FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels such as natural gas, petrol and coal have formed from the
remains of living things. They are compounds of hydrogen and carbon called
hydrocarbons. The products of the combustion of fossil fuels always include
carbon dioxide and water. Because of impurities in fossil fuels, these are not the
only products of their combustion. In some cases, various dangerous gases,
including carbon monoxide, are also produced.
Fossil fuels we use every day undergo combustion when heated. When we
burn methane and ethane in natural gas at the jet of a gas stove, propane and
butane in a gas barbecue or octane in a car engine, the main products are water
and carbon dioxide. Lets take the specific example of the combustion of ethane.
The chemical reaction can be described by the following chemical equation:

2C 2 H 6 + 7O 2 4CO 2 + 6H 2 O
In this chemical reaction, the covalent bonds in the ethane and oxygen
molecules are broken so that the constituent atoms re-form in other arrangements
to produce different molecules: water and carbon dioxide. This reaction is
irreversible, which means that carbon dioxide and water when mixed and heated
or cooled will not break bonds and re-form as ethane and oxygen. In the
combustion of fossil fuels, other chemicals are produced (this is not reflected in
the chemical equation given above); for example, an incomplete combustion
process often occurs in car engines, where carbon monoxide (CO) and other
gases are produced.

Fossil fuels include coal, gasoline, diesel fuel, propane and natural gas.
All of these fuels were created as organisms decayed and released carbon-rich
compounds into the surrounding soil and rock over thousands of years. Humans
access these resources through a variety of means, including drilling deep holes
and mining coal from pits. Additionally, a process called fracking is used to
remove reserves that are otherwise difficult to access. Fracking injects highpressured water into bedrock to free the oil and gas inside. If the chemicals from
the process contaminate the water table, widespread environmental damage may
occur.
In addition to the pollution of the air and creation of greenhouse gases,
petroleum products can cause environmental damage when they're spilled into
the environment. When this occurs in the ocean, the spilled oil can coat great
swaths of the water surface, killing a high number of plants and animals.

ACID RAIN
During the last century, the rain water in some parts of the world has
become far more acidic. This acid rain has been caused by the emission of
pollutant gases such as sulfur dioxide. When coal is burned in electricity power
stations, sulfur impurities form sulfur dioxide.
The gas is also produced when fuels obtained from crude oil are burned.
When sulfur dioxide is released into the air it reacts with water and oxygen to
form sulfuric acid, H 2 SO 4 .
Sulfuric acid is a strong acid. It ionises completely to hydrogen ions.
This gives rain water a pH below 5.0. Rain water that has this higher level
of acidity can cause damage to buildings and statues, particularly those made of
limestone. It can also reduce the growth of, or even kill, trees and crops. Acid
rain may even lower pH of water in lakes, killing fish.

SO 3 + H 2 O H 2 (SO 4 )
Acid rain describes any form of precipitation with high levels of nitric and
sulfuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry
material that settle to Earth.
Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals that can
cause acid rain, but most acid rain falls because of human activities. The biggest
culprit is the burning of fossil fuels by coal-burning power plants, factories, and
automobiles.
When humans burn fossil fuels, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx) are released into the atmosphere. These chemical gases react with water,
oxygen, and other substances to form mild solutions of sulfuric and nitric acid.
Winds may spread these acidic solutions across the atmosphere and over
hundreds of miles. When acid rain reaches Earth, it flows across the surface in
runoff water, enters water systems, and sinks into the soil.

Acid rain has many ecological effects, but none is greater than its impact
on lakes, streams, wetlands, and other aquatic environments. Acid rain makes
waters acidic and causes them to absorb the aluminium that makes its way from
soil into lakes and streams. This combination makes waters toxic to crayfish,
clams, fish, and other aquatic animals.

Some species can tolerate acidic waters better than others. However, in an
interconnected ecosystem, what impacts some species eventually impacts many
more throughout the food chainincluding non-aquatic species such as birds.
Acid rain also damages forests, especially those at higher elevations. It
robs the soil of essential nutrients and releases aluminium in the soil, which
makes it hard for trees to take up water. Trees' leaves and needles are also
harmed by acids.

