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Chapter
Australian Curriculum
content descriptions:
ACMNA233
ACMNA266
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Polynomials
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You have spent some time over the last two years studying quadratics, learning
to factorise them and learning to sketch their graphs. In this chapter, we take the
next step and study polynomials such as x3 x and x4 + x2 + x 14 that contain
higher powers of x. Just as we factorised, solved and graphed quadratics,
weshall do the same for polynomials.
2
4
8
0
6
2
Some modern electronic devices such as mobile phones and Blu-ray discs use
error-correcting codes that are based on calculations using polynomials.
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
247
18A
The language of
polynomials
1
5
x2 + 2x 5
A polynomial may have any number of terms (the word polynomial means many terms),
but each term must be a multiple of a whole-number power of x.
The term of highest index among the non-zero terms is called the leading term. Its coefficient
is called the leading coefficient, and its index is called the degree of the polynomial. Thus:
x5 5x2 + 7x has leading term x5, leading coefficient 1 and degree 5
3x7 + 2 has leading term 3x7, leading coefficient 3 and degree 7
1
5
1
5
1
5
and degree 2.
A monic polynomial has leading coefficient 1; thus, x5 5x2 + 7x is a monic polynomial. The
other two examples above are non-monic because neither of the leading coefficients is 1.
The term 2 in the polynomial 3x7 + 2 is called the constant term, because it does not
involve x. The constant term in x5 5x2 + 7x is zero.
where n is a whole number, the coefficients a0, a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers, and an 0.
If a polynomial is written in this form, we call it the standard form of the polynomial.
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P(x) = x3 + 2x2 4x 5
P(5) = 53 + 2 52 4 5 5
= 125 + 50 20 5
= 150
Polynomials
A polynomial is an expression that can be written in the form
P(x) = anxn + an1xn1 + ... + a1x + a0
where n is a whole number, and the coefficients a0, a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers,
an 0.
The number 0 is called zero polynomial. It has no terms, so the leading term and the
degree of the zero polynomial are not defined.
The leading term of the polynomial is the term of highest index, anxn, among those
with a non-zero coefficient.
The degree of the polynomial is the index of the leading term, and the leading
coefficient is the coefficient of the leading term.
A monic polynomial is a polynomial whose leading coefficient is 1.
The constant term is the term of index 0 (this is the term not involving x).
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
249
Example 1
9
2
b Q(x) = x2 + x2
+ x
d S(x) = 5
Solution
a P(x) = x6 + x3 5x2
This is a non-monic polynomial.
The leading term is x6,
the leading coefficient is 1,
the degree is 6
and the constant term is 0.
c R(x) = x +
Example 2
Expand each expression, and then state the degree, the leading coefficient and the
constant term.
a P(x) = (3x + 2)2
Solution
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Example 3
If P(x) = x4 2x2 + 10x +11, then find P(3), P(0) and P(1).
Solution
P(3) = 34 2 32 + 10 3 + 11
P(0) = 0 0 + 0 + 11
= 81 18 + 30 + 11 = 11
= 104
P(1) = 1 2 10 + 11
=0
Example 4
P(2) = 0
16 + 24 2a + 2 = 0
2a = 42
a = 21
Exercise 18A
Example 1
+ x
a 5x2 + 6x + 3
d 3x + 4
e 5 x 3 5
g (x 5)2
j x 4 x2 +
5
x7
1
4
x 21 + 7x24
k 6
c 1 5x5 + 10x10
f 2x 1
i x + x
l
2 3x
2 + 3x
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
251
Example 2
Example 3
2 State the degree, the leading coefficient, and the constant term of each polynomial.
Rearrange the terms first.
a x3 + 5x 6
b 5x4 5x2 7x
c 7 4x
d 15
e 5 2x + 7x3
f 8 4x + 3x2
1
2
x 14 x
x5
5
x3
3
i x 5 3 x 6 x 3 + + x 4
a x4 + x
b 2x3 + 5x 2
d 1
e 5x + 2x2 x3
x3 + x 4
2
4 x + 6 x3
a P(1)
f P(3)
b P(1)
c P(2)
d P(2)
g P(a)
h P(2a)
i P(a)
e P(0)
d Q(x) = x2 + 8x 20
6 Expand and simplify each polynomial, and then state its leading term, its degree and
its constant term.
