PHD B. Columbia 1985 Undr Respons of Sat Sands - Liquef and Cyclic Mobility Chern - 1985

UNDRAINED RESPONSE OF SATURATED SANDS
WITH EMPHASIS ON LIQUEFACTION AND CYCLIC MOBILITY

by
JIN-CHING CHERN
B.S., National Taiwan University, 1968

M.E., Asian I n s t i t u t e of Technology, 1971
M.A.Sc, The University of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1981
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

January, 1985
Jin-Ching Chem, 1985
In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the

requirements for an advanced degree at the University
of B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree that the Library s h a l l make
i t f r e e l y available for reference and study.
I further
agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis

for scholarly purposes may
be granted by the head of
department or by h i s or her representatives.
my
It i s
understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis

for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be allowed without my
permission.
Department of
C/u.'J
<g->^j j ^ r - ,
The University of B r i t i s h Columbia

1956 Main Mall
Vancouver, Canada
V6T
1Y3
Date
rLu*^^
/S" .
14 8-S~
written
ABSTRACT
An experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the undrained monotonic and c y c l i c

loading behaviour of a saturated angular sand and a rounded sand under
t r i a x i a l conditions i s presented.
These studies are aimed at obtaining a
u n i f i e d approach to the undrained behaviour of sand spanning from s t r a i n

softening (termed l i q u e f a c t i o n or l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n ) to s t r a i n hardening
response and l i n k i n g the c y c l i c loading behaviour to the monotonic
loading behaviour.
It i s also aimed at i n v e s t i g a t i n g the differences In
undrained loading behaviour of sand with d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e a n g u l a r i t y .

Under monotonic loading, the s t r a i n softening response i s i n i t i a t e d
and terminated at two d i s t i n c t values of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s r a t i o termed
c r i t i c a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s r a t i o state (CSR) and phase
transformation
s t a t e (PT), regardless of the r e l a t i v e density and consolidation stress

conditions.
For s t r a i n hardening response, the s t a r t of d i l a t i o n also
occurs at the same e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s r a t i o of PT f o r s t r a i n softening

response.
It i s shown that the unique steady s t a t e l i n e concept f o r
l i q u e f a c t i o n Is a l s o v a l i d f o r l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n .
The PT states f o r
s t r a i n hardening response, however, form a s e r i e s of l i n e s , which are

function of I n i t i a l void r a t i o , merging i n t o the unique steady state l i n e
as the consolidation stresses increase.
A 3-D
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s state behavioural model i s developed, which
enables p r e d i c t i o n of the anticipated undrained loading behaviour ( s t r a i n

softening or s t r a i n hardening) from the knowledge of the i n i t i a l state of
the sand.
It Is shown that a complete s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of i n i t i a l state of
sand, i . e . , void r a t i o , confining pressure and s t a t i c shear, i s required

to predict the type of undrained response, e s p e c i a l l y f o r angular sand.
- ii -
Under c y c l i c loading, i f l i q u e f a c t i o n develops, the CSR, e f f e c t i v e

stress r a t i o at PT state and steady state l i n e are the same as those
observed under monotonic loading.
If c y c l i c m o b i l i t y develops, the
e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o at PT state i s also the same as that observed

under monotonic loading.
Thus, the 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram
provides a l i n k between monotonic and c y c l i c loading behaviour, and i s

used to develop the c r i t e r i a f o r the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n and
cyclic mobility.
The influences of void r a t i o and confining pressure on
the c y c l i c loading behaviour are s i m i l a r to those f o r the monotonic loading behaviour.
However, the influence of s t a t i c shear on c y c l i c loading
behaviour can be completely d i f f e r e n t depending on whether l i q u e f a c t i o n

or c y c l i c m o b i l i t y i s developed.
The undrained loading behaviour of rounded sand i s s i m i l a r to that
of the angular sand.
However, for the range of consolidation stresses of
i n t e r e s t , the i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density alone provides a good s i n g l e parameter c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the i n i t i a l state of the sand, and hence i t s a n t i c i pated response.
- i i i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL ASPECTS OF UNDRAINED BEHAVIOUR OF SAND
LABORATORY TESTING
21
3.1. Test Apparatus
21
3.1.1. T r i a x i a l Apparatus
21
3.1.2. Loading System
24
3.2. Testing Procedures
31
3.2.1. Sample Preparation and Saturation
31
3.2.2. Methods of Loading
34
3.3. Testing Program
38
3.4. Material Tested
41
3.4.1. S o i l Description
41
3.4.2. Consolidation C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
43
UNDRAINED MONOTONIC LOADING BEHAVIOUR
48
4.1. Typical Undrained Monotonic Loading Behaviour
48
4.2. S t r a i n Softening and S t r a i n Hardening Responses
68
4.2.1. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Undrained Responses
69
4.2.2. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S t r a i n Softening and

Strain Hardening Responses
4.3. Undrained Strength Under Monotonic Loading
82
91
4.3.1. Peak Strength for States which Developed

Liquefaction
94
4.3.2. Steady State Strength
104
4.3.3. Phase Transformation Strength f o r D i l a t i v e

Response
107
- iv -
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)
Chapter
Page
4.4. 3-D E f f e c t i v e Stress State Diagram
109
4.5. Role of Void Ratio, Confining Pressure and

S t a t i c Shear Stress on Undrained Monotonic
Loading Behaviour
115
4.5.1. Void Ratio or Relative Density
115
4.5.2. Confining Pressure
116
4.5.3. S t a t i c Shear Stress or Consolidation

Stress Ratio
5
118
UNDRAINED CYCLIC LOADING BEHAVIOUR
122
5.1. Liquefaction Induced Under C y c l i c Loading
123
5.1.1. Liquefaction During C y c l i c Loading
124
5.1.2. A p p l i c a b i l i t y of Steady State Concept to

Liquefaction Under C y c l i c Loading Conditions
129
5.1.3. C r i t e r i a to Cause Liquefaction Under C y c l i c

Loading
136
5.1.4. Test Results
145
5.2. C y c l i c Mobility Induced Under C y c l i c Loading

5.2.1. Strain Development Due to C y c l i c Mobility
157
157
5.2.2. C r i t e r i a to Cause C y c l i c M o b i l i t y Under

C y c l i c Loading
5.2.3. Test Results
169
169
5.3. Resistance to Strain Development Under C y c l i c

Loading
177
5.4. Influence of Certain Factors on the Undrained

C y c l i c Loading Behaviour
- v -
179
TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)
Chapter
Page
5.4.1. Void Ratio or R e l a t i v e Density
179
181
5.4.3. S t a t i c Shear Stress or Consolidation