The effects of acid rain, combined with other environmental stressors,

leave trees and plants less able to withstand cold temperatures, insects, and
disease. The pollutants may also inhibit trees' ability to reproduce. Some soils
are better able to neutralize acids than others. In areas where the soil's "buffering
capacity" is low, the harmful effects of acid rain are much greater.
The only way to fight acid rain is by curbing the release of the pollutants
that cause it. This means burning fewer fossil fuels. Many governments have
tried to curb emissions by cleaning up industry smokestacks and promoting
alternative fuel sources. These efforts have met with mixed results. But even if
acid rain could be stopped today, it would still take many years for its harmful
effects to disappear.
Individuals can also help prevent acid rain by conserving energy. The less
electricity people use in their homes, the fewer chemicals power plants will emit.
Vehicles are also major fossil fuel users, so drivers can reduce emissions by
using public transportation, carpooling, biking, or simply walking wherever
possible.

CORROSION

The term 'Corrosion' means destruction of metals by unwanted chemical

action. It is scientifically termed as a 'Redox' reaction, which means Red uction
and Ox idation. When an atom or molecule losses an electron it gets a positive
charge (indicated by +). For a metal to join with oxygen, +e charge is needed.
Oxygen takes the electron (e-), which the metal gave up, and lets the metal join
it (when it takes the e-, it gets a negative charge). The 1st part is oxidation
(losing of e- and thereby joining oxygen) and the 2nd part is reduction. The
general equation for ferric oxide (rust) is:

2Fe + 3O 2 2Fe 2 O 3
Iron metal combines with oxygen gas to produce iron (III) oxide

Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reaction with its

environment. The serious consequences of the corrosion process have become a
problem of worldwide significance. In addition to our everyday encounters with
this form of degradation, corrosion causes plant shutdowns, waste of valuable
resources, loss or contamination of product, reduction in efficiency, costly
maintenance, and expensive overdesign. It can also jeopardize safety and inhibit
technological progress.

Corrosion is the atmospheric oxidation of metals. That means that oxygen

combines with the metal and forms a new layer. This layer can be good or bad.
By far the most important form of corrosion is the rusting of iron and steel.
Rusting is a process of oxidation in which iron combines with water and oxygen
to form rust, the reddish-brown crust that forms on the surface of the iron.

Because iron is so widely used, e.g., in building construction and in tools,

its protection against rusting is important. Rusting can be prevented by excluding

air and water from the iron surface, e.g., by painting, oiling, or greasing, or by
plating the iron with a protective coating of another metal. Many alloys of iron
are resistant to corrosion. Stainless steels are alloys of iron with such metals as
chromium and nickel; they do not corrode because the added metals help form a
hard, adherent oxide coating that resists further attack.

Although metals like aluminium, chromium, and zinc corrode more readily
than iron, their oxides form a coating that protects the metal from further attack.
Rust is brittle and flakes off the surface of the iron, continually exposing a fresh
surface. Thus, these metals might be a better selection choice for a product that
will be exposed to rusting conditions, like water and air.

AMMONIA SYNTHESIS

Hydrogen reacts with nitrogen to form ammonia. Hydrogen gas is readily

available from fossil fuels, or from electrolysis of water. As for nitrogen, it is
readily available all around us. In fact, the very air you are breathing right now
contains four nitrogen molecules out of every five! It turns out that nitrogen, one
of our reactants, is an incredibly stable molecule. It is frequently used in the
laboratory as an inert gas.

3H 2 + N 2 2NH 3
Hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas are combined in the presence of a catalyst at high
temperature and pressure to produce ammonia gas

When in gaseous form, ammonia has a short atmospheric lifetime of about

24 hours and usually deposits near its source (the majority of gaseous ammonia
is deposited within 700 -1000 m of feedlot perimeters; 29). In particulate form
ammonia, can travel much further impacting a larger area. Both gaseous and
particulate ammonia contribute to eutrophication of surface waters, soil
acidification, fertilization of vegetation, changes in ecosystems, and smog and
decreased visibility in cities and pristine areas.
Since ammonia is one of the only basic species in the atmosphere, it
readily reacts with strong acidic species in the atmosphere such as nitric and
sulfuric acids, which are by-products of combustion process including vehicle
and industrial sources, to form ammonium salts, also known as fine particulate
matter or PM2.5.