Example 7
a A(x) = (x 5)2
f F(x) = x2 + 9 (x + 3)2
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18B
b P(x) R(x)
d 2P(x) + 3Q(x)
Solution
Multiplying polynomials
To multiply two polynomials, we use the distributive law a number of times. We multiply
each term in the first polynomial by the second polynomial and add these expressions
together. We then expand the brackets, collect like terms and write the polynomial in
standard form.
Example 6
b Q(x)R(x)
(continued on next page)
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
253
Solution
Exercise 18B
Example 5
1 Find the sum P(x) + Q(x) and the difference P(x) Q(x), given that:
a P(x) = x3 + 3x + 5 and Q(x) = 2x3 3x2 4x
b P(x) = 4x6 5x5 3x + 7 and Q(x) = x7 + 5x5 + x2 7
c P(x) = 2x3 3x2 4x + 5 and Q(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 + 5x 2
d P(x) = 4x2 3x + 6 and Q(x) = 4x2 3x 6
e P(x) = 5x 2 and Q(x) = 5x + 2
f P(x) = x4 x2 + x 1 and Q(x) = x3 x2 + x 1
g P(x) = 5x3 + 2x2 x - 5 and Q(x) = 5 5x3 2x2 + x
2 Based on the examples in question 1, copy and complete these sentences (for class
discussion):
a When two non-zero polynomials P(x) and Q(x) are added, either P(x) + Q(x) = 0,
or the degree of P(x) + Q(x) ...
b When two non-zero polynomials P(x) and Q(x) are subtracted, the degree
of P(x) Q(x) ...
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3 For P(x) = 2x3 3x2 + 7, Q(x) = 4x5 2x2 + 2 and R(x) = 3x5 x3 2, find:
Example 6
a 2P(x) + 3Q(x)
b 5P(x) 4Q(x)
a P(x) = x 7
b P(x) = x2 + 3
c P(x) = x3 7x
e P(x) = x2 + x + 1
f P(x) = x4 + x2 + 1
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
255
18C
Dividing polynomials
Whenever we add, subtract or multiply two polynomials, the result is another polynomial.
Division of polynomials, however, does not usually result in a polynomial. For example:
3x 4 5x 2 + 7
x2
3x 4
x2
5x 2
x2
= 3x 2 5 +
7
x2
7
x2
32
5
30
5
=6+
2
5
2
5
This can also be written without fractions in terms of the quotient and remainder:
32 5 = 6 remainder 2
12 ) 2 8 3
remainder 7
2 4
4 3
3 6
7
Thus 283 12 = 23 remainder 7, which we write as:
283 = 12 23 + 7
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0r<d
37 7 = 5 remainder 2
so 37 = 7 5 + 2, where 0 2 < 7
Division of polynomials
The ideas above also apply to polynomials.
The key idea when dividing one polynomial by another is to keep working with the
leading terms.
The following example shows how to divide P(x) = 5x4 7x3 + 2x 4 by D(x) = x 2 and
how to write this result as P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x).
There must be a column for each successive power of x. Thus we leave a gap for the missing
term in x2 in P(x).
We begin by dividing the leading term of P(x) by the leading term of Q(x).
x2
5x3
5x4 7x3
+ 2x 4
5x4 10x3
3x3
+ 2x 4
The process will now be repeated with 3x3 + 2x 4 as the new dividend. The whole process
is shown next.
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
257
5x3 + 3x2 + 6x
5x4 7x3
5x4 10x3
3x3
3x3 6x2
6x2
6x2
+ 14
+ 2x 4
+ 2x 4
+ 2x 4
12x
14x 4
14x 28
24
(1)
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Example 7
Divide P(x) = 5x4 7x3 + 2x 4 by D(x) = x2 2. Express the result in the form
P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x), where the degree of R(x) is less than the degree of D(x).
Solution
This time the divisor x2 2 has degree 2, so the remainder will either be zero, or have
degree 0 or 1.
5x2 7x + 10
x2 2 ) 5x4 7x3
+ 2x 4 (Divide x2 into 5x4, giving 5x2.)
(Multiply x2 2 by 5x2, then subtract.)
10x2
5x4
7x3 + 10x2 + 2x 4 (Divide x2 into 7x3, giving 7x.)
(Multiply x2 2 by 7x, then subtract.)
+ 14x
7x3
(2)
The remainder 12x + 16 has degree 1, which is less than the degree of the divisor
x2 2, which is 2.
