Jackson, 2005. MANAGEMENT and CHANGE in The South African National Defence Force

ADMINISTRATION
Jackson,
Kotze / MANAGEMENT
& SOCIETY AND
/ MayCHANGE
2005
10.1177/0095399704266742
MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL
DEFENCE FORCE:
A Cross-Cultural Study
TERENCE JACKSON
European School of Management
ELIZE KOTZE
Stellenbosch University
The military in South Africa has gone through major changes as part of the wider societys
transition from apartheid to democracy necessitating the integration of a multicultural force.
This article develops a theoretical framework for understanding these cross-cultural dynamics. It reports an empirical management study investigating the perceptions of the different
cultural groups to better understand the process of cross-cultural integration in an institution
whose stability and success has major implications for Southern African society. It finds significant differences in attitudes among cultural groups. This has implications for understanding multicultural change processes in similar institutions in transition around the
world.
Keywords: South Africa; military management; multicultural organization; cross-cultural

management; transition; integration
Since the end of apartheid and advent of democracy at the beginning of

the 1990s, the military, as with many South African institutions, has
undergone a number of fundamental changes, not least the establishment
of a new national defense force through the integration of personnel from
a variety of regular and irregular forces. The creation of a unified national
AUTHORS NOTE: The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and not the
official position of the South African National Defence Force or the South African Ministry of
Defence.
ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY, Vol. 37 No. 2, May 2005 168-198
DOI: 10.1177/0095399704266742
2005 Sage Publications
168
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Jackson, Kotze / MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE
169
defense force was enabled by successful negotiations to demobilize the

military wings of the liberation movements, as well as the incorporation of
the defunct homelands1 into the Republic of South Africa and the disbandment of their armed forces. The result, however, was the integration of
members of no less than eight disparate forces to form the new South African National Defence Force (SANDF). These forces were Umkhonto we
Siswe (MK), Azanian Peoples Liberation Army (APLA), Transkei
Defence Force, Bophuthatswana Defence Force, Venda Defence Force,
Ciskei Defence Force, Kwa-Zulu Natal Self Protection Force, and the former South African Defence Force. (Centre for Defence and International
Security Studies [CDISS], 1999; Department of Defence [DOD], 1998).
(See Table 1 for a summary of the forces integrated to form the SANDF).
This amalgamation of eight disparate military forces into a unified
national force also necessitated the education and training of personnel to
international standards of competence. Concurrently a process of rationalization and downsizing is taking place. During fiscal year 2001/2002,
the Department of Defence (DOD) Regulars (members serving in the
long-term, medium-term, short-term, and auxiliary service) decreased by
3.5% from 61,684 to 59,523. The Public Service Act Personnel (PSAP)
component decreased by 3% from 17,139 to 16,622. This reduction was
achieved by making use of selective appointments, natural attrition, the
Voluntary Severance Package and the Employer Initiated Package. The
projected Defence Review guideline of a Full-time Component (Regulars
and PSAP) strength of 70,000 should be achieved by 2003 (DOD, 2002).
In the context of these changes, this article reports an empirical study
of military managers in the SANDF. This article comprises a crosscultural study from a sample of 815 officers and warrant officers (WO)
across the country from army, navy, air force, military medical service,
and ancillary services. A comparison of seven cultural groups focuses on
the differences in perceptions of organizational culture and characteristics
and the way this is changing, and management attributes and styles current and required for the future. Significant differences are found among
the cultural groups.
The current study aims to assist in the formulation of hypotheses in
management and development research about the nature of differences
and similarities among cultural groups in South Africa and beyond and
will help in informed research agenda setting in this area. It is also hoped
that this will provide assistance in developing an understanding of the
multicultural change process within a major institution in South Africa
and help in developing approaches to management training and
170
ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY / May 2005
TABLE 1
Forces Integrated to Form the

South African National Defence Force
Force
Acronym
Type of Force
Prior to 1994
Legal
Classification
During
Transition
Military
Personnel
Contribution
on April 1,
1998 (Dept. of
Defence, 1998)
Umkhonto we
Sizwe
MK
Military wing of the

African National
Congress (ANC)
Nonstatutory
11738
Azanian
Peoples
Liberation
Army
APLA
Military wing of the

Pan-Africanist
Congress (PAC)
Nonstatutory
3713
Transkei
Defence Force
TDF
Regular (Homeland
Defence Force)
Statutory
2290
Bophuthatswana
Defence Force
BDF
Regular (Homeland
Defence Force)
Statutory
2799
Venda Defence
Force
VDF
Regular (Homeland
Defence Force)
Statutory
1235
Ciskei Defence
Force
CDF
Regular (Homeland
Defence Force)
Statutory
919
Kwa-Zulu Natal
Self Protection
Force
KZSPF Territorial Protection

Force
Statutory
1788
South African
Defence Force
SADF
Statutory
39077
Regular
organizational development. In the broader context of cross-cultural

organization study, this article explores the dynamics of integration/
disintegration within a multicultural organization in transitions and may
have implications and lessons for other major strategic organizations in
other parts of the world. On a macro level many states are struggling to
become nation states. One of the most important challenges for these
states is to build a unified military and establish order within their boundaries. Similar to South Africa, most of these states are also multiethnic,
and some also multiracial. What is working or not working in South
171
Africa could therefore be highly relevant for African states, such as

Burundi (Naidoo, 2001), and Sierra Leone (Neethling, 2002). Even
beyond Africas borders the same challenge manifests itself in diverse
regions and countries such as the Balkans, Afghanistan, and Iraq.
THE SOUTH AFRICAN NATIONAL DEFENCE FORCE:
INTEGRATING AND DISINTEGRATING INFLUENCES
The study focuses on the participants perceptions of the organization
as it is (current), the way it is going (future), and the way officers and WOs
would like it to be (ideal). These are important perspectives because of the
potential disintegrating influences within the changing situation of the
SANDF, the intentions of the government and military authorities to
address these issues, the actions that have been taken to address these
issues, and the actual outcomes. A consideration of integrating influences
is more complex in a multicultural workforce, as not only multiculturality
may be a disintegrative influence where members of cultural groups are
tending to make ingroup-outgroup distinctions (Tsui, Egan, & OReilly,
1992) but also strength may be drawn from the cultural diversity in
increasing creativity and better decision making (S. E. Jackson, 1992; Lau
& Murnighan, 1998). In this connection, the current study seeks to capture
multiple views of the different time perspectives of the organization. In
building a dynamic model of these various aspects (Figure 1) we refer first
to official or semiofficial discourse regarding the aims of the organization
and the factors that work against or toward achieving them. Results from
our extensive questionnaire survey of military participants were used to
examine perceptions of the current and future management of the
organization.
DISINTEGRATING INFLUENCES
We define disintegrating influences as any factors that have a negative

