eaa2016 Wilde suppression - Wikipedia, the free eneyelopecta
Wildfire suppression
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Wildfire suppression is a range of firefighting tactics used to suppress wildfires. Firefighting efforts in wild
land areas require different techniques, equipment, and training from the more familiar structure fire fighting
found in populated areas. Working in conjunction with specially designed aerial firefighting aircraft, these
wildfire-trained crews suppress flames, construct firclines, and extinguish flames and areas of heat to protect
resources and natural wilderness, Wildfire suppression also addresses the issues of the wildland-urban interface,
where populated areas border with wild land areas.
Contents
1 History
= Li Australia
= 1.2 Canada
= 1.3 United States
2 Objectives
= 2.1 Safety
= 2.2 Resource protection
3 Organization
= 3.1 Dispatch Centers
4 Management
5 Communication
6 Tactics
= 6.1 Direct attack
= 6.2 Indirect attack
= 63 Mop-up
= 6.4 Rehabilitation
7 Fires at the wildland-urban interface
8 Equipment and personnel
9 Success of fire suppression
10 See also
11 Citations
12 References
13 External links
History
Australia
Wildland fire, known in Australia as bush fire, has played a major role in Australia due to arid conditions.
Notable fire services tasked with wildfire suppression include the New South Wales Rural Fire Service, the
South Australian Country Fire Service, and the Victorian Department of Environment and Primary Industries
and the Country Fire Authority, “2131
Canada
Canada contains approximately 4,020,000 square miles (10,400,000 km”) of forest land, Seventy-five percent
of this is boreal forest, made up primarily of coniferous trees. More than 90 percent of Canadian forest land is
publicly owned, and the provincial and territorial governments are responsible for fire-suppression activities.
epson wikipedia orgwiktWilre_ suppression 1eaa2016 Wilde suppression - Wikipedia, the free eneyelopecta
The Federal Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Center (CIFFC) provides operational fire-control services and
links to all provincial and territorial fire agencies.
During a typical year there are over 9,000 forest fires in Canada, burning an average of 2.5 million hectares (ha)
or 9,700 square miles (25,000 km?). The number of fires and area burned can vary dramatically from year to
year. Average suppression costs are $300 million to $500 million annually.
In Canada, two-thirds of all forest fires are caused by people, while lightning causes the remaining third.
Despite this, lightning fires account for over 85 percent of the area burned in Canada, largely because many of
the lightning-caused fires occur in remote, inaccessible areas. Currently about ninety percent of forest fires are
fought. Generally fires near communities, industrial infrastructure, and forests with high commercial and
recreation value are given high priority for suppression efforts. In remote areas and wilderness parks, fires may
be left to burn as part of the natural ecological cycle.{41
United States
‘Wildfire suppression in the United States has had a long and varied
history. For most of the 20th century, any form of wildland fire, whether
it was naturally caused or otherwise, was quickly suppressed for fear of
uncontrollable and destructive conflagrations such as the Peshtigo Fire
in 1871 and the Great Fire of 1910. In the 1960s, policies governing
wildfire suppression changed due to ecological studies that recognized
fire as a natural process necessary for new growth. Today, policies
advocating complete fire suppression have been exchanged for those
who encourage wildland fire use, or the allowing of fire to act as a tool,
such as the case with controlled bums.
‘Tanks filled with water await possible
use as a fire burns on the crest of a
hill in Lebec, California, 2010
Objectives
Safety
Protection of human life is first priority for firefighters. Since 1995,
when arriving on a scene, a fire crew will establish safety zones and
escape routes, verify communication is in place, and designate lookouts
(known in the U.S. by the acronym Li for lookouts,
communications, escape routes, safety zones). This allows the
firefighters to engage a fire with options for a retreat should their current
situation become unsafe, Although other safety zones should be
designated, areas already burned generally provide a safe refuge from
fire provided they have cooled sufficiently, are accessible, and have
bumed enough fuels so as to not reignite. Briefings may be done to
inform new fire resources of hazards and other pertinent information.|5!
Lava flow on the coastal plain of
Kilauea, on the island of Hawaii,
‘generated this wildfire.