Again, we can perform a partial check by substituting some small values of x into the final
statement marked (2):
When x = 0, LHS = 4
RHS = 20 + 16
=4
When x = 1, LHS = 5 7 + 2 4
RHS = (1 2) (5 7 + 10) + (12 + 16)
= 4
= 8 + 4 = 4
When x = 2, LHS = 80 56 + 4 4 RHS = (4 2) (20 14 + 10) + (24 + 16)
= 24 = 32 8 = 24
A full check may be made by expanding the right-hand side of (2).
Factors of polynomials
When one polynomial is a factor of another, then the remainder after division is zero. You
have already seen this with whole numbers. For example, 7 is a factor of 42, and when we
divide 42 by 7, we obtain 42 = 7 6 + 0.
We can then go on to factorise 42 completely into primes as 42 = 7 3 2.
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
259
a Divide x3 + 5x2 4x 20 by x + 5.
b Hence, factorise x3 + 5x2 4x 20 into linear factors.
Solution
a
x+5
4
x2
3
2
x + 5x 4x 20
x3 + 5x2
4x 20
4x 20
0
Dividing polynomials
Let P(x) (the dividend) and D(x) (the divisor) be polynomials, with D(x) 0.
When we divide P(x) by D(x), we obtain two more polynomials, Q(x) (the quotient) and
R(x) (the remainder), such that:
1 P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x), and
2 either R(x) = 0, or R(x) has degree less than D(x).
When the remainder R(x) is zero, then D(x) is a factor of P(x).
The polynomial P(x) then factorises as the product P(x) = D(x)Q(x).
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Exercise 18C
1 Carry out each whole-number division, using long division when necessary. Write the
result of the division in the form p = dq + r, where 0 r < d.
For example, 47 10 = 4 remainder 7, which we write as 47 = 10 4 + 7.
a 30 7
b 68 11
c 1454 12
d 2765 21
Example 7
2 Use the division algorithm to divide P(x) by D(x). Express each result in the form
P(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x), where either R(x) = 0 or the degree of R(x) is less than the
degree of D(x).
a P(x) = x2 + 6x + 1, D(x) = x + 2
b P(x) = 3x2 4x 15, D(x) = x 3
c P(x) = x3 5x2 12x + 30, D(x) = x + 5
d P(x) = 5x3 7x2 6, D(x) = x 3
e P(x) = x4 + 3x2 3x, D(x) = x + 2
f P(x) = 4x3 4x2 + 1, D(x) = 2x + 1
g P(x) = x4 + 3x3 3x2 4x + 1, D(x) = x + 1
h P(x) = 6x4 3x3 + 7x2 9x + 21, D(x) = x 5
3 a Find the quotient and remainder when x4 + x3+ x2 + x + 1 is divided by x2 + 2x.
b Find the quotient and remainder when x4 2x3 + 3x2 4x + 5 is divided by x2 2.
4 Divide P(x) by D(x) in each case. Express each result in the form P(x) = D(x)Q(x)+R(x).
a P(x) = x3 + 5x2 x + 2, D(x) = x2 + x + 1
b P(x) = x3 4x2 3x + 7, D(x) = x2 2x + 3
c P(x) = x4 + 5x2 + 3, D(x) = x2 3x 3
d P(x) = x5 3x4 9x2 + 9, D(x) = x3 x2 + x 1
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
261
6 a Use long division to prove that P(x) = x3 + x2 41x 105 is divisible by x+5.
Hence, factorise P(x) completely.
b Use long division to prove that P(x) = x4 + 10x3 + 37x2 + 60x + 36 is divisible
by x2 + 4x + 4. Hence, factorise P(x) completely.
7 a i Divide x4 3x3 5x2 + x 7 by x + 5.
ii Hence, find a if x4 3x3 5x2 + x + a is divisible by x + 5.
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18D
P(x) = (x a)Q(x) + r
P(a) = 0 Q(a) + r
=r
So we have an interesting result the remainder is simply P(a). This result is called the
remainder theorem, and it allows us to find the remainder easily without performing the
division algorithm. It also allows us to find linear factors, as we will see next.
The remainder theorem
Let P(x) be a polynomial and let a be a constant. When P(x) is divided by x a,
the remainder is P(a).
