gjk = i k
Note that either c) or d) says that the two n
n matrices gij and gij are inverse to each
other. Thus we have a way to construct (~b1 ~bn) when (~b1 ~bn ) are given. This is
the procedure:
Step 1. Compute gij = ~bi ~bj .
Step 2. Compute the inverse matrix to gij , the matrix gij such that gij gjk = i k or
gij gjk = i k (either equation implies the other).
Exercise 2
V is ordinary Euclidean 3-space, with the usual dot and cross products. The function M
is dened by one of the following six equations, where ~v1, ~v2 ~v3, ~v4 are arbitrary vectors
281
282
Solutions
1.a) For any vector ~v 2 V , we know that
~v = ~v ~bj ~bj
1.b) For any ~v 2 V , ~v = (~v ~bj )~bj (see equations (D-12) and (D-13). Apply this result to
~v = ~bi . Thus ~bi = (~bi ~bj )~bj , or ~bi = gij~bj . Note that part b) can also be obtained
immediately by regarding (~b1 ~bn) as the original basis and (~b1 ~bn) as the
dual basis.
1.c) Dot ~bk into a) and use ~bi ~bk = i k .
1d. Dot ~bk into b) and use ~bi ~bk = i k .
283
M (~v2~v1 ~v3) = (~v2
~v1 ) ~v3 = ; (~v1
~v2 ) ~v3 = ;M (~v1 ~v2~v3)
so (12)M = ;M . And we have
M (~v3~v2 ~v1) = (~v3 ~v2) ~v1 = (~v2 ~v1 ) ~v3 = ;M (~v1 ~v2~v3)
284
so (13)M = ;M . Finally
M (~v1~v3 ~v2) = (~v1
~v3) ~v2 = (~v2
~v1 ) ~v3 = ;M (~v1 ~v2~v3)
so (23)M = ;M .
2.vi) M is multilinear because it is linear in each of ~v1 , ~v2 , ~v3 , ~v4 when the other three
are xed.
M is a tensor because its values are scalars. (It is of order 4.)
M is neither totally symmetric nor totally antisymmetric. It is true that (12)M = M
and (34)M = M . However, (23)M is neither M nor ;M . To see this, we must nd
~u1, ~u2, ~u3, ~u4 2 V such that M (~u1 ~u3 ~u2 ~u4) 6= M (~u1 ~u2 ~u3 ~u4), and we must nd
~v1~v2 ~v3~v4 2 V such that M = (~v1~v3 ~v2~v4) 6= ;M = (~v1 ~v2~v3~v4). Let x^ y^ z^ be
an orthonormal basis for V and let ~u1 = ~u2 = ~v1 = ~v2 = x^, ~u3 = ~u4 = ~v3 = ~v4 = y^.
Then M (~u1 ~u2 ~u3 ~u4) = 1 and M (~u1 ~u2 ~u3 ~u4) = 0. Note: One might be tempted
to say that (~v1 ~v2 ) (~v3 ~v4) is \obviously" dierent from (~v1 ~v3)(~v2 ~v4 ). Yet if
dim V = 1, we do have (~v1 ~v2)(~v3 ~v4) = (~v1 ~v3)(~v2 ~v4), and M is totally symmetric.
Extra Problems
In what follows, V is an n-dimensional Euclidean vector space and L 2 L(V ! V ).
1E. Recall that l 2 R is an \eigenvalue" of L i there is a nonzero ~v 2 V such that
L(~v) = l~v.
a) Show that if l is an eigenvalue of L and p is any positive integer, then lp is an
eigenvalue of Lp.
b) If 2 Sq (i.e., : f1 qg ! f1 qg is a bijection ), show that there is a
positive integer p q! such that p = e, the identity permutation.
c) Regard 2 Sq as a linear operator on q V . Suppose c 2 R is an eigenvalue of
: q V ! q V . Show that c = 1.
285
2E.
a) For any c 2 R, show that det(cL) = cn det L.
b) Recall that L;1 exists i the only solution ~u of L(~u) = ~0 is ~u = ~0. Use this
fact to give a pedantically complete proof that l 2 R is an eigenvalue of L i
det(L ; lIV ) = 0, where IV is the identity operator on V .
3E.
a) Show that det(L ; lIV ) is a polynomial in l with degree n. That is, det(L ;
lIV ) = c0 ln + c1ln;1 + + cn. Hint: Choose a basis B = (~b1 ~bn) for V .
Let Li j be the matrix of L relative to B , i.e., L(~bi ) = Li j~bj . Show that relative
to B the matrix of L ; lIV is Li j ; li j . Finally, use det L = L1 i1 Ln in "i1 in
with L ; lIV replacing L.]
b) Show that c0 = (;1)n and cn = det L. (Thus the degree of det(L ; lIV ) is n.)
c) (;1)n;1c1 is called the trace of L, written tr L. Calculate tr L in terms of the
matrix Li j of L relative to B .
286
2E.
a) Let A 2 nV , A 6= 0. Let (~b1 ~bn) = B be a basis for V . Then A(cL)(~b1 ) (cL)(~bn)]
= det(cL)A(~b1 ~bn). But A(cL)(~b1 ) (cL)(~bn)] = AcL(~b1 ) cL(~bn)]
= cnAL(~b1 ) L(~bn )] = cn(det L)A(~b1 ~bn). Since A(~b1 ~bn) 6= 0,
det(cL) = cn(det L).
b) l is an eigenvalue of L , 9~v 2 V 3 ~v 6= ~0 and L(~v) = l~v. (Denition of eigenvalue.)