A great emphasis is placed on safety and preventing entrapment, a
situation where escape from the fire is impossible, Prevention of this situation is reinforced with two training
protocols, Zen Standard Firefighting Orders and Eighteen Situations That Shout Watch Out!) which warn
firefighters of potentially dangerous situations, developed in the aftermath of the Mann Guleh fire. As a last
resort, many wildland firefighters carry a fire shelter. In this inescapable situation, the shelter will provide
limited protection from radiant and convective heat, as well as superheated air. Entrapment within a fire shelter
is called a burnover. In Australia, firefighters rarely cary fireshelters, (commonly referred to as "Shake 'N’
Bake" shelters) rather training is given to locate natural shelters or the use of handtools to create protection, Or
in the instance of bumnover’ in a Tanker or other fire appliance, '
re over-run' training is used.!7]
epson wikipedia orgwiktilre_suppression 28eaa2016 Wilde suppression - Wikipedia, the free eneyelopecta
Hazards beyond the fire are posed as well. A very small sample of these include: unstable hazard trees, animals,
electrical cables, unexploded ordnance, hazardous materials, rolling and falling debris, and lightning.)
Personal safety is also vital to wildland firefighting. The proper use of PPE (personal protective equipment) and
firefighting equipment will ensure minimal accidents. At the very minimum wildland firefighters should have
proper fire retardant clothing (such as Nomex), protective head gear, wildland firefighting-specific boots,
gloves, water for hydration, fire shelters, eye protection, and some form of communication (most commonly a
radio).
Resource protection
Other resources are ranked according to importance and/or value. These include but are not limited to human
health and safety, construction cost, ecological impacts, social and legal consequences and the costs of
protection, Defendability is also considered, as more effort will need to be expended on saving a house with a
[8191
wooden-shake roof than one with a tile roof for example.
Organization
Across the United States Wildfire suppression is administered by land management agencies including the U.S.
Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, the Bureau
of Reclamation, the Army Corps of Engineers, and state departments of forestry. All of these groups contribute
to the National Wildfire Coordinating Group and the National Interagency Fire Center
Dispatch Centers
The National Interagency Fire Center hosts the National Interagency Coordination Center (NICC). NICC's
primary responsibility is positioning and managing national resources (i.e. Hotshot Crews, National Caters,
mobile shower units, and command repeaters). NIC also serves as clearing house for the dispatch ordering
system, Reporting to NIC are 10 Geographic Area Coordination Centers (Alaska, Great Basin, Northern
Rockies, Rocky Mountains, Southem California, Northem California, Eastern, Southern, and Southwest)
Under each GACC are several dispatch zones.
Management
Managing any number of resources over varying-size areas in often very rugged terrain is extremely
challenging. An incident commander (IC) is charged with overall command of an incident. In the U.S., the
Incident Command System designates this as being the first on scene providing they have sufficient training,
The size of the fire, measured in actes ot chains, will later dictate the class-level of IC required. Incident
‘management teams aid on larger fire incidents to meet more complex priorities and objectives of the incident
commander. It provides support staff to handle duties such as communication, fire behavior modeling, and map-
and photo-interpretation. Again in the U.S., management coordination between fires is primarily done by the
‘National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC)!!0!
USS. Fire Size Class!
