2 Fluoroelastomer Composition and Properties

2.1 Major Families of

Fluorocarbon Elastomers

fluoride, tetrafluoroethylene, and ethylene) would

contribute to crystallinity if incorporated in sufficiently
long sequences. The other three monomers
[hexafluoropropylene, perfluoro(methyl vinyl ether),
and propylene] have bulky side groups that hinder
crystallization and allow synthesis of amorphous elastomers. VDF and PMVE contribute to low glasstransition temperature (Tg) and thus to good lowtemperature flexibility. All the fluoromonomers impart
good resistance to hydrocarbons. VDF is a polar
moiety, especially when incorporated adjacent to
perfluorinated monomer units, so it contributes to
swelling in contact with low molecular weight polar
solvents and is susceptible to attack by base. Ethylene and propylene units contribute to swelling in contact with hydrocarbons, but are resistant to polar solvents and base. Several families of commercial
fluoroelastomers have been designed with various
combinations of these major monomers to get characteristics necessary for successful performance in
wide ranges of applications and environments.
Dipolymers of vinylidene fluoride (VDF) and
hexafluoropropylene (HFP) make up the largest
volume of fluoroelastomers sales. Only one composition (VDF/HFP about 60/40 weight percent
or 78/22 mole %, 66% fluorine) is of commercial
importance, but it is offered in a wide range of viscosities and in numerous formulations tailored for

Fluorocarbon elastomers are copolymers of various combinations of monomers. Composition can be

chosen to get a desired combination of properties.
The main characteristics affected by composition
are fluid resistance, stability at high temperatures,
and flexibility at low temperatures. Ease of processing and curing also vary with composition. The situation with fluoroelastomers is analogous to that of
several hydrocarbon-based elastomers in which composition determines the trade-off between oil resistance and low-temperature characteristics. For example, in the nitrile rubber family (NBR, copolymers
of butadiene and acrylonitrile), higher acrylonitrile
content enhances oil resistance, but gives poorer lowtemperature flexibility. The same trade-off exists for
acrylate content of elastomers based on copolymers
of ethylene and ethyl acrylate. Chlorine content exerts similar effects in chlorinated polyethylene elastomers. The range of property variation that can be
attained by varying composition is much greater for
fluoroelastomers than for the hydrocarbon-based
elastomer families.
Effects of various major monomers on important fluoroelastomer characteristics are indicated
in Table 2.1. Three of the monomers (vinylidene

Table 2.1 Fluoroelastomer Characteristics Imparted by Major Monomers

Contribution
Monomer

Formula

Resistance to:
Tg

Crystallinity

Hydrocarbons

Polar
Solvents

Base

VDF

CH2CF2

HFP

CF2CFCF3

TFE

CF2CF2

PMVE

CF2CFOCF3

CH2CH2

CH2CHCH3

14
specific applications. Other dipolymer compositions
can be made, but higher VDF content leads to significant crystallinity, while lower VDF levels give
much higher glass-transition temperatures, both detrimental to low-temperature flexibility. Terpolymers
of VDF and HFP with tetrafluoroethylene (TFE)
afford a better way to get enhanced fluid resistance
without such severe effects on low-temperature
characteristics. Useful terpolymers can be made with
VDF content as low as about 30% to get fluoroelastomers with higher fluorine content (up to about 71%)
and better fluid resistance. Most curing of these elastomers is based on the versatile bisphenol cure system, but some TFE-containing polymers are designed
for free radical (peroxide) curing.
A family of fluoroelastomers growing in importance because of better low-temperature characteristics is based on use of perfluoro(methyl vinyl
ether) [PMVE] in place of HFP in copolymers with
VDF and TFE. Incorporation of a small amount of
cure site is necessary to facilitate curing with peroxide systems. These PMVE-containing elastomers
are useful at temperatures 10C to 20C lower than
possible with HFP-containing polymers with comparable VDF content. Figure 2.1 shows trends in
fluid resistance and low-temperature flexibility for
vulcanizates of VDF/HFP/TFE and VDF/PMVE/