1
L1 ; ll l L(n) (n) ; l(n) (n) "1 n
= L1 1 ; l L2 2 ; l L(n) (n) ; l :
In all other nonzero terms, there must be at least two failures among i1 = 1,
i2 = 2 in = n, because fi1 ing = f1 ng. Therefore, in each
287
nonzero term in (*) except (y) above, at least two factors have no l, so the
total degree as a polynomial in l is n ; 2. Therefore, all the terms in ln and
ln;1 in det(L ; lIV ) come from (y). But (y) is
h
i
(;1)nln + (;1)n;l L1 1 + L2 2 + + L(n) (n) ln;1 + :
288
Set Two
Exercise 3
Let (^x1 x^2 x^n) = B be an ordered orthonormal basis for Euclidean space V . Let
B 0 = (^x2 x^1 x^3 x^n) (i.e., just interchange x^1 and x^2 ). Show that B and B 0 are
oppositely oriented.
Exercise 4
If V is Euclidean vector space, the \identity tensor" on V is dened to be that I 2 V V
such that for any ~x ~y 2 V
I (~x ~y) = ~x ~y:
Suppose that ~u1 ~un, ~v1 ~vn are xed vectors in V such that
I=
n
X
i=1
~ui~vi :
Solutions
3. Let A be one of the two unimodular alternating tensors over V . Let 2 Sn. Then
A(^x(1) x^(n) ) = ( sgn )A(^x1 x^n). Hence (^x1 x^n) and (^x(1) x^(n) )
have the same or opposite orientation according as sgn = +1 or ;1.
289
290
h i
~x ~y = I(~x ~y) = (~ui ~x)(~vi ~y) = ~x ~ui ~vi ~y :
(23)
h i
~x ~y ; ~y ~vi ~ui = 0:
(24)
Thus
For any xed ~y 2 V , (24) is true for all ~x 2 V . Thus ~y ; (~y ~vi)~ui = ~0, or
~y = ~y ~vi ~ui
for any ~y 2 V:
(25)
j k = i j ~vi ~uk = ~vj ~uk :
Thus (~v1 ~vn) is a sequence dual to (~u1 ~un). Since (~u1 ~un) is a
basis for V , there is exactly one such dual sequence, namely (~u1 ~un). Hence
~vi = ~ui.
Exercise 5
Let V be an n-dimensional Euclidean space. Let A be any nonzero alternating tensor
over V (that is, A 2 nV and A 6= 0). Let (~b1 ~bn) be an ordered basis for V , with
dual basis (~b1 ~bn). Let 4 = A(~b1 ~bn). For each i 2 f1 ng dene
~vi = 1 (;1)i;1Ahn ; 1i ~b 6~b ~b :
Show that ~vi = ~bi . When n = 3, express (~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ) explicitly in terms of (~b1 ~b2 ~b3 ), using
only the dot and cross products, not A.
291
Exercise 6
Suppose L 2 L(V ! V ).
a) Show that there are unique mappings S , K 2 L(V ! V ) such that S is symmetric
(S T = S ) K is antisymmetric (K T = ;K ) and L = S +K . (Hint: then LT = S ;K .)
b) Suppose dim V = 3 and A is one of the two unimodular alternating tensors over V .
Suppose K 2 L(V ! V ) is antisymmetric. Show that there is a unique vector
~k 2 V such that K$ = A ~k. Show that ~k = 12 Ah2i K$ and that K$ = ~k A. Hint: Take
components relative to a positively-oriented ordered orthonormal basis. Use (3.1.2)
and page D-9.]
Exercise 7
Let (~b1 ~bn) be a basis for Euclidean vector space V , its dual basis being (~b1 ~bn).
Let L 2 L(V ! V ).
$
a) Show that L= ~bi L(~bi) = ~biL(~bi ).
b If L is symmetric, show that V has an orthonormal basis x^1 x^n with the property
$
that there are real numbers l1 ln such that L= Pnv=1 l(v) x^v x^v . Hint: Let l(v) be
the eigenvalues of L. See page D-27.]
Solutions
5.a) We show that ~bj v~ i = j i, and then appeal to the fact that the dual sequence of an
ordered basis is unique. We have
292
293
7.b) From page D-27, V has an orthonormal basis x^1 x^n consisting of eigenvectors
of L. That is, there are numbers l1 ln 2 R such that L(^x1 ) = l1 x^1 L(^xn ) =
lnx^n. By 7a)
n
n
n
X
X
$ X
=
x
^
L
(^
x
)
=
x
^
(
l
x
^
)
=
lv (^xv x^v ) :
L
v
v
v v v
v=1
v=1
v=1
Extra problems
4E. Suppose f~b1 ~bm g is a linearly independent subset of Euclidean space V (so m
dim V m < dim V is possible!). Let (~u1 ~um) and (~v1 ~vm) be any m-tuples
of vectors in V . Show that ~ui~bi = ~vi~bi implies ~ui = ~vi.
5E. Suppose V is a Euclidean vector space and a, b, c, d, e are non-negative integers.
Suppose A 2 a V , C 2 cV , E 2 eV . We want to study whether it is true that
(26)
294
a
q
b
c
ss
t
e
295
a
A
b
c
d
~b)~ 1 ~ a;b~b+1 ~c (AhbiC )hdiE = (~ a;b+1 ~1) (~ a ~b)(~ a+c;2b;d+1 ~"1)
(~ a;b ~"d+b;c) (~b+1 ~"d+b;c+1) (~c ~"d) ~ 1 ~ a+c;2b;d ~"d+1 ~"e.