A B c D E F G
0-1/4 acre) 1/4-10 acres 10-99 acres] 100-299 aeres | 300-999 acres 1000-4999 acres | 5000+
Specific agencies and different incident management teams may include a number of different individuals with
various responsibilities and varying titles. A fire information officer (IFO) generally provides fire-related
information to the publie, for example. Branch chiefs and division chiefs serve as management on branches and
hpacenwikipodarorgwikiWildfre_ suppression 38a20%68 ‘Wilde suporession- Wikipeta, the fee ereyclopadia
divisions, respectively, as the need for these divisions arise. Investigators may be called to ascertain the fire's
cause, Prevention officers such as forest rangers may patrol their jurisdictional areas to teach fire prevention
and prevent some human-caused fires from happening to begin with./5)
Communication
Information may be communicated on fires in many forms. Radios, vocals, visual signals such as flagging and
mirrors, literature such as an JAP or incident action plan, whistles and mobile touch-sereen computer terminals
are some examples.!"!] The USFS Visual Signal Code system provides symbols used to communicate from
ground to air, while aircraft may use wing tilting, motor gunning or circling to communicate air-to-ground.®)
Radio communication is very typical for communication during a Wildfire. This is due to the wide coverage
provided and the ability to communication in a one to many format. One of the most popular radio
‘manufacturers for this application is Relm Wireless (also known as Bendix King and BK Radio). Relm
Wireless is a U.S. based company based out of Florida and hold many contracts with various government
entities [1] (http://www.relm.com/sections/resources/contracts.asp). The other up and coming company entering
this niche market is Midland Radio . Midland Radio's U.S. Headquarters is based in the midwest (Kansas City,
MO)and they manufacturer many radio models including Mobiles and Portables [2] (http://midlandradio.com/L
and-Mobile-Radio.SXF).
Tactics
Operating in the U.S. within the context of fire use, firefighters may only suppress fire that has become
uncontrollable, Conversely, fires or portions of a fire that have previously been engaged by firefighters may be
treated as fire use situation and be left to burn.
All fire suppression activities are based from an anchor point (such as lake, rock slide, road or other natural or
artificial fire break). From an anchor point firefighters can work to contain a wild land fire without the fire
outflanking them.
Large fires often become extended campaigns. Incident command posts (CPs) and other temporary fire camps
are constructed to provide food, showers, and rest to fire crews.
Weather conditions and fuel conditions are large factors in the decisions made on a fire. Within the U.S., the
Energy Release Component (ERC) is a scale relating fuel energy potential to area, The Burning Index (BI)
relates flame length to fire spread speed and temperature. The Haines Index (HI) tracks stability and humidity
of air over a fire. The Keetch-Byram Drought Index relates fuels to how quickly they could ignite and to what
re they should burn. The Lightning Activity Level (LAL) ranks lightning potential into six classes.!*]
percenta
Fuel models are specific fuel designations determined by energy burning potential. Placed into 13 classes, they
range from "short grass" (model 1) to "logging slash" (model 13). Low-numbered models burn at lower
intensities than those at the higher end.
Direct attack
Direct attack is any treatment applied directly to burning fuel such as wetting, smothering, or chemically
quenching the fire or by physically separating the burning from not burned fuel. This includes the work of
urban and wildland fire engines, fire personnel and aircraft applying water or fire retardant directly to the
burning fuel. For most agencies, the objective is to make a fireline around all fire meant to be suppressed
Indirect attack
hpacenwikipodarorgwikiWildfre_ suppression 46a20%68
Preparatory suppression tactics used a distance away from the oncoming
fire are considered indirect. Firelines may be built in this manner as
well. Fuel reduction, indirect firelines, contingency firelines,
backburning and wetting unburnt fuels are examples. This method may
allow for more effective planning, It may allow for more ideally placed
firelines in lighter fuels using natural barriers to fire and for safer
firefighter working conditions in less smoke filled and cooler areas.
However, it may also allow for more burned acreage, larger hotter fires,
and the possibility of wasted time constructing unused firelines.{*1
Attempts to control wildfires may also include by controlling the area
that it can spread to by creating control lines: boundaries that contain no
combustible material. These may be constructed by physically removing
combustible material with tools and equipment, or portions may be
naturally occurring. Lines may also be created by backfiring: creating
small, low-intensity fires using driptorches or flares. The resultant fires
are extinguished by firefighters or, ideally, directed in such a way that
they meet the main fire front, at which point both fires run out of
flammable material and are thus extinguished. Additionally, the use of
long-term fire retardants, fire-fighting foams, and superabsorbent
polymer gels may be used. Such compounds reduce the flammability of
materials by either blocking the fire physically or by initiating a
chemical reaction that stops the fire.
Unfortunately, any method can fail in the face of erratic or high
intensity winds and changing weather. Changing winds may cau:
to change direction and miss control lines. High-intensity winds may
cause jumping or spotting as burning embers are carried through the air
over a fireline, Burning trees may fall and burning materials may roll
across the line, effectively negating the barrier.