Stress Ratio
185
5.5. Prediction of Undrained C y c l i c Loading Behaviour
194
5.6. Phenomenon of Spontaneous Liquefaction
197
CONCLUSIONS
206
REFERENCES
210
- vi-
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Page
Characteristic behaviour of saturated sand under
undrained monotonic loading
Effective stress paths of contractive and dilative

response
11
Characteristic behaviour of dilative sand after large

deformation
11
Strain development on loading after the attainment of

transient state of zero effective stress
14
Cyclic loading behaviour of contractive sand - true

liquefaction and limited liquefaction
16
Cyclic loading behaviour of dilative sand - cyclic

mobility
18
3.1
Schematic layout of t r i a x i a l apparatus
22
3.2
Schematic layout of loading system
25
3.3
Detailed layout of consolidation system
26
3.4
3.5
Anisotropic consolidation stress paths

Undrained monotonic loading response with limited
liquefaction using dead weight loading
30
36
Influence of the pneumatic loading system on the strain

softening behaviour
37
3.7
Grain size distribution curves of sands tested
42
3.8
Consolidation characteristics of tailings sand
44
3.9
Consolidation characteristics of Ottawa sand
45
4.1
a-c
Undrained monotonic compression loading behaviour of

i n i t i a l l y loose tailings sand under low, moderate and
high confining pressure
50
Effective stress paths of monotonic compression loading

response of i n i t i a l l y loose tailings sand
53
3.6
4.2
- vii -
LIST OF FIGURES (Continued)
Figure
4.3
a,b
Page
i n i t i a l l y dense t a i l i n g s sand under moderate and high
confining pressure
55
E f f e c t i v e stress paths of monotonic compression loading

response of i n i t i a l l y dense t a i l i n g s sand
57
Undrained monotonic extension loading behaviour of

i n i t i a l l y loose t a i l i n g s sand
59

i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand under low and high confining
pressure
60

response of i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand
62

i n i t i a l l y medium dense Ottawa sand under low and high
confining pressure
64

response of i n i t i a l l y medium dense Ottawa sand
66
Undrained monotonic extension loading behaviour of

i n i t i a l l y medium dense Ottawa sand
67
Relationship between e c and

at PT state f o r t a i l i n g s
sand at f i x e d e^ under undrained compression loading . . . .
70

at PT state f o r t a i l i n g s
sand with various e^ under undrained compression loading
71
Relationship between e c and a 3 at PT state f o r Ottawa

sand with various e^ under undrained compression loading
75
Comparison of steady state condition under compression

and extension
77
Grain size d i s t r i b u t i o n of t a i l i n g s sand before and after

test
79
4.16
Microphotograph of t a i l i n g s sand before and a f t e r test ..
81
4.17
Undrained monotonic loading response under various

confining pressure
83
4.4
4.5
4.6
a,b
4.7
4.8
a,b
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
viii-
Figure
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
4.25
4.26
Page
E f f e c t i v e stress conditions at the i n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n
softening response and s t a r t of d i l a t i o n of t a i l i n g s sand
under undrained compression loading
85
Undrained monotonic loading behaviour of t a i l i n g s sand

consolidated Into the region of contractive deformation
88

softening response and s t a r t of d i l a t i o n of Ottawa sand
under undrained compression loading
90

softening response and s t a r t of d i l a t i o n of t a i l i n g s
sand under undrained extension loading
92

softening response and s t a r t of d i l a t i o n of Ottawa
sand under undrained extension loading
93
Relationship between e f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i p a l stress

at CSR state and e f f e c t i v e minor consolidation stress
for t a i l i n g s sand
95
Relationship between the r a t i o of e f f e c t i v e minor

p r i n c i p a l stress at CSR state and e f f e c t i v e minor
consolidation stress vs K c r a t i o for t a i l i n g s sand
96
Comparison of undrained monotonic loading response of

t a i l i n g s sand under the same major consolidation stress
but with d i f f e r e n t K c ratios
99
Undrained strengths of t a i l i n g s sand under monotonic

compression loading
100
Relationship between e f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i p a l stress at

CSR state and e f f e c t i v e minor consolidation stress f o r
Ottawa sand
102
Relationship between the r a t i o of e f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i pal stress at CSR state and e f f e c t i v e minor consolidation
stress vs K r a t i o for Ottawa sand
103
4.29
Steady state shear strength of t a i l i n g s sand
105
4.30
Steady state shear strength of Ottawa sand
106
4.31
(a) 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram f o r t a i l i n g s sand,

and (b) A t y p i c a l section at constant e c
112
4.27
4.28
- ix -

Figure
A.32
5.1
a-c
5.2
a-c
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
Page
Influence of static shear stress on the undrained monotonic loading behaviour
119
Undrained cyclic loading behaviour of contractive

tailings sand under low, moderate and high confining
pressure
125
Undrained cyclic loading behaviour of i n i t i a l l y loose

Ottawa sand under low, moderate and high confining
pressure
130
Effective stress conditions at the i n i t i a t i o n of strain

softening response and start of dilation of tailings
sand under undrained cyclic loading
134
Effective stress conditions at the i n i t i a t i o n of strain

softening response and start of dilation of Ottawa sand
under undrained cyclic loading
135
Comparison of steady state confining stress of tailings

sand under monotonic and cyclic loading conditions
137
Comparison of steady state confining stress of Ottawa

138
Comparison of steady state shear strength of tailings

139
5.8
Comparison of steady state shear strength of Ottawa sand

under monotonic and cyclic loading conditions
140
5.9
Cyclic shear stress conditions to cause liquefaction at

fixed e c
142
Cyclic stress required to cause liquefaction or 2.5%

axial strain for contractive tailings sand consolidated
to various Kc ratios
14?
5.10
5.11
Typical undrained cyclic loading response for contractive

tailings sand showing cyclic mobility
149
5.12
Typical undrained cyclic loading response for contractive

tailings sand showing (a) liquefaction and (b) cyclic
mobility
150
5.13
Typical strain development vs number of cycles for contractive tailings sand consolidated to various K ratios
- x -
1 5 2
Figure
Page
5.14
C y c l i c s t r e s s required to cause l i q u e f a c t i o n f o r i n i t i a l l y
loose Ottawa sand consolidated to various Kc r a t i o s
153
5.15
Typical i l l u s t r a t i o n of l i q u e f a c t i o n of i s o t r o p i c a l l y
consolidated Ottawa sand under c y c l i c loading
155
Typical s t r a i n development vs number of cycles f o r