Similarly C hdiE = (~c;dn ~"1) (~c ~"d)~1 ~c;d~"d+1 ~"e and Ahbi(C hdiE ) =
(~ a;b+1 ~1) (~ a;b+c;d ~c;d)(~ a;b+c;d+1 ~"d+1) (~ a ~b+2d;c) (~c;d+1 ~1) (~c
~d )~ 1 ~ a;b~b+2d;c+1 ~"e.
Choose all ~ , ~ , ~" so the dot products are 6= 0. Now a ; b > a + c ; 2b ; d, so
(AhbiC )hdiE = Ahbi(C hdiE ) implies that ~ a;b and ~"2d+b;c are linearly dependent.
By choosing them linearly independent we have (AhbiC )hdiE 6= Ahbi(C hdiE ).
6E.
296
Exercise 8
$
Let U be a Euclidean vector space. Let D be an open subset of U . Let T 2 U U . For
$
each ~u 2 U , let f~(~u) =T ~u and g(~u) = ~u ~u. Show that at every ~u 2 D, f~ : D ! U
~ f~(~u), r
~ g(~u), and the remainder
and g : D ! R are dierentiable. Do so by nding r
functions, and by showing that R(~h) ! 0 as ~h ! ~0.
Exercise 9
Suppose that Df and Dg are open subsets of Euclidean vector spaces U and V respectively.
Suppose that f~ : Df ! Dg and ~g : Dg ! Df are inverse to one another. Suppose there
is a ~u 2 Df where f~ is dierentiable and that ~g is dierentiable at ~v = f~(~u). Show that
dim U = dim V . Hint: See page 108.]
Exercise 10
Suppose V is a Euclidean vector space, (U A) is an oriented real three-dimensional Euclidean space, D is an open subset of U , and f~ : D ! U and ~g : D ! V are both
dierentiable at ~u 2 D.
i) Which proposition in the notes shows that f~~g : D ! U V is dierentiable at ~u?
ii) Show that at ~u
r~
f~~g = r~
f~ ~g ; f~
r~ ~g:
Note: In this equation, one of the expressions is undened. Dene it in the obvious way
and then prove the equation.]
Solutions
8a.
$ $
$
f~ ~u + ~h = T ~u + ~h =T ~u+ T ~h
297
$T
= f~(~u) + ~h T :
~ f~(~u) =T$T and R~ (~h) = ~0 for all ~h.
Therefore r
8b.
g ~u + ~h =
=
=
~ ~
~u + h ~u + h
~u ~u + 2~h ~u + ~h ~h
g (~u) + ~h 2~u] + ~h ~h :
~ g(~u) = 2~u, and R(~h) = ~h. As ~h ! 0, R(~h) ! 0 because ~h ! ~0
Therefore r
means ~h ! 0.
$ ~
$ $ $
$ ~~
$ $ $
9. Dene P = r
f (~u) and Q= r
~g(~v). By example 9.2.24, P Q= I U and Q P = I V .
Therefore, by 7.4.20, the linear mappings P : U ! V and Q : V ! U satisfy
Q P = IU and P Q = IV . By iii) on page D-6, P and Q are bijections. Since they
are linear, they are isomorphisms of U to V and V to U . By preliminary exercise
3, dim U = dim V .
10.i) Method 1 on page 105 or method 2 on page 107, applied to f~ ^1 : D ! U R1 and
^1~g : D ! R1 V .
$
$
$
10.ii) For ~u 2 U and P 2 U V we dene ~u
P := Ah2i ~u P . Then, relative to any
$
basis ~b1 , ~b2 , ~b3 for U and ~1 ~n for V , we have (~u
P )i l = Aijk j Pkl . Then
h ~ ~ ii
r
f ~g l = Aijk @j f~~g kl = Aijk @j (fk gl)
= Aijk (@j fk ) gl + fk @j gl ]
~ ~ i
= r
f gl ; Aikj fk @j gl
h ~ ~ ii
= r
f ~g l ; Aijk fj r~ ~g kl
h ~ ~ ii ~ ~ i
= r
f ~g l ; f
r~g l
h ~ ~ ~ ~ ii
= r
f ~g ; f
r~g l : QED:
298
Extra Problems
$
7E. Let U be a Euclidean vector space. Let T 2 U U . Let D be the set of all ~u 2 U
$
$
such that ~u T ~u > 0. If ~u 2 D, dene f (~u) = ln(~u T ~u).
i) Show that D is open.
~ f (~u).
ii) Show that f : D ! R is dierentiable at every point ~u 2 D, and nd r
8E. Let V be the set of all innite sequences of real numbers, ~x = (x1 x2 ), such that
P1 x2 converges. If ~y = (y y ) is also in V and a b 2 R, dene a~x + b~y =
1 2
n=1 n
(ax1 + by1 ax2 + by2 ). Dene ~x ~y = P1
n=1 xn yn . The sum converges by the
Cauchy test because, for any M and N , Schwarz's inequality implies j PNn=m xn ynj
(PNn=m x2n )1=2 (PNn=m yn2 )1=2 . Furthermore, j~x ~yj2 = j limN !1 PNn=1 xn ynj2 =< limN !1
(PNn=1 x2n )(Pnn=1 yn2 ) = k~xk2k~yk2, so Schwarz's inequality works in V .] V is a real
dot-product space but not a Euclidean space, because it is not nite dimensional.
If ~v0 ~v1~v2 is a sequence of vectors in V , dene limn!1 ~vn = ~v0 by the obvious
extension of denition 9.1.30, i.e. limn!1 k~v0 ; ~vn k = 0.
i) Suppose limn!1 ~vn = ~v0 . Show that for any ~x 2 V , limn!1 ~x ~vn = ~x ~v0 .
ii) Construct a sequence ~v1 ~v2 in V such that limn!1 ~x ~vn = 0 for every ~x 2 V ,
but limn!1 ~vn does not exist.