Eutrophication is a result of nutrient pollution (from deposition or run-off)

into natural waters (creeks, rivers, ponds, or lakes). Eutrophication generally
promotes excessive plant growth and decay, favours certain weedy species over
others, and is likely to cause severe reductions in water quality. In aquatic
environments, enhanced growth of choking aquatic vegetation or algal blooms
disrupt normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing problems such as a lack of
oxygen in the water, needed for fish and other aquatic life to survive. The water
then becomes cloudy, coloured a shade of green, yellow, brown, or red.

When ammonia reaches the soil surface, it usually reacts with water in the
soil and is converted into its ionic form, ammonium (NH4+) and absorbs to the
soil. The ammonium in the soil eventually disassociates or is nitrified into nitrite
(NO2-) or nitrate (NO3-) by nitrifying bacteria, releasing H+ ions into the soil. If
not taken up by biomass and converted to methane, the surplus H+ ions
eventually lead to the formation of an acidic soil environment. The nitrogen left
over in the soil will either be taken up by plants, stored in the soil, returned to
the atmosphere, or will be removed from the soil in runoff or leaching.

Fertilization of vegetation by ammonia occurs in much the same way as

applying fertilizer to the soil; however, in this case ammonia gas from the air
deposits on the leaf or soil surface at the base of the plant and is taken up by the
plant. Changes in plant growth can then occur, similar to those resulting from
fertilization. In a grass plains environment, changes may be subtle; however, in
natural or mountain areas, changes in plant species may be more obvious,
promoting weedy plants while choking out native plants and wild flowers or
promoting grasses and sages.
An ecosystem is a natural system consisting of plants, animal, and other
microorganisms functioning together in a balanced relationship. Changes in
ecosystems due to ammonia deposition occur through a combination of all the
above-mentioned processes. When changes in ecosystems occur, the natural
balance of a system is disrupted and fragile plant and animal species can be
replaced by non-native or N-responsive species. The disruption of an ecosystem
can cause it to adapt by changing (positive or negative outcome), or a disruption
may lead to the extinction of the ecosystem.
When ammonia combines with NO x and SO x emissions from industrial and
vehicle combustion processes it forms fine particulates. These fine particulates
(also known as PM2.5) are a contributor to haze/smog in cites and decreased
visibility (haze) in pristine areas. Smog is also a human health issue leading to
an increased rate of respiratory and heart diseases.

MAKING NITRIC ACID

Nitric acid is manufactured from ammonia and is a key chemical in the

manufacture of fertilizers. The principal chemical produced from nitric acid is
ammonium nitrate. Most of this is used in fertilizers, although a relatively small
amount is used to make explosives. Some nitric acid is used as an intermediate in
the polymer industry, notably in the manufacture of polyamides and
polyurethanes. This part of the process involves the oxidation of ammonia to
nitrogen monoxide (nitric oxide):

4NH 3 + 5O 2 4NO + 6H 2 O

Nitric acid is considered to be a strong acid and oxidant. As can be seen in

the picture shown above, nitric acid is particularly aggressive to most metals,
and even more so with copper. While the green soluble copper nitrate spreads
away from the reacting site, the deep red-brown nitrogen dioxide gas that is
freed.

Nitric acid is used in a wide variety of chemical processes where cleaning,

oxidising or etching is required, including making synthetic fibres, dying,

electrical circuit board making, electroplating, explosives, laboratory chemicals,

metal cleaning and etching, semiconductors, pharmaceutical manufacture. It is
used in the manufacture of fertilisers and other organic chemicals, in the printing
industry for photoengraving, in jewellery manufacturing, and for wet chemical
etching.

An explosion and fire at a Spanish chemical plant sent an orange cloud of

nitric acid soaring into the skies west of Barcelona. The blast occurred at the
Simar SA plant in the town of Igualada, about 65 km (40 miles) west of
Barcelona, authorities told the Spanish newspaper El Pais.