influence on the effectiveness of the organization in relation to its stated
intention. In the case of the SANDF, this intention is broadly the defence
and protection (see Figure 1) of South Africa, its territory and its citizens
(Kasrils, 1996). More specifically it may also be deemed to include the
stated intention toward establishing an organization:
172
Representative
leadership
Human
resource policy
Synergy from
cultural
diversity
Integrating Influences
Concurrence in
Leadership programs
Results - empowerment
Networking - value
based - learning
Civic
education
program
High levels of
awareness
Shared
national
mission
Leading to
Disparity in
Corporate Interventions
Downsizing
organization
Disparate
military
tradition
Racial
disharmony
Management
perceptions
of
-current -future -ideal -
Figure 1: Management and Organization Dynamics in South African National Defence Force
Comm on
culture
Management
of diversity
Defense and protection
Organizational Aims
Self centeredness
Autocracy
Bureaucracy
Secrecy
Disintegrating Influences
Organization
People -oriented
people
consultative
diversity
clarity
success
C ontrolling
control
risk
Open
open
ubuntu
loyalty
family
competency
Power
status
instrumental
Management
173
which effectively manages diversity by accommodating all groups in terms

of color, religion, language, and prior membership of statutory and
nonstatutory forces, and hence forging a defense force of national unity
(management of diversity: Figure 1);
whose leadership, as well as rank and file, is representative of the diversity
within the countrys population in terms of gender and race (representative
leadership: Figure 1); and
which has a collective identity around a common set of values that is based
in a democratic South Africa (common culture: Figure 1) (Kasrils, 1996).
The successful achievement of these objectives may therefore be hampered by what we now identify as disintegrating factors. The significance
of the word disintegration is important within the context of forging
together an organization from disparate forces, from a multicultural
workforce and in a situation of downsizing the organization, where integration is so important to its ultimate success. Disintegration is intended
as the converse of integration. Bennett2 (1998) identified the following
historical influences, which still pertain to the present and which suggest a
problem of not being attuned to the wider South African society.
Secrecy (Figure 1). Secrecy and a lack of open communication: This
may provide a power lever of knowledge (e.g., Kakabadse, Ludlow, &
Vinnicombe, 1987) and may exclude access to knowledge to parts of the
organization or to individuals who, in turn, may tend to demand access to
it. Bennetts (1998) arguments suggest consequential detrimental power
struggles.
Bureaucracy (Figure 1). A burgeoning administrative staff is largely
a corollary of secrecy that necessitates the growth of bureaucracy, and
excessive centralization of control and authority. This produces allencompassing rules that are initially produced to control the organization
but eventually ensure a self-sustaining bureaucracy. Bennett (1998) argued that this has led to the growth of SANDF staffs and Civil Service
since 1994. Excessive rules and regulations lead to frustration and an
overly large bureaucracy resulting in slow or even nonexistent decision
making.
Autocracy (Figure 1). The previous levels of unquestioning deference
to authority has persisted in the day-to-day functioning of the new
SANDF, although a more open attitude toward involvement in political
debate has been occurring through consultative conferences.
174
Self-centeredness (Figure 1). Self-centeredness and an inward-looking

military: Some of the factors above, but also from the low status and lack
of acceptance of the military as a result of civil relations, particularly over
the past 50 years resulted in a self-centered military. With a loss of pride,
Bennett (1998) argued, comes a loss of discipline and professionalism. At
worst, this coupled with frustrations caused by other factors referred to
above, Bennett (1998) argued, could lead to a reaction in the SANDF (still
one of the most powerful organizations in the country despite massive reductions in funding) making it vulnerable and destabilizing for South
Africa.
The above four factors may all be factors that are independent of a
multicultural and disparate workforce. However, there are two main
issues that are concerned with diversity, which may be regarded as actual
or potential disintegrating factors (Masondo,3 1998).
Racial disharmony (Figure 1). The background of racial discrimination is well known in South Africa.
The 27th April 1994 ushered in two events of the utmost importance for
SANDF members. The first and most far reaching was the attempt to create
one nation from people who for years were indoctrinated, cajoled, coerced,
intimidated and forced to believe that they belonged to a superior or inferior
tribe, be it White or Black. (Masondo, 1998, p. 18)
The legacy of apartheid may be difficult to overcome within the context of

the SANDF: It is tragic that some accepted this and internalised it. Others
rejected this and internalised resistance to it (Masondo, 1998, p. 18). A
related issue is the sensitive one of language use, particularly between
English and Afrikaans, which has caused conflicts.
Disparate military backgrounds (Figure 1). As noted above, the
SANDF is a product of eight separate forces, each with its own background. The statutory forces (South African Defense Force [SADF] and
TBVC [Transkei, Bophuthatswand, Venda, and Ciskei] forces) were
trained, organized, and operated in a conventional Western mode. The
nonstatutory forces (MK/APLA) were trained in a number of different
ways: internal and external crash courses, mainly in guerrilla warfare and
in a number of different countries. Qualifications in the statutory forces
were relatively more important than in the nonstatutory forces where
175
courage, dedication, commitment, and loyalty were at a premium. The

manner of remuneration also varied among the separate forces. The
nonstatutory forces were not paid, however their clothing, food, and
accommodation were provided; and often other aspects such as marriage
expenses were also taken care of. Forces from the four TBVC states generally had higher pay than their counterparts in the SANDF. However, the
disparity goes beyond simply different backgrounds in tradition, training,
pay scales, and other such factors but extends to the dynamics of the current situation. These dynamics include:
Adjustment of non-statutory forces to new civilian circumstances including post-dependency traumas and changing family circumstances such as
divorce, and to norms of the new military situation;
perceptions by former SANDF members that nonstatutory forces are given
ranks they do not deserve; a feeling that former White commanders have
neglected them; frustration of former Black SANDF members (who were
often mistrusted in their communities) of being restricted in promotion, and
now seeing former Black members of nonstatutory forces being promoted
above them;
former White SANDF members having difficulties accepting changes that
are contrary to previous beliefs concerning racial superiority, as well as
mixed feelings toward loyalty to the government of the day that their communities may view with suspicion and hostility, with a resulting conflict of
interest;
a lack of experience and training of the leadership to deal with these
dynamics (Masondo, 1998).
In addition to these issues, the problem of downsizing the organization

(Figure 1) may also be a source of disintegration. Such related issues have
been the issuing of short-term contracts, particularly for former
nonstatutory force members and for a sizeable group of Black former
SANDF members; and former service in nonstatutory forces not being
counted toward pension, which had exacerbated the problem of early
retirements (Masondo, 1998).
INTEGRATING INFLUENCES
Although, on the face of it, the influences of disintegration appear

overwhelming, those of integration are also compelling. We discuss these
influences under three general headings. The first two we discuss from a
theoretical perspective, the third we derive from official and semiofficial
discourse on these issues.
176
Shared national mission (Figure 1). In South African society generally