(For dierentiability, V has two dierent denitions, leading to Frechet and Gateau
derivation respectively based on norms and on components).
Solutions
$ $
$
7E. If T = 0 , D is empty and i) and ii) are trivial. Therefore assume k T k > 0. Dene
$
g(~u) = ~u T ~u.
299
$
$ $
i) g(~u + ~h) ; g(~u) = ~h T ~u + ~u T ~h T ~h. Therefore, by the triangle and
generalized Schwarz inequalities,
~
$
g ~u + h ; g (~u) k~hkk T k 2k~uk + k~hk :
Assume ~u 2 D so g(~u) > 0. Then ~u 6= ~0. Let " be the smaller of k~uk and
$
$
g(~u)=(3k~ukk T k). If k~hk < " then jg(~u + ~h) ; g(~u)j < "k T k(2k~uk + k~hk)
$
< 3"k T kk~uk g(~u). Hence g(~u + ~h) ; g(~u) > ;g(~u), so g(~u + ~h) > 0. That
$
is, if ~u 2 D and " = smaller of ~u and g(~u)=(3k~ukk T k) then the open ball
B (~u ") D. Hence D is open,
$ $T
ii) By i) above, g(~u + ~h) = g(~u) + ~h (T + T ) ~u + k~hkR(~h) where R(~h) =
$
(~h T ~h)=k~hk for ~h 6= ~0 and = ~0 for ~h = ~0. Thus g is dierentiable at ~u, with
T
r~ g(~u) = (T$ + T$ ) ~u. By the chain rule, f g is dierentiable, with f (v) = lnv,
~ g(~u) where v = g(~u). This is v;1r
~ g(~u), so
and its gradient is @v f (v)r
$ $T
$
T + T ~u
~rln ~u T ~u (~u) =
:
$
~u T ~u
8E. i)
Exercise 11
A mass distribution m occupies a subset D of ordinary Euclidean 3-space U . Let n^ be any
unit vector in U and denote by n^R the straight line through U 's origin ~0 in the direction
300
of n^. Let w~ (~r) be the perpendicular distance of the point ~r from the axis n^R, so that
R
the moment of inertia of the mass distribution about that axis is J (^n) = D dm(~r)w~(~r)2.
$
$
$
Dene T : D ! U U by requiring for each ~r 2 D that T (~r) = r2 I U ;~r~r. Here r2 = ~r ~r
$
$ R
$
and I U is the identity tensor in U U . The tensor J = D dm(~r) T (~r) is called the inertia
$ R
$
tensor of the mass distribution, and is usually written J = D dm(~r)r2 I U ;~r~r ].
$
a) Show that J is symmetric.
$
b) Show that J (^n) = n^ J n^.
$
c) Show that to calculate J it is necessary to calculate only six particular integrals of
real-valued functions on D with respect to the mass distribution m. (Once these
six functions are calculated, the moment of inertia of the body about any axis is
found from 11b.)
Exercise 12
In problem 11, suppose the mass distribution rotates rigidly about the axis n^ R with
angular velocity +~ = +^n, so that the mass at position ~r has velocity ~v(~r) = +~
r. The
R
angular momentum of the mass distribution about ~0 is dened as L~ = D dm(~r)~r
~v(~r)],
R
and the kinetic energy of the mass distribution is dened as K = 1=2 D dm(~r)v(~r)2, where
v2 means ~v ~v. Show the following:
$
a) L~ =J +~
$
b) K = 1=2 +~ J +~
c) L~ need not be J (^n)+~ .
Exercise 13
$
The second moment tensor of the mass distribution in problem 11 is dened as M =
R dm(~r) ~r ~r.
D
301
$ R
a) Show that tr M = D dm(~r)r2.
$
$ $
$
b) Express J in terms of M , tr M and I U .
$
$ $
$ $
c) Express M in terms of J , tr J and I U . (J can be observed by noting the reaction
$
R
of the mass distribution to torques. Then 13c) gives M and 13a) gives D dm(~r)r2
from such observations).
d) If the mass distribution is a cube of uniform density , side 2a and center at ~0, nd
J (^n) when n^ R is the axis through one of the corners of the cube.
Exercise 14
Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be an orthonormal basis for physical space P . Let c be a xed scalar. For
any ~r 2 P , write ~r = riy^i. Consider a steady uid motion whose Eulerian description ~vE
is given by
~vE (~r t) = r1y^1 + c r2y^2 = ~r (^y1y^1 + cy^2y^2)
for all ~r 2 P and all t 2 R.
a) Find the Lagrangian description of this motion, using t0-position labels.
b) Show that the paths of the individual particles lie in planes r3 = constant, and are
hyperbolas if c = ;1 and straight lines if c = +1.
c) Find the label function ~x E : P
R ! P . (It will depend on which xed t0 is used to
establish t0-position labels.)
d) Find the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of the particle acceleration ~a.
Solutions
$
$
11 a) The permutation operator (12): P P ! P P is linear, and (12) T (~r) =T (~r),
so
Z
Z
Z
$
$
$
(12)
dm(~r ) T (~r ) = dm(~r) (12) T (~r ) = dm(~r ) T (~r ):
D
302
~
w(
r)
n^ r
^n
.