FOSSIL FUELS HURTING THE ENVIRONMENT

Fossil fuels, which include coal, natural gas, petroleum, shale oil, and
bitumen, are the main sources of heat and electrical energy. All these fuels
containbesides the major constituents (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)other
materials including metal, sulfur, and nitrogen compounds. During the
combustion process, different pollutants like fly ash, sulfur oxides (SO2 and
SO3), nitrogen oxides (NOx = NO2 + NO), and volatile organic compounds are
emitted. Fly ash contains different trace elements (heavy metals). Gross emission
of pollutants is tremendous all over the world. These pollutants are present in the
atmosphere in such conditions that they can affect man and his environment.
Air pollution caused by particulate matter and other pollutants not only
acts directly on the environment but by contamination of water and soil leads to
their degradation. Wet and dry deposition of inorganic pollutants leads to
acidification of environment. These phenomena affect the health of the people,
increase corrosion, and destroy cultivated soil and forests. Most of the plants,
especially coniferous trees are not resistant oxides. Following longer exposure
leaves wither and fall. Widespread forest damage has been reported in Europe
and North America. Many cultivated plants are not resistant to these pollutants,
especially in the early period of vegetation.
Currently, the worldwide demand for fossil fuels is on the increase more
than ever. With many countries reporting higher consumption and demand,
companies that work on the supply side are gladly investing more resources, in
the building of infrastructure for fossil fuel processing. But even with the threat
of climate change and the radical changes in our environment, we have not
pushed for an alternative resource for fossil fuel. Not as avidly as we should be
in light of the impending concerns. Even with growing interest and investment in
the field of renewable energy and sustainable procedures, the market has been
stuck for the last twenty years - with fossils fuels accounting for a staggering
87% of total energy usage worldwide!

This kind of continued dependence on the fossils fuels industry has had
several far-reaching effects, and is now set to cause more damage to the

environment unless there is immediate change. Public and private efforts to

usher in new, alternative energy have been relegated to the back seat, and even
the most optimistic forecast for the coming years do not look encouraging.
Research carried out by the International Energy Agency (IEA) shows that
the world is inevitably headed towards irreversible changes in the climate in the
near future, unless there is a concerted effort to deal with the immediate and
long-term effects of massive fossils fuel use.
Here are their estimates: (1) The demand for oil is set to rise from 87 million
barrels per day to a whopping 99 million barrels per day in the next two decades;
(2) The annual costs to meet this demand are also set to escalate to about $2,000
billion per year; (3) To meet these demands, there needs to be further investment
and the development of added infrastructure in the fossil fuels industry.
On the other hand, there is little hope for a surge in the development of
renewable energy and sustainable methods over the same time frame.
This represents a double-edged dilemma- if things go as planned: (1) The world
will see further increase in emissions. The environment will be set for more
damage; (2) If the energy demand does move away from fossil fuels towards
renewable energy sources, there would be a great risk of stranded assets with
massive amounts of investment towards developing fossil fuels infrastructure;
(3) Scientists have recommended that an increase of two degrees be regarded as
the safety limit in case of global warming. To enforce that limit, emissions
should be kept well within 450 ppm of CO2 in the atmosphere. If the current
trends should continue, this limit is set to be reached within the next three years
with no more room for manoeuvre.
Unless quick and drastic action is taken on a global level to contain the
problem, there are significant risks that are sure to emerge gradually over the
coming years. Along with rise in global warming and permanent changes to the
climate, this inertia of the fossil fuels market is also set to cause major health
problems for large populations across the world. CO2 emissions are projected to
increase to about 15.2 Gt by the year 2035, accounting for about 40% of all
global emission in that duration of time.

With the transport industry accounting for much of the market share of
fossil fuels, emissions are set to grow further as the passenger vehicle fleet
worldwide is set to double to almost 1.7 billion in the year 2035. By 2050,
emissions look set to double in quantity. Continued expansion in the field of
energy manufacture continues to deal heavily with fossil fuels, with large amount
of coal-fired electricity plants all set to come up in the coming years, adding to
the emissions. Leading gas, oil and coal companies around the world look set to
invest more for exploration and infrastructure development in the coming years,
with renewable energy holding only a minuscule share of the market.

Many countries are also deciding to stop relying on nuclear energy for
their power needs. The move away from nuclear energy makes the situation
worse, with no certainty of investments in alternative, renewable energy sources
in the immediate horizon. With the emergence of China as the leading consumer
of energy in the world, the centre of gravity is starting to shift away from the US
and Europe towards Asia. Without a firm change in policies and worldwide
efforts to contain this continued lock-in to the fossil fuel market, the
environment is all set to take a hit in the near future.

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1

CHEMICAL REACTIONS &

THEIR EFFECTS ON THE
ENVIRONMENT

RANES, Jan Trisha A.

STEM 1A