i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand consolidated to various K c
ratios
156
5.17
a-c
Typical undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand
159
5.18
a-c
Typical undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of anisot r o p i c a l l y consolidated d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand
162
5.19
Schematic i l l u s t r a t i o n o f monotonic and c y c l i c loading

response of saturated sand i n 2-D state diagram
167
C y c l i c stress required to cause 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n f o r

d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand consolidated to various K c ratios
171
5.21

d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand consolidated to various K c r a t i o s
172
5.22
C y c l i c s t r e s s required to cause 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n f o r

medium dense Ottawa sand consolidated to various K c
ratios
175

medium dense Ottawa sand consolidated to various K c
ratios
176
Influence of confining pressure on the resistance to

s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading
183
Influence of s t a t i c shear s t r e s s on the resistance to

s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading: (a) d i l a t i v e
t a i l i n g s sand; (b) medium dense Ottawa sand
186
Influence of s t a t i c shear s t r e s s on the resistance to

s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading: (a) contractive
t a i l i n g s sand; (b) i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand
137
Schematic i l l u s t r a t i o n showing the influence of s t a t i c

shear stress on the resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n under
c y c l i c loading
192
5.16
5.20
5.23
5.24
5.25
5.26
5.27
- xi-
Figure
5.28
5.29
Page
Flow chart f o r assessing the p o t e n t i a l of l i q u e f a c t i o n
or c y c l i c m o b i l i t y
196
Spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n induced by pore pressure

increase i n i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand
200
5.30
5.31
5.32
Spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n Induced by pore pressure

increase i n contractive t a i l i n g s sand
201
Comparison of r e l a t i v e values of s t a t i c shear stress

and steady state shear strength f o r t a i l i n g s sand at two
Kc r a t i o s
203
Comparison of r e l a t i v e values of s t a t i c shear s t r e s s

and steady s t a t e shear strength f o r Ottawa sand at two
Kc r a t i o s
204
- xii -
NOTATIONS
A ^ a r e a
of top chamber and bottom chamber of air loading piston
Ar
area of the loading ram
sample area
a
max
maximum ground surface acceleration
Skempton's pore pressure parameter
c r i t i c a l effective stress ratio constant = ( a * / c l )
CSR
c r i t i c a l effective stress ratio
CT
characteristic threshold
relative density
rc
relative density after consolidation

i n i t i a l relative density of specimen as prepared (under
2
i n i t i a l effective stress of 0.2 kgf/cm )

e
void ratio
e^
void ratio after consolidation

i n i t i a l void ratio of specimen as prepared (under i n i t i a l
2
effective stress of 0.2 kgf/cm )

g
gravitational acceleration
bias relay constant
consolidation stress ratio = o' fal

l c 3c
magnification factor of pressure amplifier
number of stress cycles
p,p1,p2,p
air pressures
P*
= 1/2 (a* +
PT
phase transformation
ap
xii i
= 1/2 (a' - op
magnification factor of ratio relay
signal pressure
steady state line
undrained peak shear strength
undrained steady state shear strength
shear stress increment to peak shear strength under undrained
monotonic loading
pore pressure
excess pore pressure
axial strain
angle of internal friction
major and minor effective pricipal stresses
major total principal stress
major and minor effective prinpcipal stress increments
major and minor effective principal consolidation stresses
critical consolidation stress
major and minor effective principal stresses at peak
strength
deviator stress
cyclic deviator stress
deviator stress increment
cyclic shear stress = (jCy./2
static shear stress
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In presenting this t h e s i s , the author wishes to express his g r a t i tude to the University of B r i t i s h Columbia and National Research Council
of Canada for f i n a n c i a l support which made t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n possible.
The author would also l i k e to thank the following Individuals:
His supervisor, Dr. Y.P. Vaid, for h i s invaluable guidance and advice
during the entire course of the research.
Dr. P.M. Byrne, Dr. R.G. Campanella and Dr. W.D.L. Finn for their valuable comments.
His colleagues for their valuable discussions, and Dr. P.K. Robertson
for h i s suggestion i n the manner of presenting part of the test
results.
The s t a f f of the C i v i l Engineering Department Workshop for t h e i r
technical assistance i n f a b r i c a t i n g the t e s t i n g equipments.
Mrs. Brenda G i l l e s p i e for her assistance i n drafting the f i g u r e s , and
Mrs. K e l l y Lamb for typing the manuscripts and f i n a l t h e s i s .
And f i n a l l y , the author deeply appreciates the support and

consideration given to him by h i s wife during the entire course of his
studies.
- xv -
1.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Undrained loading behaviour of saturated sands i s of direct i n t e r e s t

i n practice where deposits of such materials may
be subjected to rapid
shearing.
develop large deforma-
As a result of such loading, sand may
t i o n s , and f o r c e r t a i n I n i t i a l states may

fluid.
even flow l i k e a f r i c t i o n a l
The undrained shearing could be due to c y c l i c earthquake loading
or rapidly applied s t a t i c loading such that p r a c t i c a l l y no drainage

occurs
A large number of studies (e.g. , Finn et a l . , 1971;
a l . , 1975;
Lee and Seed, 1967
1,2
; Seed and Lee, 1966;
Ishihara et
Seed et a l . ,
1975)
have been reported i n l i t e r a t u r e concerning the large deformation developed i n saturated sands under c y c l i c loading.
The main emphasis i n these
studies has been on the resistance of sand to s t r a i n development, with

l i t t l e attention paid as to the mechanism which i s responsible for t h i s
s t r a i n development.
Most researchers attributed the developments of
large deformation under c y c l i c loading to l i q u e f a c t i o n .

of developing
This phenomenon
large deformation under c y c l i c loading has apparently been
c a l l e d l i q u e f a c t i o n , because these deformations are developed when a

condition of transient zero e f f e c t i v e stress occurs i n the sand at some
stage of the c y c l i c loading.
Large deformations can also occur i n saturated sands under rapidly
applied s t a t i c loads.
The development of such deformations under s t a t i c
loading conditions, which i s a r e s u l t of s t r a i n softening (temporary or

permanent decrease i n shear resistance with continued straining)
undrained response of sand, has been treated separately as another
2.
category of problem (e.g., Casagran.de 1975,

been termed l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Castro 1969), and has also
This type of l i q u e f a c t i o n response can not be
explained within the framework of l i q u e f a c t i o n as perceived under c y c l i c

loading conditions.
It i s now recognized, however, that the development of large deformation could be the result of transient zero e f f e c t i v e stress condition
developed at c e r t a i n stage of the c y c l i c loading without any s t r a i n s o f t ening, or s t r a i n softening response developed under s t a t i c or even c y c l i c
loading conditions (Castro 1969;. Seed, 1979).
These two phenomena have
been called c y c l i c mobility and l i q u e f a c t i o n , respectively (Castro, 1969;