Figure Ex-3:
b)
we (~r )2 = r2 ; (^n ~r )2
$
= r2n^ I P n^ ; n^ r^r^ n^
$
= n^ r2 I P ;~r ~r n^ :
Hence
h
i
dm(~r)^n r2IP ; ~r ~r n^
D Z
$
$
2
= n^ dm (~r) r I P ;~r ~r n^ = n^ J n^:
J (^n) =
(27)
(28)
$
$T $
$
c) Choose a pooob, x^1 , x^2 , x^3 . Then J = Jij x^i x^j and since J =J , Jij = Jji. Thus J is
known if we know J11, J22, J33 , J12 , J23, J31 relative to one pooob. But
Jij =
12 a)
h
i
dm (^r) r2ij ; rirj :
i Z
h
i
dm (~r) ~r
+
~r = dm (~r) ~r +~ ; ~r ~r +~
$
D
ZD
dm (~r ) r2 I P ;~r ~r +~
=
D
$
Z
$
2
=
dm (~r ) r I P ;~r~r +~ =J +~ :
L~ =
h~
303
b)
K =
=
=
=
=
=
c) Let the mass distribution consist of a single mass point m at position ~r. Then
$
$
2
J = m r I P ;~r ~r
~L = J$ +~ = m+ r2 $I P ;~r ~r n^
If L~ = J (^n)+~ then r2 ; (^n ~r)2 ]^n = r2n^ ; ~r(~r n^ ), so (~r n^)2 n^ = (~r n^)~r. To violate
this condition choose n^ so it is neither parallel nor perpendicular to ~r.
13 a) tr : P P ! R is linear, so
Z
Z
$
tr M = tr dm (~r) ~r ~r = dm (~r) tr ~r~r
=
dm (~r) r2:
$
R
$ R
$ R
2
b) J = dm(~r) r I P ;~r ~r = D dm (~r) r2] I P ; D dm (~r) ~r ~r
$ $ $ $
J = I P tr M ; M :
c) From the above equation, since tr : P P ! R is linear,
$
$
$
$
$ $ $
tr J = tr I P tr M ; tr M = 3 tr M ;tr M = 2 tr M :
$
$
$
$
$ $
Hence, tr M = 1=2 tr J and M = 1=2 I P (tr J ); J .
304
d) Let x^1 , x^2 , x^3 be a pooob parallel to the edges of the cube. Then
Mij =
cube
Za
h
i
~x E (~r t) = ~r y^1y^1 e;(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2 e;c(t;t0 ) + y^3y^3 :
305
d)
h
i
~aL (~x t) = Dt2 ~r L (~x t) = ~x y^1y^1 e(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2 ec(t;t0 )
h
i
~aE (~r t) = ~x E (~r t) y^1y^1 e(t;t0 ) + c2y^2y^2 ec(t;t0 )
h
i
~aE (~r t) = ~r y^1y^1 e;(t;t0 ) + y^2y^2 e;c(t;t0 ) + y^3y^3
h
i
y^1y^1 e(t;t0 ) + c2 y^2y^2 ec(t;t0 )
h
i
= ~r y^1y^1 + c2y^2y^2 :
Another way to get the same result is to observe that
~aE (~r t) =
=
=
Dt~vE (~r t)
@t~vE (~r t) + ~vE @~~vE (~r t)
~0 + ~r y^1y^1 + c2y^2y^2 :
Exercise 15
a) Given a continuum and a function f : R ! W which depends on t alone (W is a
Euclidean vector space), invent a physical quantity which can reasonably be called
f , and show that (Dtf )L(t) = (@t f )E (t) = t f (t).
b) A continuum undergoes rigid body motion. At time t the position, velocity and
acceleration of the pivot particle are R~ (t), V~ (t) = t R~ (t) and A~ (t) = t V~ (t), and the
angular velocity relative to the pivot particle is +~ (t). Find the Eulerian description
of particle acceleration in the material.
306
Exercise 16
Several decades ago, before the big bang was accepted, Fred Hoyle suggested that the
expanding universe be explained by the continuous creation of matter. Then mass is not
quite conserved. Suppose that a certain region of space is occupied by a continuum, and
that at position ~r at time t new matter is being created at the rate of E (~r t) kilograms
per cubic meter per second. Make the necessary changes in the derivation of the Eulerian
form of the law of conservation of mass and in equations (13.1.12) and (13.1.17).
Exercise 17
$
At time t0 in a certain material, the Cauchy stress tensor S is symmetric.
a) Let K 0 be an open set in the region occupied by the material, and suppose its boundary
@K 0 is piecewise smooth. Show that the total force F~ and the total torque L~ about
~0 exerted on K 0 by the stress on @K 0 are the same as those exerted by a ctitious
$
body force with density @~ S newtons / m3 acting in K 0.
$
$
$(0)
b) Write the Taylor series expansion of S about ~0 in physical space P as S (~r) =S
$(0) $(1) $(2)
+~r S (1) + 1=2(~r ~r)h2iS (2) + where S , S , S , are constant tensors in
P P , 3 P , 4P , and (12)S (2) = S (2) . Neglect all terms except those involving
$(0) $(1)
$(2)
S , S , and S , and calculate F~ and L~ of a) for K 0 = B (~0 c), the solid ball of
radius c centered on ~0.
Hint 1: Do all calculations relative to an orthonormal basis in P .
R
Hint 2: Use the symmetry of B (~0 c) to evaluate B dV (~r)rirj .
Solutions
15 a) The physical quantity has as its Lagrangian description f L(~x t) = f (t). Then its
Eulerian description is f E (~r t) = f (t). Since @~f~ = 0, Dtf = @t f + ~v @~f~ = @t f .