Example 9
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
263
Solution
x3)
2x2 + 10x + 25
2x3 + 4x2 5x
2x3 6x2
10x2 5x
10x2 30x
25x
25x
7
7
7
75
68
The above example shows how much easier it is to find the remainder using the
remainder theorem.
Example 10
b x + 2
d x + 5
c x
Solution
a We are dividing by x 3,
so the remainder is
P(3) = 81 27 30 24
=0
Thus, x 3 is a factor of P(x).
c We are dividing by x = x 0,
so the remainder is
P(0) = 0 0 0 24
= 24
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Example 11
The remainder theorem tells us that, after dividing P(x) by x 1, the remainder is P(1).
P(1) = 13
Thus, 1 7 + a + 1 = 13
a 5 = 13
a = 18
=0
so x + 3 is a factor of P(x).
On the other hand, x + 2 is not a factor of P(x), because after dividing by x + 2,
remainder is P(2).
P(2) = 8 + 8 + 10 6
=40
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
265
Example 12
Use the factor theorem to test whether each linear factor is a factor of the polynomial
P(x) = x4 2x3 3x2 + 4x + 4.
a x + 3
b x 2
c x 1
d x + 1
Solution
a P(3) = 81 + 54 27 12 + 4
= 100
so x + 3 is not a factor of P(x).
b P(2) = 16 16 12 + 8 + 4
=0
so x 2 is a factor of P(x).
c P(1) = 1 2 3 + 4 + 4
=4
so x 1 is not a factor of P(x).
d P(1) = 1 + 2 3 4 + 4
=0
so x + 1 is a factor of P(x).
Example 13
3 + 5 + a b + 10 = 0
a b = 18
(1)
266
4a + 2b = 162
2a + b = 81
I C E - EM M at h e m at icsy e a r 1 0 B o o k 2
(2)
3a = 99
a = 33
b = 15
Exercise 18D
Example 10
1 Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder, and state whether or not D(x) is
a factor of P(x).
a P(x) = x2 5x + 2, D(x) = x + 4
b P(x) = 3x2 16x + 21, D(x) = x 3
c P(x) = x3 6x2 + 1, D(x) = x + 5
d P(x) = x3 11x2 + 8x + 20, D(x) = x 10
2 Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when P(x) = x4 6x2 + 3x + 2 is
divided by each linear polynomial D(x). Then state whether or not D(x) is a factor
of P(x).
a D(x) = x 1
b D(x) = x + 1
c D(x) = x 3
d D(x) = x + 3
e D(x) = x 2
f D(x) = x + 2
3 Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when each polynomial P(x) is divided
by D(x) = x + 1. Then state whether or not x + 1 is a factor of P(x).
Example 12
a P(x) = 5x2 7x 12
b P(x) = 5x2 + 7x 12
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267
Example 11
Example 13
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18E
Factorising polynomials
The factor theorem often allows us to find a linear factor of P(x) of the form x a. Then by
long division, P(x) = (x a)Q(x), where the degree of Q(x) is one less than the degree of
P(x). We may be able to repeat this process to obtain the complete factorisation of P(x).
In this section, for simplicity, we will only look for factors with integer coefficients.
For example, let us examine this polynomial:
P(x) = x3 + 4x2 7x 10
First, we search systematically for a factor. In question 8 of Exercise 18E, you will prove
that if x a is a factor of a polynomial with integer coefficients, then the only integer
possibilities for a are the factors of the constant term 10. Thus, we only need to try
substituting 1, 1, 2, 2, 5, 5, 10 and 10 into P(x).
P(1) = 1 + 4 7 10 = 12 0
P(1) = 1 + 4 + 7 10 = 0,
so x + 1 is a factor.
Next, we use long division to divide
P(x) by x + 1, and obtain:
P(x) = (x + 1)(x2 + 3x 10)
Now we factorise the quadratic x2 + 3x 10.
By inspection, x2 + 3x 10 = (x + 5)(x 2), so we have
factorised the cubic into 3 linear factors. That is:
x+1
x2 + 3x
x3 + 4x2
x3 + x2
3x2
3x2
10
7x 10
7x 10
+ 3x
10x 10
10x 10
0
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
269
2x2 is a common factor of all the terms, and we take this out first;
thus, P(x) = 2x2(x3 11x2 + 39x 45).
Let Q(x) = x3 11x2 + 39x 45. We now try to factorise Q(x).
We need only test the positive and negative factors of 45.