there has been huge effort (and money) expended in developing national
unity through such programs as the Reconstruction and Development
Programme involving a number of social and economic projects designed
to boost disadvantaged sections of the community, education provision,
and equal opportunities legislation (see T. Jackson, 1999). The government has shown a high level of stability since the end of apartheid that at
least, in part, is indicative of a shared national mission. We would expect
that these developments in civil society have had their influences within
the military and have helped in forging a national pride and sense of identity. Clearly, by an examination of the disintegrating influences above,
there is still some way to go. To some extent this is an influence that is
mostly external to the SANDF, and therefore the military leadership has
little direct control over influencing its development. Other aspects, such
as instilling a common culture within the SANDF based on national unity
(Kasrils, 1996) may be something that the leadership may be able to
affect.
Synergistic effects of high levels of cultural diversity (Figure 1). Elron,
Shamir and Ben-Ari (1999), in their study of cultural diversity in multinational peacekeeping forces, noted that recent work on multicultural teams
suggests that highly heterogeneous teams develop a stronger hybrid culture compared with those that are less heterogeneous (Earley &
Mosakowski, 1998; Hambrick, Davidson, Snell, & Snow, 1998). The
explanation of this is that there is an inability to revert to preexisting identities and norms that necessitates the need to develop a new common culture when coordination and communication are required among a number
of different participants. This creates a common sense of identity within
the emerging culture, which the above studies found to enhance internal
communication, coordination and cohesiveness (Elron et al., 1999). We
suggest that this situation of heterogeneity where members are not able to
revert to their previous identities pertains to the current situation within
the SANDF. However, we would also suggest that a confounding principle may exist within the current situation; that is, because to many the integration of the eight forces into one was seen as an integration into the previous SADF (Masondo, 1998), then for some (AK/APLA and TBVC) it is
more difficult to revert back to previous cultures and norms, and for others
(SADF) it may be easier to remain within the norms of the previous
SADF. Hence Masondo (1998) stated that
177
Because we still use the Defence Act of 1959, the old rules and regulations
and military discipline code, the illusion of transformation without change
is aggravated. It is difficult for white former SADF members to accept that
they are also new SANDF members. (p. 20)
High levels of awareness and addressing of issues of disintegration

(Figure 1). Evidence of this is suggested as follows (see Corporate Interventions: Figure 1).
Creation, at governmental level, of a civic education program (Figure 1)
defence in a democracy, to instil respect and build cohesion amongst
military personnel around the core values of a democratic South Africa
(Kasrils, 1996, p. 20). The program covers aspects such as the political
process in a democracy, constitutional provision of fundamental rights and
defense, significance of supreme law, principles of democratic civil-military
relations, international law on armed conflict, and respect for multicultural
diversity and gender equality. These are being integrated into all military
education and training programs.
Development of a human resource policy (Figure 1) at governmental level
that addresses policy on language, religion, sexual orientation, and equal
opportunities (Kasrils, 1996).
Discourse in the military press on developing appropriate leadership (e.g.
de Vries4, 1998; Pienaar5, 1997) which takes into account African principles such as the concepts of seriti, which is the aura linking present and
past, and individuals with others; umlanghano, or interactive participation
where common goals and dialogue are more important than position or
rank; and ubuntu, which is a concept that has been taken up in the popular
management press in South Africa and conveys the meaning that people are
people through other people (e.g., Boon, 1996; Mbigi, 1997; Mbigi &
Maree, 1995). These concepts have been integrated into management programs in a number of public and private sector organizations. In the
SANDF this has led to:
Development of leadership and other programs (Figure 1). For example, de
Vries (1998) reported that certain overarching principles are being applied
to the concepts of command, leadership, and management within the
SANDF: namely, primacy of output implying a results focus; initiative and
empowerment encouraging more creativity and lower levels of control and
authority; jointness and networking through working more informally
across departmental and functionary boundaries with a concomitant
decrease in bureaucratic influence; value-based conduct where overriding
values pertain rather than detailed regulations; and constant improvement
by being able to adapt to changing circumstances, being self-critical, and
establishing a learning culture.
178
DEVELOPING AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH STUDY

RESEARCH METHODS
To investigate the nature of management and change, and the influences of integrating and disintegrating processes, within the SANDF, an
empirical study was designed. This was initially based on a questionnaire
that the first author had developed with an international research team and
used, in collaboration, in a number of studies in transitional and emerging
countries (T. Jackson et al., in press-a; T. Jackson et al., in press-b).
The first part of the questionnaire is based predominantly on prior
cross-cultural studies of organizational factors and includes items on
strategy; structure; decision making; control; character in terms of ethics,
success, and change; internal policies; climate; external policies; management expertise; and people orientation (Hofstede, 1994; Laurent, 1989;
Reynolds, 1986; Vertinsky, Tse, Wehrung, & Lee, 1990). Managers are
asked to respond to items based on their organization currently, the way it
is changing, and how they would like it to change.
The second part of the questionnaire comprises a subsection of 10
items that draw on motivation theory and are informed by cross-cultural
studies that have investigated commonalities and differences in management motivation (Alpander & Carter, 1991; England, 1986; Hui, 1990).
The items measure the need for economic and psychological security,
control, self-enhancement, autonomy, independence, belonging, personal
self-worth, and personal development.
The next subsection focuses on the direction of management commitment (commitment toward: self, the group, the organization, people,
results, objectives regardless of methods, ethical principles, work, and relatives). The items draw on aspects of collectivism and individualism
(Hofstede, 1980; Wagner, 1995) as well as aspects of humanism and
instrumentalism (T. Jackson, 1999). The next subsection looks at principles by which managers operate and make decisions (locus of control,
deontological and teleological decision making, trust or mistrust of
human nature, and status or achievement orientations). These items focus
more specifically on cultural factors drawing widely on the literature and
accessing information on perceptions of human nature (Kluckholn &
Strodtbeck, 1961) and mirroring McGregors (1960) concept of theory X
and theory Y (see also Evans, Hau, & Sculli, 1989), locus of control
(Trompenaars, 1993; following Rotter, 1966), utilitarianism and
179
formalism in decision making (T. Jackson, 1993), and ascribed and