307
b)
h
i
~vE (~r t) = V~ (t) + +~ (t)
~r ; R~ (t)
h
i $
= V~ (t) + ~r ; R~ (t) + (t):
$
@~~vE =+ so
h
i
$
~vE @~~vE = ~vE += +~
~vE = +~
V~ + +~
+~
~r ; R~
i $
$ h
@t~vE = A~ (t) ; V~ (t) + + ~r ; R~ @t +
= A~ ; +~
V~ + @t +~
~r ; R~ :
E
h
i
(Dt~v)E = ~aE = @t~v + ~v @~~v = A~ + @t +~
~r ; R~ + +~
+~
~r ; R~
h ~ i $ $ $
E
~
~a (~r t) = A(t) + ~r ; R(t) @t + + + + :
16. The amount of mass in K 0(t) is
M K 0 (t)] =
Z
K 0 (t)
E E
d M K 0(t)] = Z dV @ E + Z
dA
n
^
p p ~v
0 (t) P t
0 (t)
dt
K
@K
Z
h
iE
= 0 dVp @t + @~ (~v) (~r t) :
K (t)
Therefore
h
iE
~
dV
@
+
@
(
~
v
)
;
(~r t) = 0:
p t
K 0 (t)
Since this is true for every open set K 0 (t) with piecewise smooth boundary, the
vanishing integral theorem gives
@t + @~ (~v ) = :
308
17 a)
$
$ Z
dAn^ S = 0 dV @~ S
@K 0
K
Z
$
Z
$
dA~r
n^ S = ; 0 dA~n
S
~r
0
Z
@K
=
=
=
$
Z
~ S
~r = ; dV @j (Sjk rl "kli)
dV
@
K0Z
K0
i
;"ikl K 0 dV (rl @j Sjk + jl Sjk )
Z
;"ikj K 0 dV (rj @l Slk + jl Slk )
Z
"ijk 0 dV (rj @l Slk + Sjk )
Z K
$
dV ~r
@~ S :
= ;
=
K0
b)
(1) + 1 rk rl S (2)
Sij = Sij(0) + rk Skij
klij
2
(1) + 1 k rl + l rk S (2)
@i Sij = Siij
i
klij
2 i
(1) + 1 rl S (2) + rk S (2)
= Siij
ilij
kiij
2
(1) + rk S (2) = v + rk w
@i Sij = Siij
j
kj
kiij
( denes vj and wkj ):
309
$
@~ S
$
~r
@~ S
$
~
~r
@ S
i
Z
$
dV @~ S
B
dV rj = 0 and
B
Ah2itr23 S (2) .
= ~v + ~r w$ :
= ~r
~v + ~r
~r w$
Z
Z
$
= jB j~v +
dV ~r w~ :
dV ~r = 0 so
B
B
4
4
F~ = 3 c3~v = 3 c3 tr12 S (1)
Z
Z
~L = dV ~r
@~ $
S Li = dV "ijk (rj vk + rj rl wlk ) :
B
Exercise 18
a) The angular momentum of a single dysprosium atom is 15h=4 where h is Planck's
constant. The density of dysprosium is 8:54gm=cm3, and its atomic weight is
162.50. Compute the angular momentum of a stationary ball of solid dysprosium
with radius r cm if all the dysprosium atoms are aligned in the same direction. If
the dysprosium atoms had no angular momentum, how rapidly would the ball have
to rotate as a rigid body in order to have the same angular momentum?
b) Let y^1, y^2, y^3 be a positively oriented ordered orthonormal basis for physical space P .
A permanent alnico magnet has magnetization density M~ = M y^1 where M = 106
amp/meter (close to the upper limit for permanent magnets). The magnet is held at
rest in a uniform magnetic eld B~ = B y^2 with B = 1 tesla (about the upper limit for
commercial electromagnets). Then the volume torque on the magnet is m
~ = M~
B~
joules /meter3 . Suppose that the magnet's intrinsic angular momentum density ~l
$
$
does not change with time, and that its torque stress tensor M vanishes. Let S be
$ $T
the Cauchy stress tensor in the magnet. Find 1=2(S ; S ), the antisymmetric part
$
of S , in atmospheres of pressure (one atmosphere = 1:013
105 newtons/meter2 =
$
$ $T
1:013
106 dynes /cm2 ). If the symmetric part of S , 1=2(S + S ), vanishes, sketch
310
1 meter
^n
5
^n
1
^z
S5
S1
^n
4
S4
^y
S2
^n
2
^x
1 meter
^n
3
S3
Figure Ex-4:
the stresses acting on the surface of a small spherical ball of material in the magnet.
Exercise 19
a) Give the obvious denition of the stu \y component of momentum". Give its (- F~ ),
its ( F~ ), and its creation rate .
b Show that in a material at rest with no body forces, the material ux density F~ of y
momentum satises @~ F~ = 0. (If F~ were the velocity of a uid, the uid would be
incompressible.)
c) An aluminum casting 10 cm thick and 1 meter on each side is shaped as in gure Ex-4.
A steel spring is compressed and placed between the jaws of the casting as shown.
The spring and casting are at rest and gravity is to be neglected. Roughly sketch
311
the eld lines of F~ (the material ux density of y^ momentum) in the casting. (If
F~ were a force eld, the eld lines would be the lines of force if F~ were a velocity
eld, they would be the streamlines.)
Hint for c): Estimate qualitatively the sign of the y^ component of the force exerted
by the aluminum just in front of (Si n^ i) on the aluminum just behind it for
the surfaces i = 1 2 3 4 5 sketched in the gure.
Note for c): The x^ axis points out of the paper, the y^ axis is parallel to the axis of
the spring, and the z^ axis points up, as shown in the gure.