Q(1) = 1 11 + 39 45 = -16 0
Q(1) = 1 11 39 45 = 96 0
Q(3) = 27 99 + 117 45 = 0, so x 3 is a factor
After long division, we obtain Q(x) = (x 3)(x2 8x + 15)
The quadratic factors as x2 8x + 15 = (x 3)(x 5), and
so P(x) = 2x2(x 3)2(x 5).
Hence, we have a complete factorisation of the quintic (degree 5 polynomial) into
a constant times 5 linear factors.
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Factorising a polynomial
Suppose that P(x) is a polynomial with integer coefficients.
Take out any common factor, including powers of x.
Try to find a factor x a of P(x) by testing whether P(a) = 0. The only integer
possibilities for a are the positive and negative factors of the constant term.
Having found a factor, use long division to factorise the polynomial as (xa)Q(x),
where Q(x) has degree 1 less than the degree of P(x).
Continue this process on Q(x) to try and complete the factorisation of P(x).
We should admit at this point that most polynomials are extremely difficult to factorise.
Nevertheless, polynomials that can be factorised occur in many important situations and,
in any case, all mathematics begins by first dealing with the simplest cases.
For example, the polynomial x4 3x3 + 4x2 14x + 48 factorises as (x2 + 2x + 6)(x2 5x + 8)
and has no linear factors at all. So the techniques described in this section will not provide a
pathway to factorisation in this case.
Exercise 18E
1 a Write down, in factored form, the monic quadratic polynomial P(x) with
factors x 12 and x + 9.
b Expand P(x), then show that P(12) and P(9) are both zero.
2 Write down, in factored form, the monic quartic polynomial P(x) with
factors x 1, x + 1, x 2 and x + 2.
3 a For the cubic polynomial P(x) = x3 6x2 + 11x 6, show that P(1) = 0.
b Divide P(x) by x 1.
c Hence, factor P(x) into linear factors.
Example 14
4 Use the method given in this section to factorise these cubic polynomials.
b P(x) = x3 7x2 x + 7
d P(x) = x3 + x2 21x 45
e P(x) = x3 + x2 5x + 3
f P(x) = x3 + 3x2 4
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
271
Example 15
6 By first taking out a common factor, write each polynomial as a constant times a product
of linear factors.
a P(x) = 3x3 + 6x2 39x + 30
b P(x) = 5x3 5x2 20x + 20
c P(x) = x4 + x3 4x2 4x
d P(x) = x5 3x4 15x3 + 19x2 + 30x
e P(x) = x5 + 4x4 2x3 12x2 + 9x
7 Factorise each polynomial as a product of linear factors and one quadratic factor.
a P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 2x 5
b P(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 4x + 3
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18F
Polynomial equations
If a polynomial P(x) can be completely factorised, we can then easily find the solutions of
the polynomial equation P(x) = 0.
Example 16
Solve x3 + 4x2 7x 10 = 0.
Solution
(x + 1)(x 2)(x + 5) = 0
so
x + 1 = 0 or x 2 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
Example 17
2x2(x 3)2(x 5) = 0
x2 = 0 or (x 3)2 = 0 or x 5 = 0
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
273
Solution
b + b 2 4 ac
2a
or x =
b b 2 4 ac
2a
Example 19
7 + 53
2
and x =
7 53
2
7 + 53
2
and
7 53
2
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The following example is about as complicated as things get at this stage. It requires
searching for zeroes by substitution, followed by long division, followed by the
quadratic formula.
Example 20
x4 + x3 2x2 x + 1
x4
x2
x3 x2 x + 1
x3
x
+1
x2
2
+1
x
0
1 + 5
2
and x =
1 5
2
1 + 5
2
and x =
1 5
2
It is indeed the case that a polynomial equation of degree n cannot have more than
n solutions. For example, a quartic has at most four solutions. This follows from the
factor theorem.
