Doctoral school of energy- and geo-technology

January 1520, 2007. Kuressaare, Estonia

Pulverized combustion vs Circulating Fluidized Bed combustion

boiler efficiency comparison
Pavel Rusheljuk
Tallinn University of Technology
Pavel.Ruseljuk@nj.energia.ee

Abstract

1. Methods of determining efficiency

The thermal efficiency of steam generators can be

usually determined using the Input-output method
(efficiency is determined as the ratio of heat
absorbed by the working fluids) and Heat loss
method (determination of all accountable heat
losses, heat credits and the heat in the fuel). The
two are methods are equally acceptable.
For CFB combustion dissociation calcium
carbonate or calcium hydride involves endothermic
reaction, for which the input of energy is required.
In CFB boiler quantity of ash entering and being
extracted from the boiler will be reached, because
the CFB furnace holds significant amounts of inert
material. Therefore, the calculation of losses due to
the quantities of extracted ash (bed draw-down)
shall be based on the mass flow of ash entering the
boiler, thus ignoring any quantities of ash extracted
accidentally.
Boiler efficiency is formed by considering losses
relative to ideal products, so for CFB boiler losses
must be corrected with heat credit due to heat
receiving in sulfatation and heat credit to
incomplete decarbonation.

The thermal efficiency of steam generators

(Pulverized Combustion PC and Circulating
Fluidized Bed Combustion - CFB) can be usually
determined using the following two methods.

Keywords
efficiency; losses; heat; input-output method; heat
loss method

Introduction
A boiler is equipment that is sold with guaranteed
system efficiency. Some people call it design
efficiency to distinguish it from the operational
efficiency.
For instance saying a boiler has a guaranteed
efficiency of 90 % means 10 % of the energy input in
the boiler (mostly fuel energy) is lost and is not used
to generate steam. The trouble with this practice is
that there are several norms how to determine and
calculate efficiencies. Based on the norm efficiency
the same boiler may have at least two design
efficiencies.

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Input-output method:
Here, the efficiency is determined as the ratio of heat
absorbed by the working fluids (water and steam) to
the heat input (chemical heat plus heat credits added
to the steam generator).
Heat loss method:
Heat loss method requires the determination of all
accountable heat losses, heat credits and the heat in
the fuel. The efficiency is then equal 100 minus the
ratio of the sum of all heat looses to the sum of heat
in the fuel plus heat credits. It is recommended that
the major heat losses also be determined when using
this method.
The two are methods are equally acceptable. Which
method is to be given preference depends on the
technical resources. Where solid fuels are used, for
example, it is not possible or extremely difficult to
accurately measure large mass flows. Here, the only
viable choice is the heat loss method, which should
also be adopted when the fuel properties are subject
to large fluctuations. However, it is normally possible
to take accurate measurements of fuel flow in gas or
fuel oil firing installations. In this case, the inputoutput method may be the better choice, especially
for small steam generators, owing to the uncertainty
involved in the measurement of radiation and
convection losses.
The two methods have different levels of uncertainty.
The method with the highest accuracy should always
be employed.

2. Input-output method
Input-output method is the direct method for
calculating boiler efficiency. The simplest way to
calculate fuel-to-steam efficiency is the direct method
of calculation, using steam generation and fuel
consumption data from operating logs.

Direct method for calculating boiler efficiency

Measure steam flow (in kg) over a set period.
Use steam integrator readings if available;

Measure the flow of fuel over the same

period, using the gas or oil integrator;

Convert both steam and fuel flow to

identical energy unit (e.g. MJ or kJ);

The boiler losses consist of:

Calculate the efficiency using the following

equation: Efficiency = [steam energy / fuel
energy] x 100 %.
The most basic equation everybody agrees is

Flue gas exit losses [q2] are due to the heat

in the flue gas, which is discarded to the
atmosphere. The temperature at which the
gases are discarded is above the temperature
of the combustion air being drawn into the
boiler at ambient conditions. Typically, the
flue gases leave the boiler at about 120C to
150C, depending on the boiler design.

Unburnt chemical losses [q3].

Unburnt mechanical losses [q4] from

incomplete combustion of the coal, and
which is disposed of from the boiler with the
coal ash.

Where adsorbed heat Eout = the energy the feed

water has picked up.

Heat in the ash [q5], which is disposed of at

an elevated temperature.

Energy Input - Ein = the energy going into the boiler.

There is no disagreement of what "adsorbed heat"
means. It is the energy needed to convert feed water
entering the boiler at a specific pressure and
temperature to steam leaving the boiler at a specific
pressure and temperature. This includes the energy
picked up by the blow down and not converted into
steam.

Other (Heat) losses [q6], including heat loss

from the external walls of the boiler.

