Chapter 1

Introduction
Expansive soils are highly problematic soils and cause damage to structures
founded in them because of their potential to react to changes in moisture regime. They
swell when they imbibe water and shrink when water evaporates from them. Because of
the alternate swelling and shrinkage of these soils, civil engineering structures such as
foundations, retaining walls, pavements, canal beds and linings founded in these soils get
severely cracked, resulting in a huge financial loss. Millions of dollars in USA, millions
of pounds in United Kingdom and crores of rupees in India are spent every year to
address the damage caused by these soils. The hazards caused by these soils all over the
world have been recorded. In India they are called black cotton soils and are predominant
in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
in parts of Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) was the first to have investigated the
problems associated with expansive soils in 1938. Since then, extensive research has
been carried out all over the world to identify expansive clays, to determine their
swelling characteristics, to evolve methods of identifying the problems associated with
them, and to develop solutions to these problems.
An expansive soil can be identified by various means such as by the
mineralogical composition, correlation of swelling characteristics with index properties
and direct measurement of swelling characteristics. The most reliable of these techniques
is the direct measurement of swelling characteristics. Montmorillonites, kaolinites and
illites are the three major types of clay minerals. Of these three types of minerals,
montmorillonite contributes most to the volume change behaviour of expansive clay.
Among the more common techniques used for the determination of the mineralogical
composition are Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA), chemical analysis, X-Ray
Diffraction (XRD) and Electron Microscope Resolution (EMR) which, however, are
highly sophisticated.
A simpler method of identifying expansive clay is by using its index properties.
Attempts have been made to predict the swelling behaviour of expansive clays by

establishing various correlations with their index properties. Clay content, liquid limit,
shrinkage limit, plasticity index, shrinkage index and activity are among the index
properties used for the correlations. The initial water content and the initial dry unit
weight of the soil which are the placement conditions were also included in some of the
correlations. Correlations were also developed in terms of free swell index (FSI) and
placement conditions such as initial water content (wi), initial dry unit weight (di) and
initial surcharge pressure (qi). Free swell index is also considered as an index property as
far as expansive soils are concerned because it singularly reflects the potential
expansiveness of a soil.
It is seen that structures founded in expansive soils develop unsightly cracks due
to alternate swelling and shrinkage. The problem is more severe with lightly loaded
structures as the weight of the superstructure is not sufficient to resist the swelling
pressure of the underlying expansive soil and, as a result, heave occurs during monsoon.
This is later followed by shrinkage of the soil in summer. The ultimate result would be
unsightly and dangerous cracking of structures. The alternate swelling and shrinkage in
alternate rainy and summer seasons result in the distress of structural elements like walls,
columns, grade beams and flooring.
Many foundation techniques have been suggested for structures founded in
expansive soils in order to prevent this detrimental problem. Among these techniques are
the cohesive non-swelling (CNS) layer method, sand cushion method, drilled piers (or
straight shafted piers), belled piers and under-reamed piles. Chemical alteration has also
been tried but more as a post-construction technique. Lime, calcium chloride, cement and
fly ash are some of the stabilizing agents used in chemical treatment of expansive soils.
The above techniques vary in the degree of efficacy they offer. Some of them are easy to
install and administer and hence, they are economical. A few others require sophisticated
technology and equipment for construction and may not be economical for low-cost,
lightly loaded structures.
Granular pile-anchor (GPA) is a recent innovative foundation technique
developed to control heave and improve the engineering behaviour of the ambient
expansive clay. A GPA is found to be an innovative, yet cost-effective foundation
technique for reducing heave in expansive soils. In a GPA, the foundation is anchored to

a granular pile embedded in expansive soils through a mild steel anchor rod fastened to a
mild steel anchor plate of diameter equal to that of the granular pile at the bottom of the
pile. Naturally available stone and coarse sand can be used for the installation of GPAs.
Laboratory model studies and field scale studies performed on the GPA technique
indicate that granular pile-anchors are quite effective in resisting the heave of a
foundation in expansive clays. Further, the engineering characteristics of the ambient
expansive clay have also been found to have improved.
However, it is important to study the behaviour of GPA-reinforced expansive
clay beds subjected to shrinkage also. This study is required because structures founded
in expansive clays are subjected to both swelling and shrinkage in alternate rainy and
summer seasons. Hence, GPA-reinforced expansive clay beds of laboratory scale were
subjected to varying number of swell-shrink cycles, and the heave and shrinkage data
were obtained. Pull-out tests were also conducted on GPAs subjected to varying
shrinkage periods. The lab scale data would be quite useful in the study and prediction of
swell-shrink behaviour of GPA-reinforced expansive clay beds.
Chapter 2 presents a comprehensive review of literature on expansive soils.
Various foundation practices in expansive soils and their efficacy in reducing heave are
also discussed. They include physical and chemical alteration and special foundation
techniques such as belled piers and under-reamed piles. The concept and use of granular
pile-anchors (GPA) in expansive clays is also presented in detail. The chapter also
presents experimental data from previous research. Tests performed and the experimental
techniques employed for the determination of swelling and shrinkage of GPA-reinforced
expansive clay beds subjected to swell-shrink cycles are presented in Chapter 3. Pull-out
tests conducted on GPAs under varying shrinkage period are also described.
Results on swelling and shrinkage of GPAs subjected to varying number of
swell-shrink cycles are discussed in detail in Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7. A detailed analysis
of the results obtained from pullout tests on granular pile-anchors under different degrees
of swelling and shrinkage is presented in Chapter 8. A summary of the current work and
conclusions are presented in Chapter 9.