achieved status (Trompanaars, 1993).
The final subsection accesses information on management practices
(reliance on hierarchy, use of rank, levels of participation and egalitarianism, communicating and providing information, and degree of confrontation) and drawing on such aspects in the literature as respect for hierarchy
(Evans et al., 1989; Kluckholn & Strodtbeck, 1961).
Following the necessary permission from the Defence Headquarters,
the second author enlisted the help of Section Effect Analysis of the
SANDF. In consultation the questionnaire was adapted to take account of
the military situation, and relevant biographical questions inserted. The
resulting questionnaire is bilingual English/Afrikaans following independent cross-checking of equivalence between the two languages.
Responses were to items all stated in the two different languages, on a 5point Likert-type scale from 1 (not like this at all) to 5 (exactly like this) for
my organization at the moment, the way I would like my organization
to be, and the way (direction) my organization is going for the first part.
For the second part, responses again were on a 5-point scale for Me, as a
manager (1 = not like me at all, to 5 = just like me), Managers generally
in my organization (1 = not like them at all, to 5 = exactly like them), and
The type of manager required for the future of the organization (1 = not
what is required at all, to 5 = exactly what is required). The questionnaire
was then administered by field workers of said section to a stratified sample of officers and senior noncommissioned officers (from Major General/Rear Admiral to Warrant Officer) to ensure representation of the sample as far as possible by rank and geographical area. Questionnaires were
completed individually by respondents in groups and handed in
anonymously to the field workers on completion.
SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS
Descriptive statistics for the resulting sample of 815 officers and WOs
are given in Table 2. The demographic characteristics of the samples are
representative of the officer and WO population within the SANDF. In
comparison with the total population this shows an overrepresentation of
White Afrikaans speaking members and an underrepresentation of members of Asian decent. Women are shown as a percentage of each cultural
group, indicating a larger representation among the Afrikaans group, and
lower representation among colored and Black African groups. Again this
is in line with the representation of women in the total population (only
180
Numbers
Percentage
Female
Age range
0 to 24 years
25 to 34 years
35 to 49 years
50 and older
Educational level
Grade 11 or lower
Grade 12 or equivalent
Postmatric qualification
Home province
Gauteng
KwaZulu/Natal
Mpumalanga
Northern Cape
Northern Province
North-West
Eastern Cape
Free State
Western Cape
Cultural Groups
106
13.0
19.0
6.7
27.6
51.4
14.3
17.9
43.4
38.7
26.4
4.7
2.8
0.9
1.9
2.8
1.9
3.8
54.7
9.7
37.9
44.7
7.7
10.3
52.0
37.6
28.5
3.4
9.1
7.1
14.0
4.3
2.8
10.0
20.8
9.0
3.6
0.9
23.0
3.6
2.7
4.5
3.6
49.5
22.7
66.4
10.9
14.5
45.5
38.2
1.8
111
13.6
5.4
2
3
English White Coloured
351
43.1
26.8
1
Afrikaans White
TABLE 2
33.3
0
4.0
8.1
19.2
19.2
0
15.2
1.0
17.3
65.3
17.3
3.0
53.5
40.4
3.0
99
12.1
6.1
23.9
22.4
7.5
0
9.0
1.5
16.4
11.9
7.5
24.6
44.6
30.8
7.8
43.8
45.3
3.1
67
8.2
10.6
20.3
0
6.8
8.5
40.7
5.1
5.1
3.4
10.2
20.3
59.3
20.3
5.1
49.2
44.1
1.7
59
7.2
8.5
4
5
6
a
Sotho Groups Nguni Groups Other African
Descriptives (in percentages)
30.8
38.5
0
0
0
7.7
0
0
23.1
14.3
42.9
42.9
7.1
57.1
35.7
0
14
1.7
28.6
7
Asian
25.3
5.2
6.0
7.9
12.8
5.5
3.8
8.4
25.2
15.7
54.5
29.7
8.6
41.0
44.2
6.2
815
100
17.7
Total
181
88.7
0
0
3.8
7.5
31.1
13.2
39.6
14.2
1.9
11.3
17.9
24.5
46.2
86.2
0
0
10.1
3.7
56.6
17.1
7.4
16.9
2.0
3.7
22.5
32.5
41.3
0.9
7.2
45.0
46.8
74.8
5.4
17.1
2.7
0
75.7
0
0
14.4
9.9
7.1
13.1
52.5
27.3
85.9
3.0
1.0
10.1
0
43.4
26.3
23.2
4.0
3.0
3.0
13.4
58.2
25.4
74.6
3.0
1.5
20.9
0
11.9
9.0
67.2
7.5
4.5
6.8
10.2
45.8
37.3
68.4
10.5
5.3
14.0
1.8
49.2
27.1
13.6
5.1
5.1
21.4
28.6
28.6
21.4
28.6
14.3
28.6
28.6
0
53.8
15.4
23.1
7.7
0
5.2
17.2
38.5
39.1
61.2
11.5
12.1
14.1
1.2
70.3
6.2
9.7
8.8
5.1
NOTE: SPELL OUT: SADF = South African National Defence Force; TBVC = ; MK/APLA = Umkhonto we Sizwe/Azanian Peoples Liberation Army;
SANDF; SA = ; CO/Mid = ; WO2 = ; WO1 = .
a. Other African: gave home language as other than Black Africa language (35.6% Afrikaans; 16.9% English; 1.7% other European language) or a member
of a group with insufficient sample size (11.9% Shangana/Tsonga; 27.1% Venda/Lemba; 6.8% other language groups).
Prior service
SADF member
TBVC member
MK/APLA member
SANDF (first time in military)
Other
Arm of service
SA Army
SA Airforce
SA Navy
SA Military Health Service
Corporate division
Management rank
Col./Capt. to Brig. Gen./R. Adm.
Maj./Lt. Cdr. to Lt. Col./Cdr.
CO/Mid to Capt./Lt.
WO2 to WO1
182
19.5% women of all ranks serve in the total combined force). With a total
of only of 14 Asian respondents, it is difficult to infer a representative percentage from the higher proportion of women in this group, and as a result
this group is not taken into account for further analysis (although this is a
fair representation of Asians in the total officer population). The English
speaking White group is generally older than the other groups and occupies more of the higher ranks of Colonel/Captain (SA Navy) to Brigadier
General/Rear Admiral. Members of the Colored group are younger and
less educationally qualified with lower representation at the highest ranks.
There is also a noticeably higher representation of the White and Colored
groups at the WO level, and higher representation of the African groups at
junior officer ranks. As more of these latter groups are drawn from the previous nonstatutory and TBVC forces, this may reflect possibly easier promotion for Black African members to officer level from outside the former SADF (and may support Masondos [1998] assumption of a
perception that such members are being promoted above former SADF
members). This may be particularly apparent with former MK/APLA
members from the Nguni language group, which includes the isiZulu,
isiXhosa, siSwati, and isiNdebele languages (Wilson & Thompson, 1969)
where 67.2% were previously nonstatutory force members, and 58.2%
occupy junior officer levels.
RESULTS
Initial analysis of questionnaire data was through exploratory factor
analysis of items in the organization (current organization) and management (managers generally in the organization) parts of the questionnaire,
which correlated significantly with other items after inspection of the correlation matrix. Two very distinct scales were derived for each of organizational characteristics and management characteristics. Thematically
these were labeled people-oriented organization (14 items, Cronbachs
alpha = .930) and autocratic organization (6 items, alpha = .743), open
management (12 items, alpha = .916) and power management (5
items, alpha = .659). As these scales were robust across the cultural
groups and across the different respondents positions (e.g., current, ideal,
future organization), they are used in this article as the main basis of
analysis. We therefore first discuss the content of these four scales and
then provide a profile of the organization and management within the
SANDF from the perspective of the different groups.
183
ORGANIZATION
People-Oriented Organization. This scale comprises items that refer

directly to a people focus (Has well-being of its people as a major objective. Clear policies on relations with employees. Motivates employees);
consultative focus (Consults employees. Encourages diversity of opinions. Very flexible); diversity management focus (Intercultural harmony.
Provides equal opportunities); clarity of objectives (Results-oriented. Has
clear and formal rules of action. Clear objectives. Clear policies on client
or customer relations); and successful organization (High level of management expertise and skill. Very successful). These are used as subscales
to provide more detailed comparative analysis. This scale, with its
subscales, may correspond to the integrating factors identified above.
Controlling Organization. This scale comprises items that either are
thematically connected with a control orientation (Very authoritarian.
Very hierarchical. Highly centralized. Many strict rules), or in the case of
our second subscale, are closely connected in the perceptions of our respondents with this orientation. The items constituting this second
subscale we labeled controlled risk-orientation (Risk taking. Client oriented). This may be an indication that our respondents associate an organization that is seen as controlling with taking calculated risk within the
general context within which it operates. This is also associated with
being oriented towards the clients it serves (see Figure 1).
MANAGEMENT
Open Management. This scale comprises items that thematically refer

to open communication (Communicating openly. Giving subordinates
open access to information); working together (ubuntu) (Regarding the
well-being of its people as the objective of an organization. Making sacrifices for the good of the group. Enjoying, above all else, to work as part of
a team. Having a completely democratic management style); loyalty to organization (Being completely loyal to the organization. Working through
the command channels at all times); honoring family (Honoring responsibilities toward family); management competence (Maintaining a high
level of management knowledge and skills); achievement (Believing that
if one is motivated enough, anything can be achieved. Believing that reward should be based on achievement). Again, we make use of these various interconnected themes as subscales that provide more detailed comparative analysis. Within the general scale is an overriding theme that
184
conveys a democratic and open style of management that involves high