Solutions
18 a) There are 6:025
1023=162:50 = 3:7
1021 atoms in a gram of Dysprosium. Each
has angular momentum (15=4)(6:625
10;27) erg sec. If all are aligned, one
gram of Dy has angular momentum l = 2:932
10;5 erg sec/gm. A Dy ball of
radius r cm has intrinsic angular momentum (4=3)r3l. If this angular momentum
were not intrinsic, but due to an angular velocity ! of rigid rotation, the angular
momentum would be (2=5)r2(4=3)r3!. Thus l = (2=5) r2!, or ! = (5=2) l=r2 =
7:33
10;5=r2 radians/sec, with r in cm.
b)
~0
0
0
0
$
= m
~ + Ah2i S so relative to the pooob y^1 y^2 y^3
= mi + "ijk Sjk : Then
= mi"ilm + "ilm"ijk Sjk
= mi"ilm + (lj mk ; lk mj ) Sjk = mi"ilm + Slm ; Sml :
312
m
..
..
Figure Ex-5:
1 $ ; $T = 1 $ ; $T y^ y^ so
2 S S
2 S S ij i j
1 $ ; $T = 1 MB (^y y^ ; y^ y^ ) :
2 1
1 2
2 S S
2
1 MB = 106 joules/meter3 = 106 newtons/meter2
2
2
2
6
10
= 2
1:013
105 atm = 4:94 atmospheres:
$ $
$ $T
$ $T
$ $T
$
$
For any S , S = 1=2(S + S ) +1=2(S ; S ). If 1=2(S + S ) = 0, then S = 1=2(S
T
; $S ). From (*), $S = ;1=2 A m~ . The stress S~ (^n) is n^ S$= ;1=2^n A m~ so
Sj (^n) = ;1=2ni"ijk mk = 1=2"jiknimk = 1=2(^n
m
~ )j . Thus
S~ (^n) = 21 n^
m
~:
The stress is directed along lines of latitude about the north pole m
~ , points west,
and has magnitude equal to the sine of the colatitude of n^ relative to m
~.
19 a)
- = ~v ~y
= ~v y^
$
F~ = ~v~v; S y^ F~ = ; $S y^
$
$
~
~
= Dt + @ ; S y^ = Dt~v ; @ S y^ = f~ y^:
313
n^5
^n
1
^z
n^
^y
^x
^n
2
^n
3
Figure Ex-6:
$
$
$
b) If f~ = 0 and ~v = ~0 then @~ S = ~0 so (@~ S ) y^ = @~ (S y^) = 0.
$
$
c) F~ = ; S y^. The double arrows show n^i S on the ve surface sections. Then
$
$
$
~
on S1 n^1 F = y^ ; S y^ = ;y^ S y^ = ; n^1 S y^ > 0
$
$
$
~
on S2 n^ 2 F = ;z^ ; S y^ = ; ;z^ S y^ = ; n^2 S y^ > 0
$
$ > 0 above
~
on S3 n^3 F = ;y^ ; S y^ = ; ;n^3 S y^
< 0 below
$
$
~
on S4 n^4 F = z^ ; S y^ = ; n^4 S y^ > 0
$
$
on S5 n^5 F~ = y^ ; S y^ = ; n^5 S y^ > 0:
Thus the ow lines are as in gure Ex-7.
314
Figure Ex-7:
Exercise 20
Geological evidence indicates that over the last 5 million years, the west side of the San
Andreas fault has moved north relative to the east side at an average rate of about 6
cm/year. On a traverse across the fault, Brune, Henyey and Roy (1969) (J.G.R. 74,
3821) found no detectable extra geothermal heat ow due to the fault. They estimate that
they would have detected any anomalous heat ow larger than 1:3
10;2 watts/meter2 .
Use (13.7.45) to obtain an upper bound on the northward component of the average stress
exerted by the material just west of the fault on the material just east of the fault. Assume
that the fault extends vertically down from the surface to a depth D, and that the shape
of the heat ow anomaly due to the fault is a tent function whose width is D on each side
of the fault.
315
up
American Plate
North Pacific Plate
east
.
D
Figure Ex-8:
east
316
Solutions
20. We assume that the heat ow is steady. Since we are interested only in averages, we
$
may assume that S ]+; is constant on the fault, as is ^ H~ ]+; . D is probably < 20 km
(see Brune et al. 1969) so we may treat the fault as innitely long. Then H~ lies in
east-west vertical planes. Consider a length L along the fault. The amount of heat
produced by this section of the fault in LD^ H~ ]+;. It all ows out of the surface of
the earth in a rectangle of length L along the fault and width 2D across the fault, the
prole being the triangular one sketched as the bottom gure in the exercise. The
area under that triangle is Dh where h is the triangle's height, so the total heat ow
out in the length L and width 2D is LDh. This must equal LD^ H^ ]+; in the steady
state. Thus h = ^ H^ ]+;. Since no anomaly was detected, h 1:3
10;2w=m2.
$
Thus ^ H^ ]+; = ^ S ]+; ~v]+; 1:3
10;2w=m2. Let x^ be a unit vector pointing
north, and let y^ = ^ point west. Then ~v]+; = 6^x cm=yr = 6
10;2x^ meters/yr
= 2
10;9x^ meters/sec. The heat production must be positive, so
$+
0 ^ S x^ 2
10;9 1:3
10;2
;
or
$+
0 ^ S x^ 65
105 pascals.
;
The material just west of the fault exerts on the material just east of the fault, a
$
$
stress ^ S ]+;. The northward component of this stress is ^ S ]+; x^, and it lies
between 0 and 65 bars (105 pascal ).
$
See Brune et al., for a discussion of energy loss from ~v S ]+; ~v]+; by seismic
radiation. This exercise works only for the parts of the fault where most energy is
not radiated, i.e., the parts of the fault which creep.