FLUOROELASTOMERS HANDBOOK
TFE elastomers with varying fluorine (VDF) content. All these elastomers are resistant to a wide
range of fluids. However, for this comparison, a fuel
mixture (M15 Fuel) containing 15% methanol and
85% standard hydrocarbon Fuel C was chosen to
show the relatively large increase in volume swell
with higher VDF content (lower fluorine content).
The measure of low-temperature characteristics
shown, TR-10, is a test carried out on cured strips
of elastomer. The specimen is stretched, locked in
the elongated condition, and cooled to very low temperature; then the specimen is released, and allowed
to retract freely while raising the temperature at a
uniform rate. TR-10 is the temperature at which the
specimen has retracted 10%. For a vulcanizate of
medium hardness, TR-10 is close to the glass transition temperature of the base polymer. TR-10 decreases with increasing VDF content, and is much
lower for PMVE-based fluoroelastomers.
Perfluoroelastomers, copolymers of TFE with
PMVE or a perfluoro(alkoxyalkyl vinyl ether), have
excellent resistance to most fluids. With properly
designed cure systems, TFE/PMVE elastomer
vulcanizates have long service life at temperatures
up to 300C. Perfluoroelastomer parts can be designed for use in extreme environments that would
destroy other elastomers.

Figure 2.1 Fluid resistance and low-temperature flexibility of VDF-based fluoroelastomers.[6]

2 FLUOROELASTOMER COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

Two families of fluoroelastomers are based on
copolymerization of fluoromonomers with ethylene
or propylene. Copolymers of TFE and propylene are
resistant to polar fluids and base, but susceptible to
high swell in hydrocarbons. Incorporation of VDF
improves oil resistance at the expense of some base
resistance. Ethylene may be used in place of VDF
in copolymers with TFE and PMVE to get excellent
resistance to most solvents and polar fluids, including base and amines.
Determination of fluoroelastomer composition is
rather difficult. VDF/HFP dipolymer composition and
monomer sequencing were determined by 19 F
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).[1] A typical
spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.2. In studies related to
curing, W. W. Schmiegel has interpreted the more
complicated VDF/HFP/TFE and VDF/PMVE/TFE
terpolymer spectra.[2] For quantitative analysis of terpolymers, VDF may be determined by 1H NMR;
then TFE and HFP or PMVE can be calculated from
19F NMR on the same polymer. In practice, NMR
analysis is not sufficiently rapid or precise for routine use in polymerization plant control. Elemental
analyses for C, H, and F are of limited utility, with
fluorine determination being particularly susceptible
to bias errors because of interaction of fluorine with
laboratory glassware used in the analysis. (Values
of fluorine content of fluoroelastomers reported by
suppliers are based on calculations from overall
monomer composition, rather than direct analysis.)
Usually a number of well characterized copolymers
of varying composition are used as standards for

Figure 2.2 19F NMR spectrum, VDF/HFP dipolymer.[2]

15
calibration of suitable Fourier Transform Infrared
(FTIR) methods for the various fluoroelastomer families. Careful monomer mass balances around wellcontrolled laboratory polymerization reactors allow
preparation of precise composition standards. Even
so, some inconsistencies probably exist in reported
values of fluorine content by different fluoroelastomer suppliers.

2.2

VDF/HFP/(TFE) Elastomers

A ternary plot[3] of all the possible polymer compositions from VDF, HFP, and TFE monomers is
shown as Fig. 2.3, based on polymer synthesis and
thermal characterization studies by the author. A
number of VDF/HFP and VDF/TFE dipolymers and
VDF/HFP/TFE terpolymers were made by emulsion polymerization in a continuous reactor, with
compositions determined by monomer mass balances. Glass transition temperatures, melting points,
and heats of fusion were determined by differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC). Polymers were designated as elastomers if they had glass transition temperatures less than 20C, crystalline melting points
below 60C, and heats of fusion below 5 joules per
gram. The Tg limit set the high-HFP, low-VDF
boundary, and the limits on crystallinity set the lowHFP, high-VDF or high-TFE boundary of the elastomeric range. The large region of high-VDF or highTFE plastics was characterized by high crystallinity
(heats of fusion above 10 J/g) with melting points

16

FLUOROELASTOMERS HANDBOOK
be obtained with peroxide-cured, high-fluorine types.
These elastomers are not recommended for contact
with low molecular weight ketones and esters (e.g.,
acetone or ethyl acetate) because of excessive swell.
They are attacked by strong bases and concentrated
amines at high temperature.