Casagrande, 1975; Seed, 1979) and w i l l also be referred to as such i n
this t h e s i s . However, due to a lack of clear d i s t i n c t i o n as to which of
the two phenomena i s responsible f o r development of s t r a i n , considerable
controversies have arisen regarding the Influence of some f a c t o r s , most
notably the l e v e l of s t a t i c shear, on the resistance to s t r a i n development i n l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c m o b i l i t y (Casagrande, 1975;
Poulos, 1977).
Castro and
A proper recognition of the mechanism of s t r a i n develop-
ment ( l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility) i s v i t a l for a r a t i o n a l explanat i o n of some of the c o n f l i c t i n g ideas regarding undrained response of
1
sand (Vaid and Chern, 1983 ' ).

T r a d i t i o n a l l y , the study of the phenomenon of l i q u e f a c t i o n under
monotonic loading has been c a r r i e d out on sand which developed s t r a i n
softening response with unlimited deformation (Castro, 1969). The
concept of an eventual steady state of deformation has been advanced i n
r e l a t i o n to the sand during the state of l i q u e f a c t i o n .
The state of sand
i s characterized by i t s void r a t i o and the e f f e c t i v e stress conditions.
3.
Liquefaction i s thus considered a phenomenon wherein a sand, which i s
consolidated
to a state well above the steady state, develops large u n i -
d i r e c t i o n a l deformation associated with s t r a i n softening response on

undrained shearing, ultimately ending at steady s t a t e .
Such a sand has
been c a l l e d contractive for which a unique steady state l i n e ,
independent
of the loading paths causing the steady state deformations, has been
proposed (Castro, 1969; Castro and Poulos, 1977; Castro et a l , 1982).
Based on this perception of l i q u e f a c t i o n , the development of large deformation i s exclusively due to the occurrence of s t r a i n softening leading
to steady state deformation.
Liquefaction can not be induced i n sand
with i n i t i a l state below the steady state l i n e and such a sand i s c a l l e d

dilative.
During c y c l i c loading, the deformation can develop either due to the
occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility (Castro, 1975; Vaid and
2
Chem, 19 83 ) .
In most c y c l i c loading s t u d i e s , however, predominant
focus has tended to be on the response of d i l a t i v e sand In which s t r a i n

development occurs as a consequence of c y c l i c mobility (Seed and Lee,
1966; Lee and Seed, 1967).
For c e r t a i n i n i t i a l states and c y c l i c
s t r e s s e s , a sand may develop l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n ( s t r a i n softening

response, but without unlimited s t r a i n ) under c y c l i c loading (Vaid and
1 2
Chern, 1983 ' ) .
In such cases, c y c l i c mobility can occur a f t e r the
occurrence of limited l i q u e f a c t i o n , when c y c l i c loading i s continued,

which r e s u l t s i n additional accumulation of s t r a i n .
Thus, i t i s conceiv-
able that l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c mobility occur In d i f f e r e n t regimes of

i n i t i a l sand s t a t e .
In between, both l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c
mobility can occur, and limited l i q u e f a c t i o n always precedes c y c l i c

mobility.
4.
In the steady state approach to l i q u e f a c t i o n (Castro, 1969; Castro

et a l . , 1982), the void r a t i o and confining pressure have been used i n a
2-D
state diagram to separate the i n i t i a l sand state into regions of
l i q u e f a c t i o n and d i l a t i v e responses.
Tests on sand are performed
purposely f o r those I n i t i a l states which induce l i q u e f a c t i o n only.
For
states which develop d i l a t i v e response i n monotonic loading or c y c l i c

mobility i n c y c l i c loading are considered of no concern.
Although the
general influence of s t a t i c shear stress on the occurrence of liquefact i o n has been i d e n t i f i e d , the s t a t i c shear stress has never been incorporated as a part characterizing the i n i t i a l state of sand i n order to
predict the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n . Only an a r b i t r a r y c r i t e r i o n ,
such as sand with an i n i t i a l state well above and to the right of the
steady state l i n e i s susceptible to l i q u e f a c t i o n , has been proposed.
clear quantitative boundary for separating
No
the I n i t i a l states into
regions of l i q u e f a c t i o n and d i l a t i v e response has been s p e c i f i e d , and

thus the influence of several factors on the undrained behaviour of sand
can not be explained r a t i o n a l l y .
At present, no comprehensive and
u n i f i e d approach exists which covers the undrained behaviour of sand i n

both contractive (which includes l i m i t e d liquefaction) and d i l a t i v e
regimes, and enables prediction of the undrained response from the knowledge of the I n i t i a l sand state together with the nature of loading
applied.
Most of the understanding i n the undrained behaviour of saturated
sand has been obtained from tests performed on natural sands with genera l l y rounded p a r t i c l e s and under r e l a t i v e l y low confining pressures.
Relative density has often been used as the sole c r i t e r i o n to separate
the regions of development of l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c m o b i l i t y , without
5,
any reference as to the p a r t i c l e angularity and consolidation stress

condition.
It i s generally believed that sand with low r e l a t i v e density
i s susceptible to l i q u e f a c t i o n , and that with high r e l a t i v e density can

develop c y c l i c mobility only.
However, there Is a f a i r acceptance of the
fact that sand behaviour Is very much dependent on the p a r t i c l e charact e r i s t i c s and consolidation stress condition.
Thus, i t may not be
prudent to predict behaviour of a sand by extrapolating the results

obtained on another sand under r e l a t i v e l y low consolidation stress and
d i f f e r e n t consolidation stress conditions.
The f i r s t purpose of these investigations i s to present a u n i f i e d
approach f o r the undrained behaviour of sand which spans between liquef a c t i o n with unlimited deformation on one side and d i l a t i v e response on
the other.
This i s done by an experimental study of the undrained mono-
tonic loading behaviour which covers the whole spectrum of undrained

response, i . e . , from s t r a i n softening response associated with the development of unlimited s t r a i n on one end to s t r a i n hardening response on the
other, using a wide range of i n i t i a l sand s t a t e s .
behavioural
Then, a comprehensive
model f o r the sand Is attempted, which enables prediction of
the undrained monotonic loading behaviour from the knowledge of i n i t i a l