levels of loyalty and commitment to ones group, organization, and ones
family. It also is associated with achievement and management
competence and may correspond with aspects associated in our
discussion above with integrating influences.
Power Management. This scale thematically reflects a power orientation represented by a subscale of status management (Believing that generally employees are not to be trusted. Believing that reward should be
based on status. Keeping a personal distance from subordinates) and
instrumentalism (Overlooking [condoning] all business practices if objectives are met. Basing decisions on likely outcome). These aspects may
relate to the disintegrating influences discussed above (see Figure 1).
DERIVED CULTURAL GROUPS
Comparison among discrete cultural groups is a presumption rather

than a science in South Africa, as it is in most parts of the world. As a result
of urbanization and mobility, historical influences from outside the countrys borders, influences from inside the borders such as apartheid, crossfertilization, and interaction between ethnic groups, any study that provides a comparative framework must justify the groups thus identified
beyond the level of sheer convenience. In particular, within the context of
postapartheid South Africa, cultural classification can be a sensitive issue.
Hence in the current study seven groups were identified from the two biographical questionnaire items: To which population group do you
belong? (African, White, Coloured, Asian), and What is your home language, in other words the language most often spoken in your home?
(Afrikaans, English, other European languages, oriental languages, Sotho
- Southern/Western/Northern, Nguni - Swazi/Ndebele/Xhosa/Zulu,
Shangana/Tsonga, Venda, other).6
Six groups were used for comparison purposes (Table 2). These groups
were derived by first combining responses to the two biographical items.
Frequencies of the groups distinguished by the two items were then:
White Afrikaans (351), White English (106), Coloured Afrikaans/
English (111), Black Southern Sotho/Sesotho (29), Black Western Sotho/
Setswana (43), Black Northern Sotho/Sepedi (28), Black Swazi/siSwati
(4), Black Ndebele/isiNdebele (4), Black Xhosa/isiXhosa (28), Black
Zulu/isiZulu (31), Black Shangana/Tsonga/Xitsonga (7), and Black
Venda/Tshivenda (16). Because of the low sample sizes of some of the
185
African home languages, these languages were combined according to

the bigger language groups to which they belong, namely Sotho (Sepedi,
Setwsana, Sesotho) and Nguni (isiZulu, isiXhosa, siSwati, isiNdebele)
(Wilson & Thompson, 1969). The rest of the African languages, as well as
Blacks indicating Afrikaans or English as their home language, were
grouped together as other African. The Asian group was excluded for
comparison purposes because of insufficient sample size (n = 14).
The diverse composition of the multicultural population of South
Africa cannot be demonstrated more clearly than through the 11 official
languages spoken in the country. Figure 1 depicts the geographical distribution of these 11 official languages in terms of the dominant language
spoken in a specific region (Department of Environmental Affairs and
Tourism, 2003).
Cross-tabulation of members of the different language groups with
other variables of home province and prior military service provided some
support for their homogeneity. Of the Nguni group, the majority (67.2%)
belonged previously to nonstatutory revolutionary forces. From Table 2 it
is clear that the Nguni group is predominantly located in two geographical
areas, namely Gauteng (23.9%) and KwaZulu/Natal (22.4%), which is an
indication of geographical distribution of Xhosa and Zulu speakers
respectively. Members of the Sotho group come predominantly from
Gauteng, the adjoining provinces to the north, and the Free State. Of the
Sotho group, 43.4% has previously served in the former SADF. The
Other African group comprises predominantly Black Africans whose
reported home language is not an African one (35.6% Afrikaans speaking,
and 16.9% English speaking). They were predominantly members of the
former statutory forces, with the largest proportion (40.7%) coming from
the Northern Province, the former Afrikaner heartland of Transvaal.
Next, tests for statistical differences between the Xhosa and Zulu subgroups within the Nguni group (t test) and for the three Sotho subgroups
(ANOVA) were run. No significant differences were found for Xhosa/
Zulu for any of the scales and subscales except for controlled risk within
the controlling organization scale (see Table 3) at 0.040 level of significance. For the Sotho group, some significant differences were found to
exist, mainly between Northern and Southern Sotho subgroups for organizational characteristics (Table 3) but not for management characteristics
(Table 4). Where these differences exist, they will be indicated in our presentation of findings, which follows, and are shown in parentheses in
Table 3.
Figure 2: Distribution of Dominant Languages in South Africa