Table 2.2 VDF Fluoroelastomers - Composition, Tg

Type

% VDF

%F

Tg, C

60

66

-18

AL

60

66

-21

BL

50

68

-18

45

69

-13

36

70

-8

VDF/HFP
A
VDF/HFP/TFE
Figure 2.3 A ternary plot of all the possible polymer
compositions from VDF, HFP, and TFE monomers.

above 120C. These plastics have been described

in the first two volumes of this handbook series.[4]
The intermediate region labeled elastoplastics comprises polymers with considerable crystallinity melting at 60C120C. These are rather stiff polymers
with higher modulus than elastomers. They do not
generally have adequate mechanical properties for
commercial usefulness. The unlabeled region of highHFP compositions would have high Tg and low crystallinity; these are impractical to make because of
poor polymerizability of high-HFP mixtures.
Approximate compositions of commercial elastomeric products are shown on the ternary diagram,
with letters denoting the various composition families using the Viton type nomenclature developed
by DuPont Dow Elastomers, as listed in Table 2.2.
HFP levels in these commercial polymers were chosen to be high enough to avoid significant crystallinity, but were kept as low as possible to get reasonable low-temperature flexibility and processing
characteristics. All these polymers can be cured with
the versatile bisphenol cure system, which gives good
processing characteristics and excellent vulcanizate
properties. These fluoroelastomers are recommended for use in contact with aromatic hydrocarbons, chlorinated solvents, gasoline, motor oils, and
hydraulic fluids. Products with high fluorine content
are useful in contact with alcohol-containing fuels.
Good resistance to hot water, steam, and acids can

VDF/PMVE/TFE
GLT

54

64

-29

GFLT

36

67

-23

Figure 2.4 Ternary diagram showing all the possible

polymer compositions based on VDF, PMVE, and
TFE monomers.

2 FLUOROELASTOMER COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

2.3 VDF/PMVE/TFE
Elastomers
The ternary diagram, Fig. 2.4, shows all the possible polymer compositions based on VDF, PMVE,
and TFE monomers. The elastomeric range is much
more extensive for this system, since amorphous
polymers with low Tg can be obtained with low, or
no, VDF content. Two VDF-containing commercial
products, Viton GLT and GFLT, are indicated on the
ternary plot and listed in Table 2.2. The terpolymers
cannot be cured satisfactorily with bisphenols; instead, small amounts of bromine or iodine cure sites
are incorporated to allow peroxide curing. Recently,
a new class of VDF/PMVE/TFE products has been
developed, with incorporation of a reactive cure-site
monomer to allow bisphenol curing in special formulations.[5] Processing of the bisphenol-curable
products is significantly improved over that of peroxide-cured versions, especially in facilitating efficient
molding with extremely low mold fouling and parts
rejection rates. Fluid resistance depends on VDF
content, similar to that of HFP-containing elastomers.
However, the PMVE-based fluoroelastomers have
much better low-temperature characteristics than
those of HFP-based polymers, as shown in Figs. 2.1,
and 2.5, a plot of Tg versus VDF content.

Figure 2.5 VDF-based fluoroelastomers: Tg vs % VDF.

17
Low-temperature characteristics of fluoroelastomers are often assessed by relatively simple tests,
such as Tg of raw polymer, TR-10 of cured strips, or
brittle point (temperature at which a sample cracks
on bending). Such tests provide only a rough indication of usefulness of the materials in actual applications. While difficult and time-consuming to measure precisely, o-ring seal performance at low
temperature has been evaluated for a number of fluoroelastomers.[6] Using a specially designed o-ring seal
rig, the temperature at which nitrogen under pressure started to leak appreciably was recorded. Seal
test results are shown in Fig. 2.6, in comparison to
screening tests on fluoroelastomers of various compositions. Minimum temperatures for effective sealing are significantly lower than Tg or TR-10 values,
and generally somewhat higher than brittle points.

2.4 TFE/PMVE
Perfluoroelastomers
Copolymers of TFE with 2540 mole %
perfluoroalkyl vinyl ether are elastomeric. With properly chosen cure systems, they may have oxidative,
chemical, and thermal resistance approaching that
of polytetrafluoroethylene plastics. Copolymers of

18

FLUOROELASTOMERS HANDBOOK

Figure 2.6 Low-temperature properties of VDF-based fluoroelastomers.[6]