C h a p t e r 1 8 P o ly n o m i a l s
275
Exercise 18F
1 Solve these polynomial equations.
a (x + 7)(x 5)(x + 6) = 0
b (x 3)2(x + 1) = 0
Examples 16, 17
Examples 18, 19
Example 20
276
a (x 3)(x2 + 6x 8) = 0
b (x + 5)2(3x2 2x 2) = 0
3 Use the factor theorem to factorise the left-hand side of each equation, then solve it.
a x3 2x2 13x 10 = 0
b x3 3x2 4x + 12 = 0
d x4 5x3 15x2 + 5x + 14 = 0
4 Solve:
a x3 7x2 + 11x 5 = 0
b x3 x2 8x + 12 = 0
d x4 + x3 2x2 + 4x 24 = 0
f x5 4x3 2x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
5 Solve:
a x3 7x2 + 11x + 3 = 0
b x3 + 4x2 + 10x + 7 = 0
d x5 3x3 4x2 + 2x + 4 = 0
I C E - EM M at h e m at icsy e a r 1 0 B o o k 2
18G
Sketching polynomials
In this section we will sketch the graphs of polynomial functions given in factorised form.
We begin by looking at the graphs of polynomials that do not have any repeated factors.
Consider the polynomial function y = x(x 2)(x + 3). When we substitute x = 0, x = 2 or
x=3 into this polynomial, we get zero.
These values are called the zeroes of the polynomial. No other value of x will make the
polynomial zero.
We saw earlier how to sketch the graph of a quadratic function. The graph of a quadratic
function is a smooth curve. Among the key features we looked for were the points at which
the curve cuts the coordinate axes.
In the example above, the graph of y = x(x 2)(x + 3) cuts the x-axis at the zeroes; that is,
at x = 0, x = 2, and x = 3.
The graph cuts the y-axis when x = 0, so the y-intercept is 0.
To get a picture of the overall shape of the curve, we can substitute some test points.
x
y
Sign of y
4
24
18
0 + 0 0
3
y = x(x 2)(x + 3)
Notice that if x is a large positive number, then P(x) is also large and positive. For example, if
x=10, then y = 1040.
If x is a large negative number, then P(x) is also a large negative number. For example, if
x=10, then y = 840.
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Example 21
The zeroes are at x = 2, 1, 1 and 2.These are the x-intercepts of the polynomial.
When x = 0, the y-intercept is 4.
We make up a sign diagram (use your own test points):
Sign of y +
x values
0 0 + 0 0 +
2
y = (x 3)2
Odd powers
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The change in sign near 0 tells us that the curve cuts the x-axis there. It moves from below
the x-axis to above the x-axis.
But, what happens near the origin? The point (1, 1) lies on the curve y = x3. Cubing a number
between 0 and 1 makes it smaller.
So for an x-value between 0 and 1, x3 < x and the point on y = x3 is below the corresponding
point on the line y = x.
Similarly, if x > 1 then x3 > x, so the point on y = x3 is above the corresponding point on the
line y = x.
y
1
1
y
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Even powers
The next example shows how to deal with even powers.
Example 22
The function y = x4 has a repeated factor, x. It cuts the coordinate axes at (0, 0). Since
the fourth power of any number is always positive, the sign diagram is:
Sign of y
x value
+ 0 +
y = x2
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
y = x4
0
y
y = (x +
3)4
81
It is a good idea to draw a sign diagram each time. We will see in the next section that the
sign diagram is very helpful in sketching more complicated polynomials.
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Exercise 18G
Example 21
Example 22
1 Identify the zeroes of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = (x 2)(x 4)
b y = x(x 2)(x 4)
c y = (x + 3)(x 1)(x 3)
d y = (x + 2)(x + 1)(x 3)
2 Identify the zeroes of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = (x 1)2
b y = (x 1)3
c y = (x 1)4
b y = (x + 2)3
c y = (x + 2)4
3 Sketch:
a y = (x + 2)2
b y = (x2 36)(x2 4)
d y = x2(20 5x2)
6 a A monic cubic polynomial, P(x), has zeroes at x = 2, x = 4 and x = 6. Write down the
equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P(x).
b A monic cubic polynomial, P(x), has one zero of multiplicity 3 at x = 3. Write down
the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P(x).
c A monic cubic polynomial, P(x), has one zero of multiplicity 3 at x = 2. Write down
the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P(x).
7 a Draw the graph of y = x(x 1)(x + 1).
b Draw the graph of y = x(x 1)(x + 1).
8 a Draw the graph of y = (x 1)3.
b Draw the graph of y = (x 1)3.
9 a Draw the graph of y = (x + 3)4.
b Draw the graph of y = (x + 3)4.
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18H
Further sketching of
polynomials
Let us begin with y = 2x(x 2)2, which has one repeated factor. The graph cuts the x-axis
at x = 0 and x = 2. The y-intercept is 0.