186
187
.99
1.03
1.21
1.17
.97
1.19
1.04
1.20
1.19
1.21
1.15
1.11
1.16
1.20
1.22
1.22
1.02
1.04
1.08
1.15
1.19
1.21
.86
.92
.93
.95
.98
All SD
3.02
2.89
3.21
2.96
2.95
4.01
3.10
2.85
4.01
3.03
2.87
3.79
3.10
2.79
3.71
2.99
3.17
4.01
3.24
2.92
4.10
3.08
3.00
3.29
3.00
3.07
3.33
Afrikaans
White
2.94
2.75
3.17
2.80
2.98
4.08
3.03
2.74
4.08
2.85
2.95
3.72
3.01
3.17
4.01
3.20
3.13
4.04
3.11
3.02
4.27
3.04
2.90
3.12
2.92
2.96
3.08
3.42
3.11
3.34
3.12
3.22
4.01
3.51
3.12
4.01
3.42
3.21
3.88
3.45
2.81
3.84
3.28
3.43
4.07
3.63
3.27
3.98
3.50
3.20
3.54
3.32
3.25
3.61
English
White Coloured
3.43
3.06
3.59
3.28
3.22
3.73
3.61
3.07
3.73
3.53
3.16
3.84
3.64
3.10
3.66
3.44
3.29
3.82
3.57
3.49
3.98
3.84
3.20
3.55
3.38
3.27
3.55
3.18
2.76
3.37
3.19
2.85
3.38
3.29
2.61
3.38
3.05
2.68
3.46
3.22
2.34
3.36
2.96
3.15
3.69
3.53
3.20
3.77
3.65
2.94
3.21
3.18
3.03
3.11
Sotho Nguni
3.28
2.86
3.78
3.01
2.80
3.72
3.16
2.66
3.72
3.04
2.75
3.79
3.13
2.66
3.60
3.12
3.00
3.83
3.25
2.95
3.82
3.29
3.04
3.63
3.19
3.14
3.54
5.670
2.187
3.622
2.215
3.098
2.297
6.294
2.776
4.525
5.292
3.236
1.397
5.004
5.333
2.726
2.980
1.935
1.971
4.654
5.078
2.212
9.325
2.218
4.743
4.757
1.780
5.228
.000
.054
.003
.051
.009
.044
.000
.017
.000
.000
.007
.223
.000
.000
.019
.011
.086
.081
.000
.000
.051
.000
.051
.000
.000
.115
.000
Other Black
African F Statistic Significance
b
n.s.
n.s.
AkEn < CoSo (NSo < SSo)
n.s.
Ng < EnAkCo (NSo < SSo)
EnAk < CoSo
Ng < Co
n.s.
EnAk < So
Ng < EnSo, Ak < En
Ng < En(NSo < SSo)
Ak < So (NSo < SSo)
n.s.
n.s.
AkEn < Co, En < So (NSo < SSo)
AkEnAf < So
n.s.
AkEn < CoSoNg, Af < So
n.s.
En < CoSoAf (NSO < SSo)
AkEn < CoSo
n.s.
En < CoSoAf, Ng < Co (NSo <
SSoWSo)
AkEn < CoSo (NSo < SSo)
n.s. (Zu < Xh)
AkEn < Af (Zu < Xh)
n.s.
Tukey
NOTE: F Statistics and significance level do not refer to differences in parentheses in Tukey column.
a. All also includes Asian group.
b. Groups are: Ak = Afrikaan, En = English, Co = Coloured, So = Sotho (SSo = South Sotho, NSo = North Sotho), Wso = West Sotho), Ng = Nguni (Zu = Zulu,
Xh= Xhosa), Af = other Black African.
3.15
2.91
3.33
3.02
Future
Dysfunctional risk Current
Ideal
Future
All
a
Mean
3.00
3.90
3.22
2.86
3.90
3.12
2.93
3.77
3.20
2.82
3.72
3.11
3.19
3.96
3.34
3.07
4.03
3.29
3.03
3.34
3.11
3.10
3.35
Group
Current
Ideal
Future
Subscales
Current
People focus
Ideal
Future
Consultative focus Current
Ideal
Future
Diversity
Current
management
Ideal
focus
Future
Clarity of objective Current
Ideal
Future
Successful
Current
organization
Ideal
Future
Controlling
Current
organization
Ideal
Future
Subscales
Current
Control-orientation Ideal
People-oriented
Organization
Main Scales
TABLE 3
Organizational Characteristics of South African National Defence Force
188
1.26
.98
1.12
.84
.82
.91
.97
1.08
.95
1.07
3.48
4.46
3.54
4.46
3.08
2.88
3.04
2.67
3.13
3.19
Current
Ideal
Current
Ideal
Current
Ideal
3.03
2.63
3.06
3.04
3.26
4.45
3.41
4.47
3.04
2.80
3.30
4.36
3.42
4.39
3.16
3.95
3.18
4.11
3.26
4.21
Afrikaans
White
2.93
2.14
2.97
3.00
3.35
4.61
3.37
4.48
2.95
2.49
3.25
4.01
3.72
4.36
3.02
4.00
3.10
4.25
3.22
4.20
3.16
2.96
3.36
3.59
3.65
4.32
3.66
4.45
3.25
3.21
3.60
4.35
3.70
4.36
3.48
4.19
3.42
4.15
3.54
4.28
English
White Coloured
3.12
3.01
3.31
3.30
3.98
4.54
3.91
4.49
3.20
3.12
3.94
4.36
3.81
4.20
3.64
4.22
3.58
4.29
3.77
4.32
2.98
2.79
3.14
3.44
3.74
4.52
3.70
4.53
3.04
3.03
3.60
4.32
3.73
4.19
3.50
4.19
3.39
4.19
3.57
4.30
Sotho Nguni
3.06
2.83
3.29
3.38
3.57
4.33
3.63
4.18
3.14
3.05
3.40
4.13
3.53
4.10
3.41
4.07
3.19
4.06
3.40
4.11
.777
9.499
3.425
6.628
6.886
1.357
4.090
1.467
2.110
9.805
7.097
3.021
2.884
1.465
7.158
3.211
3.031
.799
6.801
1.000
.567
.000
.005
.000
.000
.238
.001
.198
.062
.000
.000
.010
.014
.199
.000
.007
.010
.551
.000
.417
Other Black
African F Statistic Significance
a. All also includes Asian group.

b. Groups are: Ak = Afrikaan, En = English, Co = Coloured, So = Sotho, Ng = Nguni, Af = other Black African.
1.09
.90
1.18
1.00
3.45
4.29
3.59
4.32
.98
.81
Current
Ideal
Current
Ideal
Subscales
Status management Current
Ideal
Instrumentalism
Current
Ideal
Power management
Achievement
Management
competence
Honoring family
Loyalty to
organization
Working together
(ubuntu)
1.13
.98
3.29
4.05
3.28
4.16
Current
Ideal
.91
.70
All SD
Current
Ideal
3.39
4.23
Current
Ideal
Open management
All
a
Mean
Group
Main Scales
Subscales
Open
communication
TABLE 4
Tukeyb
n.s.
En < AkNgAfCoSo, Ak < CoSo
AkEn < Co
AkEn < Co, Ak < NgCo
Ak < CoSoNg, En < So

n.s.
AkEn < So
n.s.
n.s.
En < AkNgAfCoSo, Ak < SoCo
AkEnAf < So
En < Ak
Ak < So
n.s.
AkEn < CoSo, En < Ng

Ak < So
AkEn < So
n.s.
AkEn < So
n.s.
Management Characteristics of South African National Defence Force
189
COMPARISONS AMONG CULTURAL GROUPS
Respondents across the six broad cultural groups (the Asian group
being excluded) are in agreement about the current degree to which the
SANDF is people oriented (Table 3). This is rated overall at the midpoint
of the scale, and all groups indicate an ideal of a higher level of people orientation. Differences exist in the extent to which they see the organization
moving toward this ideal. The two White groups (Afrikaans and English
speaking) are significantly less optimistic than the Coloured and Sotho
groups (with the South Sothos being even more optimistic than the North
Sothos). This difference in optimism is also reflected generally in average
scores for the subscales. Perceptions of the current situation vary in some
of the subscales such that the Nguni group sees less of a diversity management focus than the English and Sotho groups. The fact that the Afrikaans
and English groups are also less optimistic about future clarity of objectives and success of the organization than many of the other groups may
also reflect lower levels of integration of White groups who were also former members of the old SADFan indication that these groups may be
reverting back to previous familiar identities and norms as suggested
above.
The controlling organization is not seen as a negative aspect as all
groups show higher ideal scores than current scores, although no change
is seen for the future (Table 3). Again, average scores for the current organization are at the midway point on the scale (standard deviations indicate
a wide range of scores around the mean and therefore do not reflect a central response set, Table 3). However, one feature of the scores for the ideal
controlling organization is that the English speaking group wants this less
than the Coloured, Sotho, and Other African groups, and the Afrikaans
and English groups see this less in the future than do the Coloured and
Sotho groups (with the South Sotho members wishing for more control
than the North Sotho). Looking more closely, through the ControlOrientation subscale, the English group wants this ideally less that the
Coloured, Sotho, and Other African group, and the Nguni group wants
this less than the Coloured group (with again differences between South
and North Sotho). However, it should be borne in mind that all groups
indicate a higher score for ideal than current, and therefore we can conclude that this aspect is seen generally in a positive rather than a negative
light. The scores for the Controlled Risk subscale represent more withingroup variation than between-group variation (with Xhosa participants
seeing currently more controlled risk than Zulus within the Nguni group).
Ideally, the Afrikaans and English groups indicate a lower preference for
190
this than the Other African group (and the Xhosas wishing for this more
than the Zulus).
All groups concur that more open management is needed ideally for
the future of the organization (Table 4), however there is some variation
between groups on the perception of how open management currently is.
The Sotho group sees this in a more positive light than the English and
Afrikaans groups, and this is also reflected in the scores for the subscales.
The Sotho group perceives more positively open communication, working together, loyalty to organization, management competency, and
achievement orientation of current management in the SANDF than the
two White groups. What we have labeled ubuntu (working together) is
seen more the ideal by the Sotho group than the Afrikaans group. The Coloured and Nguni groups, as well as the Sotho group, see working together
as more current in the organization than the Afrikaans and English groups.
All groups concur on the level of power management currently in the
organization but differ on the ideal such that the English and Afrikaans
groups indicate that less would be preferable for the future of the organization (Table 4). This is also reflected in the Status Management subscale.
The Coloured group sees current management as more instrumental than
the Afrikaans and English groups, however this appears to be seen as a
positive aspect by the Coloured group who ideally would like to see more
of this orientation. The Nguni group also sees more instrumentalism as
preferable for future management.
DISCUSSION
Generally, this analysis indicates a reasonable level of concurrence of
perceptions among the different cultural groups within our sample. By
itself, this seems to confirm that the integration process is succeeding.
This has been particularly the case for views of the current situation in
terms of our main scales of People-Oriented Organization, Controlling
Organization, and Power Management. The only fly in the ointment
appears to be the issue of open management. The Afrikaans and English
groups see management as currently less open, and working less together
than some of the other groups. The Sotho group sees management as more
open and working more together than the other groups. The other Black
African groups (Nguni and Other African) as well as the Coloured group
all score higher on the main scale and other subscales of Open Management than the two White groups, although not significantly so. We could
191
posit that the disintegrating influence of secrecy (Figure 1), in terms of