TFE and PMVE containing about 45% PMVE are

amorphous and have glass transition temperatures
of about 4C, as shown as Kalrez in Fig. 2.4 and
FFKM in Fig. 2.5. Cure systems developed by
DuPont[7] use perfluorinated cure-site monomers to
get vulcanizates stable for extended service at 300C
and resistant to most aggressive fluids. The most
successful of these cure sites are formed by copolymerizing about 1 mole % of functional vinyl ether
of general structure: CF2=CFORFX, with RF denoting perfluoroalkylene and X a functional group,
OC6F5 or O(CF2)nCN. Copolymers with perfluorophenyl cure sites are crosslinked with a specially
designed bisphenol system. Those with pendant cyano groups are cured using tetraphenyltin as catalyst to form highly stable triazine crosslinks.[8] Relatively long press cures followed by long postcures
in an oven under nitrogen are necessary to attain
the final stable crosslink structures of the finished
parts. These copolymers are made by emulsion polymerization using an inert perfluorinated soap. Reaction temperatures must be kept low to get intact

incorporation of the functional vinyl ether cure-site

monomers. The persulfate-sulfite redox initiation
system used by DuPont for the first perfluoroelastomer products gave predominantly sulfonate end
groups which form ionic associations stable at temperatures normally used for mixing, extruding, and
forming molded shapes. Thus they could not be processed readily like other fluoroelastomers. Because
of this, DuPont developed specialized handling methods for making parts (mainly o-ring seals) sold as
Kalrez Perfluoroelastomer Parts. Later products
developed by DuPont Dow and other producers are
made with other initiator systems to get more tractable elastomers processible by conventional means.
Iodine or bromine cure sites have been incorporated in perfluoroelastomers by use of suitable
comonomers or transfer agents. These polymers can
be cured with conventional peroxide systems using
multifunctional crosslinking agents such as triallylisocyanurate. The resulting vulcanizates retain most
of the fluid resistance of the perfluoroelastomer parts

2 FLUOROELASTOMER COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

previously described, but peroxide-cured products
have lower thermal resistance (maximum long term
service temperature about 230C) and are susceptible to attack by strong oxidizing agents. To get better low-temperature flexibility (Tg about 20C),
Daikin[9] developed peroxide-curable perfluoroelastomers based on TFE copolymerization with complex vinyl ethers of structure CF2=CF[OCF 2
CF(CF3)]nOCF2CF2CF3 with n = 14. These
products are sold as raw polymer for conventional
processing by parts fabricators.
In spite of high cost, perfluoroelastomers are
used in many applications where other materials are
unsatisfactory. In the chemical processing industries,
perfluoroelastomers provide reliable seals against
most fluids over a wide range of conditions. Such
high performance results in lower costs for seal replacement and in avoiding emission of hazardous materials. Perfluoroelastomers are finding increased use
as seals in semiconductor fabrication lines, since
these materials withstand exposure to plasmas and
other aggressive fluids at high temperatures without
contamination of the semiconductor parts. One of
the first uses of perfluoroelastomers was in parts to
protect electrical components used in oil field exploration and production. These parts withstand the high
temperatures and pressures involved in deep wells,
as well as aggressive sour gas and corrosive fluids.
Perfluoroelastomer seals are used in aerospace and
in military and commercial aircraft. Because of their
inertness and cleanliness, perfluoroelastomers are
approved for seals in the food and pharmaceutical
industries.
To assure adequate performance of perfluoroelastomers seals at temperatures up to 300C
above ambient, special design considerations must
be taken into account. Perfluoroelastomers have high
coefficients of thermal expansion, and their compounds contain relatively low levels of filler, so seal
groove geometry has to allow adequate space for
the elastomer to expand at high temperatures. If the
grooves are too small, seal failure may occur by extrusion of the elastomer out of the groove, or by
cracking due to local strains exceeding the elongation-at-break of the elastomer. DuPont Dow Elastomers offers finite element analysis to fabricators
as an aid to designing proper shapes of the
perfluoroelastomer parts and the seal apparatus for
specific applications.