Mop-up
The threat of wildfires does not cease after the flames have passed, as
smoldering heavy fuels may continue to burn unnoticed for days after
flaming.!"2] It is during this phase that either the burn area exterior or
the complete burn area of a fire is cooled so as to not reignite another
fire,
Rehabilitation
Constructed firelines, breaks, safety zones and other items may damage
soil systems, encouraging erosion from surface run-off and gully
formation, The loss of plant life from the fire also contributes to erosion.
Construction of waterbars, the addition of plants and debris to exposed
soils and other measures help to reduce this.{!3]
Fires at the wildland-urban interface
"There are three categories of interface fire: The classic wildland/urban
interface exists where well-defined urban and suburban development
presses up against open expanses of wildland areas; the mixed
wildland/urban interface is characterized by isolated homes,
hpacenwikipodarorgwikiWildfre_ suppression
Wilde suppression - Wikipedia, the free eneyelopecta
A helicopter dips its bucket into a
pool before dropping the water on a
wildfire close to Naples, Italy.
In this picture, retardant drops,
bulldozer fire-lines and backburns are
used in an indirect attack on a large
fire near Chelan, WA
Plowing a control line in advance of a
wildfire, Georgetown, South Carolinaa20%68 ‘Wilde suporession- Wikipeta, the fee ereyclopadia
subdivisions and small communities situated predominantly in wildland
settings; and the occluded wildland/urban interface exists where islands
of wildland vegetation occur inside a largely urbanized area."!!4]
Expansive urbanization and other human activity in areas adjacent to
wildlands is a primary reason for the catastrophic structural losses
experienced in wildfires.!'5] Continued development of wildland-urban
interface firefighting measures and the rebuilding of structures
destroyed by fires has been met with criticism.!7] Communities such as
Sydney and Melbourne in Australia have been built within highly
flammable forest fuels. The city of Cape Town, South Africa lies on the
fringe of the Table Mountain National Park. In the western United States
from the 1990s to 2007, over 8.5 million new homes were constructed.
on the wildland-urban interface.!161
Water Tender ANF 10, from the
USDA U.S. Forest Service, Angeles
National Forest in the San Gabriel
‘Mountains of the Southern
California, Los Angeles Area. This
Type II Tender is staffed by a 2 crew
‘members
Fuel buildup can result in costly, devastating fires as more new houses
and ranches are built adjacent to wildemess areas. However, the population growth in these fringe areas
discourages the use of current fuel management techniques. Smoke from fires is an irritant and a pollutant,
Attempts to thin out the fuel load may be met with opposition due to the desirability of forested areas, Wildland
protections and habitat preservation." The
(7
goals may be further resisted because of endangered speci
ecological benefit of fire is often overridden by the economic benefits of protecting structures and liv
Additionally, federal policies that cover wildland areas usually differ from local and state policies that govern
(si008)
urban lands.
In North America, the belief that fire suppression has substantially reduced the average annual area burned is
widely held by resource managers and is often thought to be self-evident. However, this belief has been the
focus of vocal debate in the scientific literature.
Equipment and personnel
Wildfire suppression requires specialist personnel and equipment. Notable examples include Smokejumpers
(firefighters who parachute into remote areas) and Helicopter support.
Success of fire suppression
The success of wildfire suppression techniques is debated amongst the scientific community. A number of
studies (produced during the 1990s) using Ontario government fire records compared either the number of fires.
or the average fire size between areas with and without aggressive fire suppression policies.(!"121 They found
that the average fire size was generally smaller in areas of aggressive policy. One report, written in 1998 by
Stocks and Weber, said; "Use of fire as a management tool recognizes the natural role of fire and is applied
judiciously for ecosystem maintenance and restoration in selected areas."'@!] A later 2005 study concluded that
"Fire suppression is (functionally) effective insofar as it reduces area burned".|72)
Other studies have concluded that the 20th century change in the fire cycle is a result of climate change.!?3] 4
1993 study by Bergeron & Archambault said: "post-'Little Ice Age’ climate change has profoundly decreased
the frequency of fires in the northwestern Québec boreal forest"! Critics have also highlighted that small fires
are virtually unreported in areas without aggressive fire suppression policies, where detection often relies on
reports from settlements or commercial aircraft, leading to incorrect average fire size data for those regions.!?5)
See also
hpacenwikipodarorgwikiWildfre_ suppression ae= 2002 airtanker crashes
= Aerial firefighting
= Fire ecology
= Glossary of wildland fire terms
= International Association of Wildland Fire
Citations
1. "New South Wales Rural Fire Service, Operations”,
NSW Rural Fire Service. NSW Government.