open management, is perceived as more of a problem for the White
groups. This is probably because Whites experience a lowering of privileged status within the military as a result of changes in government and
society as well as the military organization itself. This negativism by the
White groups, and more positive view by Black groups, is also evident
elsewhere (management competence, achievement, loyalty to
organization, in the current situation, and as part of the Open Management
main scale).
In terms of the People-Oriented Organization Scale, the Nguni group,
unlike the other African groups, sees more negatively the organizations
current consultative and diversity management focus. One explanation for
this could be a lack of integration by the Nguni group as compared to the
other African groups. Another possible explanation of this negativity
might be that the Ngunis distinguish between the organization and its military managers. The former is regarded as impersonal because it is perceived to be lagging behind in the transformation process. The latter,
being perceived as predominantly formerly disadvantaged persons, is
consequently viewed more positively.
In connection with this, it is also interesting that the Black groups ideally wish for a more controlling organization and higher power management than the two White groups. A possible explanation is the protecting
effect of higher control. Lower control may mean a lower protection of the
interests of those previously disadvantaged by the military system. Higher
control is perceived as protecting the interests of, and positive discrimination toward, those previously disadvantaged.
CONCLUSIONS
We offered a conceptual framework of the dynamics of management
and organization in the SANDF (Figure 1) by examining the theoretical
literature (of which there is a dearth) and the discourse from published
sources of the military in the current situation in South Africa. We have
then sought to test this view by an analysis of our database of responses to
a management and organizational questionnaire administered to officers
and senior noncommissioned officers. From this, we can offer the following conclusions under four headings: disintegative consequences and
integrative consequences (see Figure 1), development issues for the
SANDF, and implication for studies of other multicultural situations.
192
DISINTEGRATIVE CONSEQUENCES
Within the text and in Figure 1 we proposed a number of disintegrating

influences. In view of our findings we can now postulate the nature of
those influences and their consequences.
Secrecy and a lack of open communication. White military managers
see a problem here more than their African and Coloured colleagues, and
significantly more than the Sotho group who seems less concerned about
this issue. This may be as a result of the consequential power struggles that
Bennett (1998) envisaged when the lack of open information is used as a
power lever, and the consequent insecurities felt by some former SADF
members.
Bureaucracy and autocracy. Control is viewed reasonably positively
by the African and Coloured groups, and more negatively by the White
groups (more so by the English group). This may be because control is
seen as a mechanism that protects and maintains positive discrimination
toward previous disadvantaged groups.
Problems arising from an inward looking, self-centered military. As a
result of midway mean scores on areas that we would expect to reflect issues of morale (clarity of objectives, successful organizations in Table 3,
and loyalty to organization in Table 4) it may be concluded that there are
no immediate problems arising from this aspect suggested by Bennett
(1998). The fact that some scores on these issues are not significantly
higher for the way managers see things going in the future may signal
more attention needed in this area. In addition, that the cultural groups differ in perceptions such that the Sotho and Coloured groups are more optimistic than the White groups about the organization being successful in
the future may also indicate a need to address this particular issue.
Racial disharmony. Midway to low scores on diversity management
focus (Table 3) may suggest that this is an issue, and more of an issue with
the Nguni group (many of whom came from the former nonstatutory
forces). The Nguni group also produced lower scores on consultative focus (Table 3). This may suggest a lack of integration of this group within
the new organization, or, alternatively, a higher level of awareness of this
issue among the Nguni group. Other evidence of racial disharmony would
be in the variation of perceptions among the cultural groups, particularly
193
concerning current organization and management. Of the main scales,

this is only evident in the degree to which management is seen as open.
However, this is an important aspect of the way managers are seen to manage communication and people differently and may well indicate a level
of disharmony in the management of people across cultures.
Disparate military traditions. There is evidence from our comparative
analysis that this may be an issue. However, further analysis comparing
groups simply on the basis of previous military service does not suggest
differences in the levels of integration. Significant statistical differences
exist only between former SADF and TBVC members whereby former
TBVC members ideally want more power management, more
instrumentalism, and a more successful organization. They also see more
working together (ubuntu) in existing management. The confounding
principle that we discussed above, in connection with synergistic effects
from cultural diversity, may be supported, namely that former SADF (but
predominantly those who are White) members often want to revert back to
previous norms and values whereas the former members of the other
forces, predominantly those who are Black Africans, cannot. This is reflected in the more negative aspects perceived by the White groups in
some of our findings above.
Downsizing organization. We would expect consequences of disintegrating influences in this area to manifest themselves in areas of loyalty to
the organization (Table 4) and people focus (Table 3); that is, a detrimental
effect of downsizing would be to lower loyalty and would lead to the perceptions of a lack of people focus (the scale comprises: has well-being of
its people as a main objective, clear policies on relations with employees,
and motivates employees). Medium to low scores are provided for people
orientation (an across groups mean of 2.86). Loyalty to organization has a
higher mean across groups of 3.45, with a significantly higher score for
the Sotho group than the Afrikaans, English, and Other African groups. It
may be that members from the Sotho group are in a better position regarding redundancies and short term contracts than those from the Other African group as many Sothos (43.4% of our sample) were previously SADF
members with retained pension and other rights. White groups, on the
contrary, have suffered more from uncertainty. We postulate therefore that
downsizing may have had a differential influence, among other
influences, on morale.
194
INTEGRATIVE CONSEQUENCES
We are able to postulate that the following integrating factors (Figure