19

2.5

TFE/P Elastomers

Because of the strong alternating tendency of

TFE and propylene monomers in free radical polymerization, the dipolymers vary little in composition.
Commercial TFE/P elastomers are made slightly rich
in TFE (about 53 mole %) to avoid contiguous
propylene units that would tend to give lower thermal stability. The regular alternating chain structure,
[CF2CF2CH2CH(CH3)]n, is elastomeric because the random orientation of methyl groups from
nonstereospecific incorporation of propylene prevents crystallization. However, glass transition temperature is relatively high, near 0C, so the elastomer
has mediocre low-temperature flexibility. The low
fluorine content (about 55%) leads to poor resistance
to hydrocarbons, especially aromatic solvents. Since
the hydrogen-bearing carbon atoms are adjacent to
only one fluorine-bearing carbon (rather than two
as in VDF-containing polymers), TFE/P copolymers
are nonpolar. Thus the elastomer is highly resistant
to polar solvents and to dehydrofluorination by base
or amines. With its good electrical resistivity, the nonpolar dipolymer has found considerable application
in wire and cable insulation. Asahi Glass developed
a thermal treatment process to obtain enough active
sites for curing with peroxide and radical trap
crosslinking systems.[10] Processing characteristics
of TFE/P compounds are inferior to those of VDFcontaining fluoroelastomers, so the elastomer is used
only in situations where resistance to base or polar
fluids is required. Incorporation of small amounts of
potential cure-site monomers (e.g., monomers containing bromine or iodine) in TFE/P elastomers has
not led to practical cures.
Various terpolymers of TFE and propylene with
10%40% VDF have been developed to get better
processing and curing characteristics, as well as high
fluorine content for better hydrocarbon resistance.
Terpolymers with TFE/P mole ratio about 1.5 contain about 59% fluorine and are curable with bisphenol if VDF content is above 10%.[11] Such terpolymers are more polar in nature, so base resistance is
significantly reduced compared to the dipolymer.
However, resistance to automotive lubricants containing amine moieties at high temperature is
greater than that of VDF/HFP/TFE fluoroelastomers. TFE/P/VDF terpolymers containing 30%
or more VDF have better low-temperature flexibility (Tg about 15C) than dipolymers.

20

FLUOROELASTOMERS HANDBOOK

Recently, copolymers of TFE and propylene with

relatively low levels (3%5%) of trifluoropropylene,
CH2=CHCF3, have been developed.[12] These can
be cured with bisphenol systems, and have fluid and
base resistance similar to that of TFE/P dipolymer.

2.6

E/TFE/PMVE Elastomers

To get better resistance to polar fluids and bases

than that of VDF/HFP/TFE and VDF/PMVE/TFE
elastomers, and better low-temperature flexibility
and resistance to hydrocarbons than that of TFE/P
polymers, elastomeric copolymers (ETP) of ethylene with TFE and PMVE were developed.[13] The
useful elastomeric range for this monomer combination is approximately 1040 mole % ethylene units,
2040 mole % PMVE units, and 3260 mole %
TFE units. Higher ethylene or lower PMVE contents lead to increased Tg and crystallinity. Glass transition temperatures are higher, about 5C to 15C,
for the range of E/TFE/PMVE compositions noted
than for VDF/TFE/PMVE elastomers of similar fluorine content. Because of the strong alternating tendency of olefins with perfluorinated monomers in
free radical polymerization, ethylene is incorporated
as isolated units flanked by TFE or PMVE units.
Typical monomer sequences are shown in Fig. 2.7
for ETP and GFLT, a VDF/TFE/PMVE elastomer.
The polymers have 67% fluorine content and es-

sentially the same elemental content. The change

from sequences of contiguous VDF units to E-TFE
dyads leads to higher Tg by about 10C, and to much
enhanced resistance to polar solvents and to chemical attack by base or amines.
Various cure-site monomers have been studied
for ETP curing. Commercial products are based on
bromine cure sites that allow conventional peroxide
curing with crosslinking agents such as triallyl
isocyanurate or trimethallyl isocyanurate. Mechanical properties and thermal stability of such ETP
vulcanizates are similar to those of similarly cured
VDF-containing fluoroelastomers. Vulcanizate properties and environmental resistance of ETP are compared with other fluoroelastomers in Table 2.3, in
tests chosen to show the different characteristics of
the elastomers. ETP is compared with a bisphenolcured VDF/HFP dipolymer (A), a peroxide-cured
high-fluorine VDF/HFP/TFE polymer (GF), and a
peroxide-cured TFE/P dipolymer. Compared to
VDF-containing elastomers, ETP has resistance to
aliphatic and aromatic fluids similar to that of GF,
but greatly superior resistance to polar fluids (e.g.,
ketones), base, and oil additives. Compared to TFE/
P, ETP has better low-temperature flexibility, similar resistance to base and amine-containing fluids,
better resistance to aliphatic and aromatic fluids, and
somewhat better resistance to polar fluids. All these
fluoroelastomers swell more in fluids than perfluoroelastomers.

ETP: E/TFE/PMVE, 67% F

CF2CFCF2CF2CH2CH2CF2CF2
|
OCF3
GFLT: VDF/TFE/PMVE, 67% F
CF2CFCH2CF2CH2CF2CF2CF2
|
OCF3
Figure 2.7 Typical monomer sequences of ETP and GFLT.