We now draw a sign diagram for this function.
Sign of y
+ +
x values
y = 2x(x 2)2
Sign of y
x values
The changes in sign tell us that the graph cuts the x-axis at the two zeroes.
The curve is flat near both zeroes.
The graph is:
y = (x + 3)3(x 1)3
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Note: As in the previous examples, we do not know the minimum value of y for the x-values
between 3 and 1. To find this, we need techniques from a branch of mathematics known as calculus
or we can use the symmetry of the graph about x = -1.
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Exercise 18H
Example 23
1 Identify the zeroes of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = x(x 2)2
b y = (x 2)2(x 4)2
c y = x2(x + 3)
d y = (x + 2)2(x + 1)3
2 Identify the zeroes of each polynomial. Draw sign diagrams and sketch the curves.
a y = (x 4)2(x + 4)2
b y = (x 4)3(x + 1)3
c y = x3(x 4)4
3 Sketch:
a y = (x + 2)2(x 1)2
b y = (x + 2)3(x 2)3
c y = x4(x + 2)4
4 Consider the polynomial y = (x + 2)2(x 1).
a Sketch the graph.
b For what values of x is the graph above the x-axis?
c For what values of x is the graph below the x-axis?
5 Consider the polynomial y = (x + 3)3(x 1)2.
a Sketch the graph.
b For what values of x is the graph above the x-axis?
c For what values of x is the graph below the x-axis?
6 a A monic polynomial, P(x), of degree 6 has triple zeroes at x = 2 and x = 4. Write down
the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P(x).
b A monic polynomial, P(x), of degree 5 has a triple zero at x = 3 and a double zero
at x = 1. Write down the equation of the polynomial. Draw the graph of y = P(x).
7 a Draw the graph of y = x2(x 1)2.
b Draw the graph of y = x2(x 1)2.
8 a Draw the graph of y = (x 1)3(x + 1)3.
b Draw the graph of y = (x 1)3(x + 1)3.
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Review exercise
1 State whether or not each expression is a polynomial.
a 5x2 + 3x 4
x2
x2 2
b 3 2x
e
x+2
x 3
8
b x3 5x + 7
d 3 5x 6x2
e 9 x x3
c 2x4 5x2 + 7
b P(1)
c P(2)
d P(2)
e P(a)
f P(2a)
b P(1)
c P(2)
d P(2)
e P(a)
f P(2a)
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a y = x3 x2 2x
b y = x3 2x2 5x + 6
c y = x3 4x2 + x + 6
d y = 2x3 5x2 + x + 2
e y = x3 + 2x2 x 2
h y = 6x3 5x2 2x + 1
a y = 2x(x2 4)
b y = (x + 2)3
c y = (x 2)4
d y = x2(x + 3)2
e y = x2(x + 1)2
f y = x(x + 2)2
g y = (x 3)2(x + 1)2
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Challenge exercise
1 Find the value of a, given that x2 + 1 is a factor of x4 3x3 + 3x2 + ax + 2.
2 Express x4 + 4 as the product of two quadratic polynomials with integer coefficients.
3 The remainder when x5 3x2 + ax + b is divided by (x 1)(x 2) is 11x 10.
Find a and b.
4 a If (x a1)(x a2)(x a3) = x3 + bx2 + cx + d then show a1 + a2 + a3 = b,
a1 a2 + a2 a3 + a1 a3 = c and a1 a2 a3 = d.
b Hence find the monic cubic equation with roots, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
5 P(x) is a polynomial of degree 5 such that P(x) 1 is divisible by
(x 1)3 and P(x) itself is divisible by x3. Find P(x).
6 x5 + 2x3 + ax2 + b is divisible by x3 + 1. Find the values of a and b.
7 Without long division, find the remainder when x49 + x25 + x9 + x is divided by x3 x.
8 a Show that (a2 + b2)(c2 + d2) = (ac + bd)2 + (ad bc)2.
b Show that (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)(x2 2x + 2)(x2 + 2x + 2) = ((x2 + 2)2 + x2)(x4 + 4).
c Hence, express (x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)(x2 2x + 2)(x2 + 2x + 2) as the sum of the
squares of two polynomials having integer coefficients.
9 Let P(x) be a polynomial leaving remainder A when divided by (x a),
and remainder B when divided by (x b), where a b.
Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x a)(x b).
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