state of the sand.
The l i n k between undrained s t a t i c and c y c l i c loading
response i s demonstrated within the framework of undrained monotonic

loading behaviour, i . e . whether l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility w i l l
develop under c y c l i c loading conditions i n sand which i s characterized as
contractive or d i l a t i v e under undrained monotonic loading condition.
Furthermore, a d d i t i o n a l c y c l i c loading c r i t e r i a f o r l i q u e f a c t i o n under
c y c l i c loading i s established even i f l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l be expected under
monotonic loading.
The behavioural model f o r the sand i s also used to
6.
explain the influence of factors (such as void r a t i o , confining pressure

and s t a t i c shear) on the undrained behaviour of saturated sand under both
s t a t i c and c y c l i c loading conditions i n an attempt to c l a r i f y some
contradictory conclusions i n l i t e r a t u r e arisen primarily due to d i f f e r e n t
perceptions of the phenomenon of l i q u e f a c t i o n .
The second objective of the study i s the investigation of the
differences i n the undrained response of sand with changes i n p a r t i c l e
angularity.
This i s achieved by comprehensive experimental studies over
a large range of confining pressure on two sands having i d e n t i c a l gradation and mineral composition, one angular and the other rounded.
Behaviour of angular sands under high confining pressure i s of utmost
importance i n the design of t a i l i n g s dams where such sands are used.
There i s a growing trend towards b u i l d i n g t a i l i n g s dams of increasing
height.
Confining pressure up to 25.0 kgf/cm
encountered i n such dams of 200 m height.
(2450 kPa) could be
T a i l i n g s dams of this height
are either being constructed or under consideration i n the future.
The
undrained behaviour of t a i l i n g s sand under high confining pressure could

have a dramatic difference from that of the rounded or subrounded sands.
7.
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL ASPECTS OF UNDRAINED BEHAVIOUR OF SAND
Undrained response of saturated sand Is t r a d i t i o n a l l y considered

separately under monotonic and c y c l i c loading conditions.
Interest i n
monotonic loading has generally been related to undrained f a i l u r e associated with flow s l i d e s .
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature of such behaviour Is
extremely large deformation under very small shear resistance.

Conditions which could bring about such a response from s o i l could be
rapid increase i n stresses due to earthquake loading, shock loading or
even s t a t i c loading.
Interest i n c y c l i c undrained loading behaviour has
been related to the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y of sand to accumulate undesirable

deformation during earthquake shaking.
Monotonic Loading Behaviour

The range of t y p i c a l undrained t r i a x i a l compression behaviour of
i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated saturated sand under moderate confining
pressure i s shown i n F i g . 2.1. The v a r i a t i o n s In s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves
from type 1 to type 5 i s associated with Increasing r e l a t i v e density.
These types of response have been reported by several i n v e s t i g a t o r s , such
as Bishop, Webb and Skinner (1965), Bjerrum, Kringstad and Kummeneje
(1961), Castro (1969), Castro et a l . (1982) and Lee and Seed (1970). The
same type of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c behaviour i s also obtained i f the sand i s
i n i t i a l l y a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated.
Types 1, 2 and 3 are s t r a i n softening response - a behaviour associated with loss of shear resistance a f t e r the occurrence of a peak.
Sand showing such behaviour i s c a l l e d c o n t r a c t i v e .
Type 1 response has
F i g . 2.1
Characteristic behaviour of saturated sand

under undrained monotonic loading.
been c a l l e d l i q u e f a c t i o n by Castro (1969), Casagrande (1975) and Seed

(1979).
It is. a s t r a i n softening response with unlimited u n i d i r e c t i o n a l
s t r a i n and w i l l be c a l l e d herein true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
feature of this type of response i s continued deformation at constant

void r a t i o , confining stress and shear resistance, which has been c a l l e d
steady state deformation or flow deformation, since i t resembles flow of
f l u i d (Poulos, 1971; Castro, 1975; Vaid and Chern, 1 9 8 3 ) . However, the
shear resistance during such deformation i s of a f r i c t i o n a l nature,
instead of zero, as would be the case for a f l u i d .
Type 2 and 3 responses were c a l l e d limited liquefacton by Castro
(1969).
Such types of response i s thus s t r a i n softening with limited
unidirectional s t r a i n .
Instead of deforming continuously at reduced
constant shear resistance, the shear resistance of sand increases with

further deformation after attaining a minimum, and simultaneously the
pore pressure decreases after attaining i t s maximum v a l u e . However, over
some f i n i t e range of s t r a i n prior to the commencement of increase i n
shear resistance, the sand deforms at e s s e n t i a l l y constant void r a t i o ,
e f f e c t i v e confining stress and shear r e s i s t a n c e , which could be
considered as the steady state condition of the case of true liquefaction.
The difference i n response represented by type 2 and type 3 i s a
lesser degree of s t r a i n softening and associated smaller s t r a i n u n t i l the

start of increase i n shear resistance or decrease i n pore pressure i n
type 3 compared to that i n type 2.
The arrows i n F i g . 2.1 indicate the arrest of s t r a i n softening
response, i . e . , the start of increase i n shear resistance and decrease i n
pore pressure with further s t r a i n i n g .
On e f f e c t i v e stress path, this
condition i s reflected by a sharp turnaround of the e f f e c t i v e stress
10.
path.
Such a condition has been c a l l e d phase transformation (PT) state
by Ishihara et a l . (1975).
After the PT state has been reached, the
e f f e c t i v e stress path approaches the undrained f a i l u r e envelope rather

quickly with further s t r a i n i n g .
A state of PT for true l i q u e f a c t i o n
(type 1 response) coincides with the attainment of steady s t a t e . The

stress state then stays on the PT l i n e while steady state deformation
continues I n d e f i n i t e l y .
Type 4 response i s associated with a terminal case of s t r a i n softening
response i n which the degree of s t r a i n softening can be considered as
zero.
Such a behaviour i s represented by a f l a t plateau i n s t r e s s - s t r a i n
curve over a certain s t r a i n range before the shear resistance starts to

increase and pore pressure starts to decrease with further s t r a i n i n g .
Type 5 response represents the s t r a i n hardening behaviour with no
loss of shear resistance.
tive.
Sand showing such behaviour i s c a l l e d d i l a -
For such a response, a sharp turnaround i n the e f f e c t i v e stress
path i s not well defined (see F i g . 2.2).
However, the condition of start
of decrease i n pore pressure after i t s maximum value i s well defined.