Exercise 21
Below are the Eulerian descriptions of three motions of continua. In these descriptions,
fx^ y^ z^g is a right-handed orthonormal basis for physical space P , is a constnat real
317
number, and +~ is a constant vector. For each motion, nd the local strain rate tensor $ ,
! , and the
its eigenvectors, and its eigenvalues. Also nd the local rotation rate tensor $
local angular velocity w~ .
a) ~vE (~r t) = ~r (^xx^ ; y^y^) = (xx^ ; yy^)
b) ~vE (~r t) = ~r (^yx^) = yx^
c) ~vE (~r t) = +~
~r .
Exercise 22
!_ be the Eulerian descriptions of the velocity, local strain rate tensor and local
Let ~v, $_ , $
rotation rate tensor in a certain continuum. Let x^1 , x^2 x^3 be a right-handed orthonormal
basis in physical space P . Let position vectors be written ~r = rix^i . Let @i denote the
partial derivative with respect to ri. Take tensor components relative to x^1 x^2 x^3.
a) Show that @ ! = @ ;@
i jk
j ki
k ij
velocity eld of a rigid motion that is, there are xed vectors +~ and V~ such that
for all ~r 2 P , ~v2(~r) ; ~v1(~r) = V~ + +~
~r.
Hint for c) and d): Suppose gi : P ! R for i = 1 2 3. You know from elementary
vector calculus that there is a \potential function" f : P ! R such that gi = @if i
R
@i gj = @j gi everywhere and if this is so, then f (~r) = f (~0) + 0~r drigi (line integral).
318
Exercise 23
Use the notation beginning on page 256 for discussing small disturbances of an HTES of
an elastic material whose reference state is HTES0 .
$$
$
$
a) Using only
0 , S 0, B0, W 0 , 0 , Q0, explicitly express U ; U0 as a function of N and
$
$
$ $
G, correct to second order (i.e., including the terms (N )2 , N G and G G.)
$$
b) The tensor F 0, is called the isentropic or adiabatic stiness tensor because if N = 0
(no change in entropy) then
$ $ $$
S = G h2i F :
$$
Find the isothermal stiness tensor F00 , the tensor such that if
= 0 then
$ $ $$0
S = G h2i F0 :
$
$0
$$ $
Express F0 in terms of F 0 , W 0 B0, 0 .
Exercise 24
Using the notation on page 260, give the results of 23 a), b) when HTES0 is isotropic.
Solutions
21 a)
T
@~~vE = (^xx^ ; y^y^) = @~~vE
so
$ = (^xx^ ; y^y^)
$
! = 0 , so ~!= ~0,
eigenvectors and eigenvalues being (^x ), (^y ;), (^z ;0). $
319
b)
T
@~~vE = y^x^ @~~vE = x^y^
$ = (^xy^ + y^x^) $! = (^yx^ ; x^y^)
2
2
eigenvectors and eigenvalues of $ are
!
!
x^p+ y^ x^p+ y^ ; (^z 0) :
2 2
2 2
$
c) Let += A +~ . Then
w~ = 12 Ah2i $! = 21 2 (^y
x^ ; x^
y^) = ; 12 z^
!_ jk = 12 (@j vk ; @k vj )
_ ij = 12 (@ivj + @j vi )
@k _ ij = 12 (@k @i vj + @k @j vi)
Replace (ijk) by (kij ) and this becomes
@j _ ki = 12 (@j @k vi + @j @ivk ) :
@i !_ jk = 12 (@i @j vk ; @i @k vj ) :
Comparing these three equations gives a).
320
@i (@j _ kl ; @k _ lj ) = @l (@j _ ki ; @k _ ij )
or, since _ kl = _ lk and @i @j = @j @i ,
@j @i _ kl ; @i @k _ lj + @k @i_ li ; @l @j _ ik = 0:
Now make the replacements j ! i, i ! j , and one proves b).
c) Fix i and j . a) can be written
()
@k !_ ij = @i _ jk ; @j _ ki:
Z ~r
~0
will be independent of path. Thus the solution of (*) exists, and has the form
Z ~r
~0
drk (@i _ jk ; @j _ ik ) :
@i vj = _ ij + !_ ij :
This will be possible, and the solution will be
vj (~r) = Vj +
Z ~r
~0
dri (_ ij + !_ ij )
321
23. a)
$
U ; U0 = N@N U + G h2i@~$G U
+ 1 (N )2 @N2 U + N G h2i@~$G @N U
2
$ $ ~$ ~$
1
+ 2 G G h4i@G @G U + third order terms
$ S$0 1
= N
0 + G h2i + 2 (N )2 B0
0
$$
$
$
0 + 1 $ $ h4i Q0 + third order term:
+N G h2i W
2 G G
0
b)
$ W$ 0
= NB0 + G h2i
0
$
$
$ $$
S = N W 0 + G h2i F 0 :
$ $
If
= 0, then N = ; G h2i W0 B00 , so
1
0
$ $ @ $$ W$ 0W$ 0 A
S = G h2i F 0 ; B :
0 0
Therefore
$$ $$ $ $
F00 =F0 ; W 0BW 0 :
0 0
$
S0
$
W0
Fijkl
Qijkl
$
= ;p0 I
$
= ; I
= ij kl + (ik jl + il kj )
= Fijkl + ij Skl(0) ; jk Sil(0)
= Fijkl + p0 (jk il ; ij kl )
322
a)
$ 1
p
0
U ; U0 = N
0 ; tr G + 2 (N )2 B0
0
$ 1 n
$2
; (N ) tr G + 2 ( ; p0) tr G + G$ h2i G$
0
0
$
$T o
+ ( + p0) G h2i G + third order terms:
b)