Efficiency = =

Eout
Ein

(1)

With solid fuel fired boilers it is impossible to

measure the fuel flow correctly. The direct method is
therefore used very seldom to determine the
efficiency of a boiler in the field. It is used as
confirmation of the measured losses if fuel, feed
water and steam meters are installed.
Advantages of direct method:

Quick and easy way to assess the efficiency

of boilers

Requires few parameters for computation

Needs few instruments for monitoring

Easy to compare evaporation ratios with

benchmark figures
Disadvantages of direct method:
There is no breakdown of losses by
individual streams

No clues are provided as to why efficiency

of system is lower

PC and CFB losses

%

(data Eesti Power Plant 2006 (jan.-nov.), PC-1-4;7 and CFB-8 units)

15
10
5
0
-5
PC
CFB

q2

q3

q4

q5

q6

14,0
10,2

0,0
-4,3

0,1
0,0

1,1
0,6

2,7
2,0

Figure 1. Actual data of heat losses in PC (unit 1-4;7)

and CFB (unit 8) of Eesti Power Plant in 2006 Y

In CFB boiler quantity of ash entering and being

extracted from the boiler will be reached, because the
CFB furnace holds significant amounts of inert
material. Therefore, the calculation of losses due to
the quantities of extracted ash (bed draw-down) shall
be based on the mass flow of ash entering the boiler,
thus ignoring any quantities of ash extracted
accidentally.
The correct derivation of the efficiency equation for
the indirect method is
Efficiency = =

3. Heat loss method

The main fuel properties that affect efficiency are
specific energy and moisture content. The boiler
efficiency for a particular fuel can be calculated by
the loss method, expressed as:
=

Userful heat out in steam

Heat from fuel

or
Boiler losses
=1
Heat from fuel

(2)

E out Ein Losses

Losses
=
=1
E in
E in
E in

(3)

In hot water boilers that may have stack gas

temperatures below 90oC, we observe system
efficiencies of larger 100% if the LHV (low heat
value) is used as energy input in the direct method
calculation. It is therefore recommended to avoid the
LHV as energy input, because it would violate the
Second Law of Thermodynamics which says the
energy output of a system (boiler) cannot be larger
than the energy input. In other words it is not possible
to create energy in a boiler.

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Using the direct method one does not have to list

losses because they dont enter into the calculation.
With the indirect method an agreement of what we
consider a loss must be reached. The most logical
way to do this is to draw a system boundary around
the boiler and declare all energy flows that leave the
boundary a loss. A sample list of losses is:

The chemical energy of unburned carbon

monoxide (CO) in the stack gas;

The sensible and latent heat of the dry stack

gas and the water in the stack gas;

The radiation and convection losses from the

boiler surface,

The blow down losses;

The sensible heat losses of the residue (ash);

The unburned carbon losses in the residue.

The heat loss is also called the indirect method.

Advantages of indirect method:

A complete mass and energy balance can be

obtained for each individual stream, which
makes it easier to identify options to
improve boiler efficiency.
Disadvantages of indirect method:
Time consuming

Requires lab facilities for analysis

Heat in fuel(s)
Heat in combustion air
Heat in atomizing steam/air
HEAT INPUTS
Heat in CaCO3
Heat in warming steam (air heater)
Heat in cooling water
Shaft power(s) of any medium used for operation
of the boiler inside the heat balance boundary
Heat in primary steam out
Heat balance
Heat in desuperheater water
Heat in primary steam in
boundary
HEAT ABSORBED BY
Heat in blowdown
WORKING FLUID(S)
Heat in reheat steam out
Heat in desuperheater water
Heat in reheat steam in
Heat in flue gases
Carbon monoxide in flue gases
Heat in CaO and CaSO4
Heat in refuse = fuel ash + unburned in refuse
Radiation and convection
Heat in warming steam (air heater)
Heat in cooling water
Soot blowing

Figure 3. CFB boiler heat inputs and outputs.

Boiler thermal efficiency has been calculated by

using the following formula:
B =

B m fuel

boiler fuel flow;

Qsu - heat credit due to heat receiving in

Qca

sulfatation;
- heat credit to incomplete decarbonation;

Qloss - boiler losses;

80

PC

CFB

82,1
82,1

91,5
90,2

Boiler efficiency has calculated based on the

following procedure:

Figure 2. Actual data of boiler efficiency in PC (unit 1-4;7)

and CFB (unit 8) of Eesti Power Plant in 2006 Y

For CFB combustion dissociation calcium carbonate

or calcium hydride involves endothermic reaction, for
which the input of energy is required. Conversely,
CaSO4 is formed by exothermic reaction in which
energy is gained:

CaCO3 CaO+ CO2 178, 98 kJ / mol

Ca(OH)2 CaO+ H2O 109, 53 kJ / mol
SO2 + CaO+ 0,5O2 CaSO4 + 501, 83 kJ / mol

4. PC vs CFB heat losses comparison

144

boiler thermal efficiency;