Such a condition has been c a l l e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c threshold (CT) by Luong
(1980), which i s the same as the PT state described before. Luong
further showed that this threshold occurs at the same e f f e c t i v e stress
r a t i o regardless of the r e l a t i v e density of sand.
I t represents the
boundary between contractive and d i l a t i v e regions of sand i n e f f e c t i v e

stress space.
Luong's conclusions were based on tests on one sand under
low confining pressure only.

It may be pointed out that a sand exhibiting s t r a i n hardening
response can develop s t r a i n softening response but only after large
straining.
Such type of response i s i l l u s t r a t e d schematically i n F i g .
F i g . 2.2
F i g . 2.3
E f f e c t i v e stress paths of contractive

d i l a t i v e response.
and
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c behaviour of d i l a t i v e sand a f t e r large

deformation.
12.
2.3.
After i n i t i a l s t r a i n hardening response (Type 5 ) , the sand d i l a t e s
u n t i l the e f f e c t i v e confining stress becomes high enough to cause cont r a c t i o n i n the sand.
The sand then develops a s t r a i n softening response
ultimately leading to a state of constant e f f e c t i v e confining stress and

constant shear resistance.
This was also termed steady state by Poulos
(1981) and Castro et a l . (1982).
This type of s t r a i n softening response
however can be induced only after very large s t r a i n i n g , and the shear
stress required to induce such response i s well above the levels of
p r a c t i c a l interest and may even be greater than the drained strength.
Moreover, the back pressure for the sand to sustain the negative excess
pore pressure without causing c a v i t a t i o n i s very high, which may
be encountered In p r a c t i c a l cases.
seldom
Therefore, this type of response Is
not considered i n this i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Predominant interest i n monotonic loading behaviour has been with
the
occurrence of true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Castro (1969), Castro et a l . (1982)
and Casagrande (1975) studied such behaviour i n r e l a t i o n to the problem

of
flow s l i d e .
It has been shown by Castro (1969) that i f sand undergoes
true l i q u e f a c t i o n , the e f f e c t i v e confining stress and shear resistance

during steady state deformation are uniquely related to void r a t i o , and
that such r e l a t i o n s h i p i s independent of the i n i t i a l consolidation stress
condition.
This unique l i n e r e l a t i n g the void r a t i o with effective con-
f i n i n g stress or shear resistance during steady state was called steady

state l i n e .
T r i a x i a l tests on several sands with rounded to angular
p a r t i c l e s under a wide range of confining pressure and consolidation

stress r a t i o have been shown to support these concepts (Castro, 1969;
Castro et a l . 1982).
However, the studies have been limited to compres-
sion mode only, and possible influence of stress path, e.g., t r i a x i a l
13.
extension, was not considered. Only true l i q u e f a c t i o n was considered and
no attention was given to the treatment of range of behaviour described
by response type 2 to type 5 ( F i g . 2.1).
Consideration was given only to
relate parameters during steady state deformation.
In p a r t i c u l a r , no
quantitative attempt was made to assess whether such a response couldN

occur for a known i n i t i a l state of the sand.
ion,
Only an a r b i t r a r y c r i t e r -
e.g., i n i t i a l state above and s i g n i f i c a n t l y to the right of steady
state l i n e w i l l cause true l i q u e f a c t i o n , was proposed.
Furthermore, In
t h e i r approach the deformation i s considered unlimited so that their

design proposal are similar to a strength c r i t e r i o n .
Many cases of
l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t (response type 2 to type 3)

may exist' where minimum strength available w i l l be s t i l l substantial but
deformation to mobilize such strength could be excessive and therefore
unacceptable.
Such cases were not considered by Castro within the frame-
work of l i q u e f a c t i o n .
C y c l i c Loading Behaviour
I n i t i a l interest i n undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of sand was
triggered by the extensive f a i l u r e associated with saturated sand during
Niigata and Alaska earthquakes of 1964. Consideration centered predominantly on the response of saturated sand under l e v e l ground, which w i l l
be subjected to reversing shear stresses on h o r i z o n t a l planes (Seed and
Lee, 1966).
The stress conditions on such s o i l elements are simulated i n
the laboratory by undrained c y c l i c simple shear or c y c l i c t r i a x i a l test

on i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated samples.
The samples were subjected to
constant amplitude c y c l i c shear stresses on h o r i z o n t a l plane i n simple

shear test or constant pulsating deviator loads i n the t r i a x i a l t e s t .
u.
Continued c y c l i c loading r e s u l t s i n the development of large s t r a i n and
s o i l i s said to have l i q u e f i e d .
C y c l i c shear stress or deviator
stress
amplitude which causes a s p e c i f i e d l e v e l of s t r a i n i n a fixed number of

stress cycles i s c a l l e d the resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n .
L i q u e f a c t i o n i n c y c l i c loading has thus been defined as a s t r a i n
c r i t e r i o n with no attention paid to the mechanism which i s responsible
for the development of s t r a i n .
The phenomenon was c a l l e d l i q u e f a c t i o n
because during some stage of the c y c l i c loading with shear stress

r e v e r s a l , a transient state of zero e f f e c t i v e stress i s reached when the
applied shear stress i n sand i s zero.
Zero e f f e c t i v e stress i n sand
would imply zero shear resistance f o r a f r i c t i o n material and hence i t s

equivalence with a l i q u i d and the corresponding phenomenon l i q u e f a c t i o n .
The s t r a i n development during the increasing phase of the deviator
stress
i n a c y c l i c t r i a x i a l test a f t e r a state of zero e f f e c t i v e stress i s

reached i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2.4.
F i g . 2.4
I t may be noted that large deforma-
S t r a i n development on loading a f t e r the

attainment of transient state of zero
effective stress.
15.
tion developed i s not associated with s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g .