1) may have had consequences for various aspects of organization and
management.
Shared national mission. As a result of the extent to which positive discrimination has been directed towards previously disadvantaged sections
of the community in order to develop national pride and shared mission,
we may postulate that the most positive consequences for the SANDF
may be reflected more in the perceptions of those previously disadvantaged groups. Certainly, our results indicate that the two White groups are
less optimistic for the future of the organization as reflected in the PeopleOriented Organization Scale, with the subscales people focus, consultative focus, clarity of objectives and successful organization (Table 3). It
may well be that members of these two groups do not yet fully subscribe to
the notion of a shared national mission.
Synergy from cultural diversity. As discussed above, this synergistic effect may be hampered by two factors, namely the inclination of (White)
former members of SADF to revert to previous norms and values, and the
current lack of integration of former (Nguni) members of the nonstatutory
forces. However, midway scores on such aspects as diversity management
focus (Table 3) and concurrence of views on a number of issues of current
organization and management may indicate synergistic effects.
High levels of awareness. Again, there is evidence that many of the issues discussed above are being addressed, although it is difficult to make a
direct connection between success in these areas, and the measures taken
to address them. It is easier to see the lack of success of measures such as
the development of a human resource policy that addresses aspects such as
equal opportunities (Kasrils, 1996) in the apparent relative negative perceptions of the Nguni group toward a diversity management focus (Table
3). This may lead to certain conclusions about developmental issues that
we discuss below.
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
In view of our findings the following development issues should be

considered.
195
The provision of cross-cultural training programs is well established in

many multicultural organizations, and increasingly in organizations in
South Africa. However, there is often a lack of systematic empirical evidence of differences and shared perceptions among cultural groups.
Empirical studies such as the one reported here can be a solid foundation
on which to start to share information about differences in perceptions,
and to start to discuss their implications, where these need to be reconciled
and where diversity can provide synergy within a multicultural team.
The inclusion of a consideration of indigenous African leadership
into development programs (de Vries, 1998) is a useful step forward. Currently, the nature of an indigenous leadership or management style may
not have a solid foundation and is often based on anecdotal information
(e.g., Boon, 1996; Mbigi, 1997; Mbigi & Maree, 1995). When the nature
of African management is investigated empirically, it often appears to be
autocratic, reactive, and generally negative (e.g., Blunt & Jones, 1992;
Jaeger & Kanungo, 1990). This, at least in part, may be reflected in our
results in the current study, which indicates that the African groups favor a
higher control and power orientation (although we have discussed reasons
for this). T. Jackson (2000) has termed this postcolonial management
(of which there is evidence), and the emerging African management as
African Renaissance (of which there is little current evidence). Further
study is required on the interaction of management and leadership styles
and cultures in South Africa, and it is hoped that the next stages of the
current investigation will shed some light on this.
IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH IN
OTHER MULTICULTURAL ORGANIZATIONS
The SANDF is a major public institution undergoing substantial transition within a multicultural context. Its ultimate success in achieving its
aims (see Figure 1) has major implications for South Africa, and the
southern African region. It can also be regarded in many ways as a microcosm of the new South African society, with its dynamics of integrating
and disintegrating influences ready to forge the nation together, or tear it
apart. Other institutions in South Africa can be analyzed in this way
(South African Police Service and other governmental services, the
parastatal organizations, as well as larger public and private concerns) as
can organizations in other countries that may be experiencing similar
dynamics. In particular, the reconciliation of different management systems in multicultural societies, often involving an interplay of Western
196
and non-Western cultural dynamics, is a major issue. A major hindrance

in this type of analysis is the lack of academic literature in this immediate
area, and the need to develop suitable conceptual frameworks within
which to study the dynamics of cross-cultural change and integration. It is
hoped that this initial study has provided an indication for future research.
NOTES
1. Homelands refer to four former purportedly independent states within the boundaries of the Republic of South Africa, namely Transkei, Boputhatswana, Venda, and
Ciskeialso known as the TBVC states , as well as the self-governing territory of Kwa-Zulu.
The latter never opted for independence. The homelands were geographically associated
with specific ethnic/language groups. Their boundaries corresponded to the areas these
groups were restricted to by White-dominated governments.
2. R. Adm. C. H. Bennett, retired South African Navy.
3. Maj. Gen. Andrew Masondo, Chief Defence Corporate Communication.
4. Maj. Gen. Roland de Vries, Deputy Chief of the South African Army.
5. Pienaar (1997) is reporting on a South African National Defense Force personnel symposium of April 16, 1997.
6. South Africa has 11 official languages with the following distribution (1994): isiZulu
22.4%, isiXhosa 17.5%, Afrikaans 15.1%, Sepedi 9.8%, English 9.1%, Setswana 7.2%,
Sesotho 6.9%, Xitsonga 4.2%, siSwati 2.6%, Tshivenda 1.7%, isiNdebele 1.5%, Afrikaans/
English 0.2%, and Other nonofficial languages 1.8% (Department of Environmental Affairs
and Toursim, 2003). In the questionnaire mentioned above, the names of the languages in use
in the SANDF, at the time, were used.
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Terence Jackson holds a bachelors degree in social anthropology (University of

Wales, Swansea), a masters in education (University of Keele, UK), and a Ph.D. in
management psychology (Henley Management College, UK). He is professor and
director of the Centre for Cross Cultural Management Research at ESCP-EAP European School of Management (Oxford-Paris-Berlin-Madrid). He edits the International Journal of Cross Cultural Management (Sage Publications) and has just
published his sixth book International HRM: A Cross Cultural Approach. He has
published numerous articles on cross-cultural management ethics, management
learning and management in developing countries in such journals as Human Relations, Journal of Management Studies, and Asian Pacific Journal of Management. He
is currently directing a major research project on management and change in SubSaharan Africa.
Elize Kotze holds a masters degree in psychology and a Ph.D. in industrial psychology. She is professor at the Faculty of Military Science of Stellenbosch University,
South Africa. She has published in the fields of career development of young professional officers, the role of civilian educators at tertiary military institutions, and
empowerment of workers and is currently involved in an international project on the
social responsibility aspects of managing international companies in developing
countries.

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ADMINISTRATION

MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

Keywords: South Africa; military management; multicultural organization; cross-cultural

Since the end of apartheid and advent of democracy at the beginning of

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defense force was enabled by successful negotiations to demobilize the

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ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY / May 2005

Forces Integrated to Form the

Military wing of the

Military wing of the

KZSPF Territorial Protection

organizational development. In the broader context of cross-cultural

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Jackson, Kotze / MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

Africa could therefore be highly relevant for African states, such as

We define disintegrating influences as any factors that have a negative

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Defense and protection

Jackson, Kotze / MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

which effectively manages diversity by accommodating all groups in terms

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ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY / May 2005

Self-centeredness (Figure 1). Self-centeredness and an inward-looking

The legacy of apartheid may be difficult to overcome within the context of

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Jackson, Kotze / MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

courage, dedication, commitment, and loyalty were at a premium. The

In addition to these issues, the problem of downsizing the organization

Although, on the face of it, the influences of disintegration appear

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ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY / May 2005

Shared national mission (Figure 1). In South African society generally

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Jackson, Kotze / MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

High levels of awareness and addressing of issues of disintegration

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ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY / May 2005

DEVELOPING AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH STUDY

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formalism in decision making (T. Jackson, 1993), and ascribed and

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Descriptives (in percentages)

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ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY / May 2005

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Jackson, Kotze / MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

People-Oriented Organization. This scale comprises items that refer

Open Management. This scale comprises items that thematically refer

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ADMINISTRATION & SOCIETY / May 2005

conveys a democratic and open style of management that involves high

Comparison among discrete cultural groups is a presumption rather

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Jackson, Kotze / MANAGEMENT AND CHANGE

African home languages, these languages were combined according to

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Figure 2: Distribution of Dominant Languages in South Africa

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