Retrieved 15 February 2014.
2. "Country Fire Authority, Op". Country Fire
Authority. CFA (Australia), Retrieved 15 February
2014.
3. "South Australian Country Fire Service". South
Australian Country Fire Service. SACFS. Rettieved
15 February 2014
4, Forest Fire in Canada, Natural Resources Canada,
2008-06-05, retrieved 2009-05-01
5. Incident Operations Standards Working ‘Team
(January 2006), Incident Response Pocket Guide
(PDF), National Wildfire Coordinating Group
(NWCG), pp. i-101
6, "Standard Firefighting Orders and 18 Watchout
Situations". Risk Management. US Forest Service.
Retrieved 12 October 2015,
7. Our Trial by Fire, oncarth.org, 12-1-07, retrieved 1-
7-09 Check date values in: Jaccess-date=, |date=
(help)
8. Interagency Strategy for the Implementation of
Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy (PDE),
National Interagency Fire Council, June 20, 2003,
archived from the original (PDF) on September 16,
2008, retrieved 2008-12-21
9. Wildland Fire Policy, US Forest Service, retrieved
2008-12-21
10, "An Integration of Remote Sensing, GIS, and
Information Distribution for Wildfire Detection and
Management" (PDF), Photogrammetric Engineering
and Remote Sensing, 64 (10): 971-985, October 1998,
11. Hoose, Michael, Tech Tactics, Wildfire Magazine,
retrieved 2009-01-21
12, de Sousa Costa and Sandberg, 227.
13. Effects of Fire on Soils and Erosion: Erosion and
Mass Soil Movement, cWater CRC's Bushfire and
Catchments, retrieved 2009-01-08
14, City of West Covina Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan:
Section 9 Wildfire, City of West Covina (California,
USA), retrieved 2009-07-14
15, Wildfire Suppression: Strategies for Containing Costs
(PDF), National Academy of Public Administration,
September 2002, ISBN 1-57744-094-3, retrieved
2009-01-21
References
25. Miyanishi, K; E. A. Johnson (2001),
Wilde suppression - Wikipedia, the free eneyelopecta
= Tanker 910
= Wildland Firefighter Foundation
= National Fire Danger Rating System
16, Are Big Fires Inevitable? A Report on the National
Bushfire Forum (PDF), Parliament House, Canberra:
Bushfire CRC, 27 February 2007, retrieved
2009-01-09
17, Extreme Events: Wild & Forest Fire, retvieved
2009-01-07
18, van Wagtendonk, Jan W. (2007), "The History and
Evolution of Wildland Fire Use" (PDF), Fire Ecology,
Association for Fire Ecology, 3 (2): 3-17,
doi:10.4996/fireecology.0302003, retrieved
2008-08-24 (U.S. Government public domain material
published in Association journal. See WERC
Highlights -- April 2008 (http://www.werc.usgs.govin
ews/apr2008.html))
19, Stocks, Brian J (1991), The extent and impact of
forest fires in northern circumpolar countries, MIT
Press
id, P.C.; A.G, Tithecott (1993), "The impact of
fire management on the boreal landscape of Ontario",
Aviation, Flood and Fire Management Branch
Publication, 308. Cite uses deprecated parameter
Icoauthors= (help)
21, Weber, MG; Stocks, BJ (Nov 1998), "Forest Fires
and Sustainability in the Boreal Forests of Canada",
Ambio, 27 (7): 545-550, retrieved 8 July 2010. Cite
uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
22, Cumming, S.G. (2005), "Effective fire suppression in
boreal forests", Canadian Journal of Forest
Research, Can. J, For, Res., 38: 772,
doi:10.1139/x04-174
23. Johnson, Edward A (1996), Fire and Vegetation
Dynamics: Studies from the North American Boreal
Forest, Cambridge University Press, p. 144,
ISBN 978-0-521-34943-7
24, Yves Bergeron; Sylvain Archambault (1993),