Qair - combustion air latent heat;

(data Eesti Power Plant 2006 (jan.-nov.), PC-1-4;7 and CFB-8 units)

85

Heat-Loss
Input-Output

Qnet
Qnet
=
m fuel qar + qair Qnet (Qsu + Qca ) + Qloss ( 5 )

Qnet - boiler net heat output;

90

75

HEAT LOSSES

qar - fuel heat value;

Boiler efficiency, %
%
95

HEAT BALANCE

(4)

Boiler heat and mass balance has been

calculated.
Net heat value (as received) used calculation
has been modified so that both sides of the
above formula are equal.
The share of magnesium carbonate in fuel,
bottom and fly ash has been considered in
the calculations, though the effects on
calculation results in on the minor side. The
following formulas have been used to define
decarbonisation rate of calculation rate of
calcium carbonate.

Share of calcium carbonates in fuel/bottom ash/fly

ash:
CaCO 3 = CO2 of carbonates

Ca HCl so lub le
Ca HCl so lub le + Mg HCl so lub le

(6)

5. PC vs CFB combustion boiler efficiency

definition
The established standards for computing boiler
efficiency err as they do not maintain the
fundamental definition of how the energy content of
a fossil fuel is determined. No error need exist if:
1) the referenced temperature used for computing
boiler efficiency is taken as the calorimeter
temperature at which heating value is obtained; and
2) consistent application is made of enthalpy of
product and reactant terms as based on the
calorimetric process, the interpretation of such terms
affecting the treatment of boiler losses and credit
terms (e.g., fan powers, pulverized shaft powers, etc.).
Boiler efficiency is intrinsically bound with
calorimetric temperature. Boiler efficiency associated
with high energy fossil fuels, whose heats of
combustion are insensitive to calorimetric
temperature, will have intrinsically high uncertainty.
However, for those fuels where adequate sensitivity
exists, and the accuracies of modern calorimeters
invoked, then boiler efficiency can be well
understood such that fuel flows can be accurately
computed.
There are other errors in the established standards
which are discussed, principally the treatment of
shaft powers; again, all related to the thermodynamic
bases of heating value and its calorimetric
temperature.
Heating value, when converted to a constant pressure
process must be the difference between the energy of
ideal combustion products and the energy of the
reactants; both evaluated at that temperature at which
the difference between these quantities was obtained,
the bombs calorimetric temperature.

6. PC vs CFB combustion boiler efficiency

correction
Boiler efficiency is formed by considering losses
relative to ideal products. Firing Corrections are
referenced to the reactants and burnt in a calorimeter.
Note the term Firing Correction denotes the
correction required to alter the energy level from the
calorimetric to the actual, as opposed to an arbitrary
boiler credit term in common use. A steam
generator has no credits to its conversion efficiency;
it is what it is as measured by the fuel energy it
consumes relative to that fuels established energy
level. Boiler efficiency then becomes an indicator of
energy conversion, from chemical to useful output,
relative to a common energy level.

All inputs to the system must be corrected to a

common energy level. There are no credits nor
losses associated with such corrections; boiler
efficiency will always be unity. However, if the
outputs (products) from combustion are not ideal,
they are then corrected through loss terms. Bear in
mind that all loss terms must be consistently
evaluated at the same energy level.
Firing Corrections affect reactants, while loss terms
correct ideal products both relative to how these
terms were established.

Conclusion
This work demonstrates a systemic approach to
determining boiler efficiency. It demonstrates
differences PC and CFB boiler efficiency.
Boiler efficiency, in the broadest sense, is useful
energy flow developed from a boiler, relative to the
supply of fuel energy. The fuels energy content is
dependent on the fuel chemistry and how heat was
obtained.
Boiler efficiency is formed by considering losses
relative to ideal products. However, if the outputs
(products) from combustion are not ideal, they are
then corrected through loss terms. For CFB
combustion dissociation calcium carbonate or
calcium hydride involves endothermic reaction, for
which the input of energy is required so for CFB
boiler losses must be corrected with heat credit due
to heat receiving in sulfatation and heat credit to
incomplete decarbonation.

References
1.

Acceptance testing of steam generators,

DIN 1942, UDC 621.18:003.62:389.16.

2.

Lang F.D., Monitoring and Improving CoalFired Power Plants Using the Input/Output
Method, Am. Society of Mech. Engrs.,
1998-UPGC-33, pp. 789-797.

3.

Lang F.D., Discort in Boiler Efficiency

Standarts and Calorimetric Temperature
(a suplement to Part III Input/Loss Paper,
Exergetic Systems Inc.

4.

Werdermann C., Werther J., Heat transfer in

large-scale circulating fluidized bed
combustors of different sizes, in Circulating
Fluidized Bed Technology IV, Ed. by
A.A.Avidan, AIChE, 428-435, NewYork,
1994.

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