2 FLUOROELASTOMER COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES

21

Table 2.3 Properties of ETP vs Other Fluoroelastomers[14]

A
VDF/HFP
66
2
Bisphenol

Polymer
GF
TFE-P
VDF/HFP/TFE
TFE/P
70
55
1
4
Peroxide
Peroxide

Monomers
%F
%H
Cure
Original properties
M-100, MPa
1.0
1.2
a
T-B, MPa
16.3
19.8
b
E-B, %
190
215
Hardness, Shore A
77
79
TR-10, C
-17
-7
Brittle Point, C
-20
-48
Heat Aged 70 h at 250C
-4
4
T-Ba change, %
b
E-B change, %
-3
0
Hardness change, points
1
1
Aged 168 h at 150C in EP Gear Lube
T-Ba change, %
-36
-53
b
-58
-56
E-B change, %
Hardness change, points
7
2
Volume increase, %
1
3
Aged 168 h at 40C in toluene
T-Ba change, %
-41
-27
b
-21
-2
E-B change, %
Hardness change, points
-10
-10
Volume increase, %
23
11
Aged 168 h at 23C in methyl ethyl ketone
-92
-86
T-Ba change, %
b
E-B change, %
-79
-77
Hardness change, points
-42
-38
222
183
Volume increase, %
Aged 168 h at 100C in 30% potassium hydroxide
-94
-93
T-Ba change, %
b
E-B change, %
58
-44
Hardness change, points
-47
-49
Volume increase, %
132*
12*

*Samples breaking up.

a

T-B = Tensile strength-at-break. E-B = Elongation-at-break.

ETP
E/TFE/PMVE
67
1
Peroxide

0.7
17.1
255
73
2
-58

1.4
15.4
205
82
-11
-34

-16
10
-1

0
17
0

-8
10
-5
6

-6
15
-1
3

-66
-43
-35
64

-21
7
-8
9

-66
-47
-34
77

-34
5
-17
19

12
10
-1
1

-8
29
-3
6

22

FLUOROELASTOMERS HANDBOOK

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1. Ferguson, R. C., J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 86:2003 (1964)
2. Schmiegel, W. W., Die Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie, 76/77:3965 (1979)
3. England, D. C., Uschold, R. E., Starkweather, H., and Pariser, R., Fluoropolymers: Perspectives of
Research, Proc. The Robert A. Welch Conferences on Chemical Research XXVI: Synthetic Polymers,
Houston, Texas (1982)
4. Ebnesajjad, S., Fluoroplastics Volume 1: Non-Melt Processible Fluoroplastics (2000), and Volume
2: Melt Processible Fluoroplastics (2002), Plastics Design Library, William Andrew Inc., Norwich,
N.Y.
5. Bowers, S., and Thomas, E. W., Improved Processing Low Temperature Fluorohydrocarbon Elastomers,
ACS Rubber Division meeting (Oct 1720, 2000)
6. Stevens, R. D., Thomas, E. W., Brown, J. H., and Revolta, W. N. K., Low Temperature Sealing
Capabilities of Fluoroelastomers, SAE International Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan (Feb
26 March 2, 1990)
7. Logothetis, A. L., Fluoroelastomers, in; Organofluorine Chemistry: Principles and Commercial
Applications, p. 389, (R. E. Banks, et al., eds.), Plenum Press, New York (1994)
8. Breazeale, A. F., U.S. Patent 4,281,092, assigned to DuPont Co. (Jul 28, 1981)
9. Amano, T., and Tatemoto, M., U.S. Patent 4,487,903 (1984)
10. Morozumi, M., Kojima, G., and Abe, T., U.S. Patent 4,148,982, assigned to Asahi Glass Co. Ltd. (Apr
10, 1979)
11. Grootaert, W. M. A., and Kolb, R. E., U.S. Patent 4,882,390, assigned to Minnesota Mining and
Manufacturing Co. (Nov 21, 1989)
12. Bauerle, J. G., and Schmiegel, W. W., U.S. Patent Application Publication No. U.S. 2003/0065132 (Apr
3, 2003)
13. Moore, A. L., U.S. Patent 4,694,045, assigned to DuPont Co. (Sep 15, 1987)
14. Stevens, R. D., and Moore, A. L., A New, Unique Viton Fluoroelastomer With Expanded Fluids
Resistance, ACS Rubber Division, Cleveland, Ohio (Oct 21-24, 1997)