Undrained c y c l i c loading of sand causes a progressive increase i n
pore pressure and c y c l i c deformation i n saturated sand with increasing
number of c y c l e s , regardless of i t s r e l a t i v e density.
However, two
d i s t i n c t types of response may be obtained with regard to the development

of
strain.
In the f i r s t type of response, at some stage during c y c l i c
loading the sample undergoes l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Castro (1969) has shown cases
in which true l i q u e f a c t i o n developed much i n the same manner as those

1 2
observed under monotonic loading ( F i g .
2.5a).
Vaid and Chem (1983 ' ) ,
however, have shown cases of c y c l i c loading of sand wherein limited

l i q u e f a c t i o n developed In the same way as that observed i n type 2 and 3
response under monotonic loading ( F i g .
2.5b).
By making a detailed
observation of the development of pore pressure and s t r a i n not only at

the end of cycles of loading but also within cycles of l o a d i n g , they
c l a r i f i e d the possible mechanism of s t r a i n development during undrained
c y c l i c loading.
Vaid and Chem showed that s t r a i n softening associated with limited
l i q u e f a c t i o n i s I n i t i a t e d at a c r i t i c a l value of e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o
(CSR) regardless of the void r a t i o or consolidation stress conditions of
sand.
Following the arrest of l i q u e f a c t i o n (or s t r a i n softening), the
subsequent unloading from the peak amplitude of c y c l i c deviator stress

causes large Increase i n pore pressure bringing the sample close to the
state of zero e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , but with very l i t t l e change i n deformation ( F i g .
2.5b,c).
Reloading In the extension region of the stress
cycle causes the sample to undergo large deformation with i t s stress

state moving along the undrained f a i l u r e envelope.
now,
Subsequent unloading
from the peak amplitude of deviator stress on extension s i d e , once
16.
F i g . 2.5
C y c l i c loading behaviour of contractive sand true l i q u e f a c t i o n and limited l i q u e f a c t i o n .
17.
again brings the sample to a state of zero e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , and further
reloading into the compression region again causes the stress state
moving along the f a i l u r e envelope with large deformation developed.
Repetition of t h i s loading and unloading process causes a progressive
increase i n c y c l i c deformation following l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n .
In such
type of response the accumulation of s t r a i n with loading cycle i s shown

schematically i n F i g . 2.5d.
In the second type of response, the sample develops progressive
increase i n pore pressure and c y c l i c deformation but at no stage i s
1 2
deformation associated with s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g .
Vaid and Chern (1983 ' )
observed that such a sample develops very small deformation as long as

i t s e f f e c t i v e stress state stays below the s t r e s s r a t i o corresponding to
the phase transformaton l i n e ( F i g . 2.6a,b).
S i g n i f i c a n t amount of
deformation i s accumulated only when the s t r e s s state crosses the PT l i n e

during the loading phase.
Unloading causes large increase i n pore
pressure bringing the sample close to the state of zero e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s ,

but with very l i t t l e change i n deformation.
Repetition of t h i s
phenomenon of s t r e s s state moving a l t e r n a t e l y into the region beyond the

PT l i n e s with cycles of loading ultimately r e s u l t s i n a transient state
of zero e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , and i s responsible f o r further accumulation of
deformation at a much f a s t e r r a t e .
S t r a i n accumulation with cycles of
loading In t h i s type of response i s shown i n F i g . 2.6c.

In t h i s thesis the term l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l be used only i f sand
deforms i n a s t r a i n softening manner regardless of the nature of loading
- monotonic or c y c l i c .
This d e f i n i t i o n i s consistent with that used by
Castro (1969) except that i t now encompasses l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n i n

a d d i t i o n to true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
The second type of response described
18.
N
F i g . 2.6
C y c l i c loading behaviour of d i l a t i v e sand cyclic mobility.
19.
above, In which the deformation developed during c y c l i c loading i s not
associated with s t r a i n softening, w i l l be c a l l e d c y c l i c mobility.
d e f i n i t i o n of c y c l i c mobility i s also a f t e r Castro (1969).
This
Thus i n the
type of c y c l i c loading response i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2.5,
the accumulation
of deformation i s p a r t l y due
partly to c y c l i c
mobility following limited

It may
to l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n and
liquefaction.
be pointed out that the progressive increase i n deformation
of serious magnitude can develop when there i s no shear stress

i n sand with a c e r t a i n l e v e l of s t a t i c shear.
such a sand, a state of transient
and
the association
becomes ambiguous.
reversal
During c y c l i c loading of
zero e f f e c t i v e stress i s never r e a l i z e d
of term " l i q u e f a c t i o n " to the response of this sand

Cyclic mobility i s a more appropriate term i n connec-
t i o n with the accumulation of a l l deformations under c y c l i c loading
not
associated with s t r a i n softening.

Since a s p e c i f i e d s t r a i n development during c y c l i c loading could be
due
to l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility or the combination of two
2.5
and
2.6),
(Figs.
the term "resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n " used to designate
resistance to c y c l i c loading w i l l herein be called resistance to s t r a i n

development under c y c l i c loading.
However, i f the s p e c i f i e d s t r a i n
development during c y c l i c loading i s exclusively
due
to
liquefaction
only, then the term resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l be used.

s t r a i n development during c y c l i c loading i s due
If
the
to c y c l i c mobility o n l y ,
then resistance to c y c l i c mobility w i l l be used.
These d i s t i n c t i o n s
In
d e f i n i t i o n s are necessary because various factors affect l i q u e f a c t i o n

c y c l i c mobility response d i f f e r e n t l y (Castro, 1969;
1975;
Vaid and
Castro and
Poulos,
Chern, 1983 ' ).
Attempts to l i n k the monotonic and
c y c l i c loading behaviour have
and
20.
been confined only to the i l l u s t r a t i o n that s t r a i n softening occurs under
c y c l i c loading much i n the same manner as under monotonic loading.
Castro (1969) and Castro et a l . (1982) showed that the steady state l i n e
i s unique under monotonic and c y c l i c loading conditions, which implies
that the undrained stress paths have no e f f e c t on steady state l i n e .
1 2
study on one sand at one confining pressure by Vaid and Chern (1983
'.)
showed that the i n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n softening under monotonic and
cyclic
loading occur at a unique value of e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o .
Also
the
arrest of s t r a i n softening occurs at a stress r a t i o corresponding to the

line.
No comprehensive studies have been made to
make general prediction of sand behaviour under c y c l i c loading from the

known behaviour under monotonic loading.
The role of void r a t i o , confin-
ing pressure and s t a t i c shear on undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour are

not clear and often contradictory, because of a lack of recognition of
the mechanism of deformation under c y c l i c loading.
It i s the purpose of
these investigations to present a u n i f i e d approach for undrained response

of sand, which w i l l enable prediction of the type of undrained monotonic
and c y c l i c loading behaviour from the knowledge of the I n i t i a l state of
the sand and the superimposed shear l o a d i n g .
It i s also intended to
c l a r i f y the role of various factors influencing the undrained response of

saturated sand, including the e f f e c t s of p a r t i c l e
angularity.
21 .
CHAPTER 3
LABORATORY TESTING
3 .1
Test Apparatus
A l l tests were conducted using the t r i a x i a l apparatus.
The testing
system consists of an instrumented t r i a x i a l c e l l and a loading system.