"Decreasing frequency of forest fires in the southern
boreal zone of Québec and its relation to global
‘warming since the end of the 'Little Ice Age’. The
Holocene. Retrieved 5 August 2010,
Comment—A
re-examination of the effects of fire suppression in the
boreal forest", Canadian Journal of Forestry
Research, 31: 1462, doi:10.1139/cjf'-31-8+1462. Cite
‘uses deprecated parameter |coauthors (help)
= de Souza Costa, Fernando; Sandberg, David (2004), "Mathematical model of a smoldering log" (PDF),
Combustion and Flame (139): 227-238, doi:10.1016/j.combustflame.2004,07.009, retrieved 2009-02-06
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78.eaa2016 Wilde suppression - Wikipedia, the free eneyelopecta
= Graham, Russell; McCaffrey, Sarah; Jain, Theresa B. (April 2004), "Science Basis for Changing Forest
Structure to Modify Wildfire Behavior and Severity" (2.79MB PDF), Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-120,
Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station:
USDA Forest Service, retrieved 2009-02-06
= Karki, Sameer (2002), Community Involvement in and Management of Forest Fires in South East Asia
(PDF), Project FireFight South East Asia, retrieved 2009-02-13
= Mitchell, Joseph W. (September 2006), "Wind-enabled ember dousing" (PDE), Fire Safety Journal, 41
(6): 444-458, doi:10.1016/.firesaf 2006.04,002
ryre, A. P. (1994), Taiga, Twenty-First Century Books, ISBN 0-80-502830-7
* Stocks, B. J; R. B. Street (1983), "Forest fire weather and wildfire occurrence in the boreal forest of
northwestern Ontario", Resources and dynamics of the boreal zone., Association of Canadian Universities
Northern Studies: 249-265. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
= Amo, S. F; R. P. hammerly (1984), Timberline. Mountain and Arctic Forest Frontiers, Mount
Books, p. 304, ISBN 0-89886-085-7 Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
= Amo, S.F; Worrall, J; Carlson, C.E. (1995), "Larix lyallii: Colonist of tree-line and talus sites", Ecology
and Management of Larix Forests: A Look Ahead, USDA Forest Service: 72-78. Cite uses deprecated
parameter |coauthors= (help);
= Casals P, Valor T, Besali: A, Molina-Terrén D. Understory fuel load and structure eight to nine years after
prescribed burning in Mediterranean pine forests (http://arxiudigital.ctfe.cat/docs/upload/27_523_casals_
FEM_2016.pdf). DOL: 10.1016/j.foreco.2015.11.050
* Valor T, Gonzalez-Olabarria JR, Piqué M. Assessing the impact of prescribed burning on the growth of
European pines (http://arxiudigital.etfe.cat/docs/upload/27_434_Valor_etal_2015.pdf). DOI:
10.1016/.foreco.2015.02.002.
ers
External links
= The Intemational Association of Wildland Fire (http://www.iawfonline.org)
= Canadian Wildland Fire Information System (http://ewfis.cfs.nrean.ge.ca/en_CA/index)
= The Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre (CIFFC) (http://www.cific.ca/index.php?option=com_front
page&Itemid=1)
= British Columbia Ministry of Forests Protection Branch (http://bewildfire.ca/) -- FAQs (http://bewildfire.
calFAQ/behaviour.htm)
= United States National Interagency Fire Center (http:/www.nifc.gov)
= Wildfire History and Ecology (http://epluhna.nau.edwBiota/wildfire.htm)
= National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Fighting Wildfires (http://www.cde.goviniosh/topi
s/firefighting/)
= Ballistic System for Fighting Forest Fire (http://www.extinciondeincendios.es)
1 sps services (http:/www.spsservices.com.au/)
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