The loading system i s capable of monotonic consolidation under anisotropic stress conditions and c y c l i c loading under stress or s t r a i n
controlled conditions.
3.1.1
T r i a x i a l Apparatus
A schematic layout of the t r i a x i a l t e s t i n g apparatus and the asso-
ciated instrumentation i s shown i n F i g . 3.1.
The t r i a x i a l c e l l
was
designed to test specimen with 6.4 cm diameter and 12.7 cm height.

It has long been recognized that f r i c t i o n l e s s end plattens cause
more uniform deformation throughout the specimen and hence y i e l d more
r e l i a b l e s o i l parameters.
Use of f r i c t i o n l e s s end plattens however, i s
often complicated by the development of non-uniform expansion i n the

sample over i t s height, apart from the d i f f i c u l t sample preparation
procedures involved and l a t e r a l s l i d i n g of sample o f f the platten during
testing.
Green (1969) performed a comprehensive study on the deformation
modes of a Belgium sand by using f r i c t i o n l e s s end p l a t t e n s .
He found
that the sample did not develop uniform l a t e r a l expansion during shear.
The sample expanded predominantly e i t h e r at the top or at the base,
depending on the sample preparation procedures used.
This non-uniform
expansion was also obtained by Rowe and Barden (1964), Lee (1966) and by
22.
Cyclic
Input
^Loading
Double
Acting
Frame
Air
Piston
CP
Trans
ZZ3
?
Recorder
Legend:
R)
F i g . 3.1
Schematic layout of t r i a x i a l
Pressure
Regulator
apparatus.
the writer i n preliminary t r i a l s using the f r i c t i o n l e s s ends.
The major
factor influencing the mode of deformation appears to be the difference

i n the sand contact at the top and bottom sample-platten Interfaces
(Green, 1969).
Although this may be reduced by forming a sample i n two
halves, as was done by Green, such a procedure i s not possible to use f o r

sample formed by the sedimentation technique.
Furthermore, most of the f r i c t i o n l e s s end plattens used have a
s l i g h t l y higher central portion for the porous disk i n order to accommodate the thickness of the membranes and the grease on the outer portion.
This technique serves to prevent the sample from s l i d i n g l a t e r a l l y off
the end p l a t t e n .
Such a protrusion of stone into the sand sample may
result i n a complex stress and s t r a i n pattern within the sample, and

hence may influence test results i n an unknown manner.
Comprehensive studies have been made by Lee (1978) and Lee and
Vernese (1978) on the influence of end r e s t r a i n t on the s t a t i c and c y c l i c
strength of sand.
I t was found that end r e s t r a i n t could have a s i g n i f i -
cant e f f e c t on s t a t i c and c y c l i c strength, but only i n d i l a t i v e dense

soil.
This effect appeared to be a d i r e c t function of d i l a t i o n tendency
of the s o i l .
For loose sand, l i t t l e or no e f f e c t of the type of end
restraint was found.
Such findings are also supported by recent studies
of Castro et a l . (1982) who investigated the e f f e c t of end r e s t r a i n t on

the e f f e c t i v e confining stress at steady state for two types of loose
sands.
No s i g n i f i c a n t difference i n r e s u l t s was found i f f r i c t i o n l e s s
ends were substituted for regular end plattens i n both sands.
Since the
major objective of the intended study i s the response of r e l a t i v e l y loose

sand, the choice was made i n favour of regular end plattens for simplic i t y of test procedure.
Nevertheless, the end r e s t r a i n t was kept to a
24.
minimum by using polished anodized plattens with a small central 2 cm
diameter porous discs for drainage.
3.1.2
Loading System
The loading system consists of two
and
the c y c l i c loading system.
described by Chern (1981) .

were made to f a c i l i t a t e
parts: the consolidation system
This system i s b a s i c a l l y similar to that
However, considerable additional Improvements
testing under high confining pressure and
various
anisotropic consolidation stress c o n d i t i o n s .
Consolidation System
In order to simulate the f i e l d consolidation stress condition more
c l o s e l y , p a r t i c u l a r l y under the sloping ground, an anisotropic consolidation system was
developed.
In the conventional method, anisotropic
consolidation i s either carried out incrementally
In steps, or the sample
i s consolidated i s o t r o p i c a l l y f i r s t and then deviator stress applied

under drained condition u n t i l the desired K
c
= al /a'
r a t i o i s obtained.
l c 3c
The newly designed system enables the s o i l sample to be
consolidated
i s o t r o p i c a l l y or a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y along any constant e f f e c t i v e stress

r a t i o path.
This system i s I l l u s t r a t e d schematically i n the lower l e f t
part of F i g . 3.2, whereas the d e t a i l s are shown i n F i g .
3.3.
The consolidation system consists of a motorized pressure regulator,

a pressure amplifier ( i f higher confining pressures are needed), a posit i v e and negative bias relay and an adjustable ratio r e l a y .
In operating
the system, an i d e n t i c a l signal pressure, s, from the motorized regulator

i s fed Into the pressure amplifier and
the bias r e l a y .
The
pressure
a m p l i f i e r simply magnifies the s i g n a l pressure by a constant r a t i o m (=
Function
Elect.
Signal
Generator
I > I
E / P
Transducer
Ratio
Relay
Volume
Booster
Cyclic
Output
to Top Chamber
of Air PiJfon
Precision
Gage
Regulated
Air
Supply
Steady
F i g . 3.2
Schematic layout of loading system.
To
Bottom
of
Air
Output
Chambe
Piston
Pressure
Regulator
To Triaxial
Motomatlc
Motor
Generator
Speed
Control
Unit
Chamber
M
Pressure
Amp
Adjustable'
Ratio
Relay
Bios
To
Valve
or
Air
B
Piston
Relay
P ' S
P
F i g . 3.3
+
RP
K
'
R(S
K)
Detailed layout of consolidation system.
N)
4.167
i n system designed) before feeding the output pressure Into the
triaxial chamber as cell pressure O j , i.e.,
a3 = m s
The bias relay adds a constant K (continuously adjustable) to the signal

pressure and outputs a pressure
p = s + K.
The pressure p when fed through the ratio relay gets multiplied by a
factor R (continuously adjustable) and the output pressure
Pl
= R(s + K)
Is fed to the top chamber of the air loading piston, either directly or
through a volume booster.
For the given signal pressure s, the vertical stress
on the
sample Is given by (see Fig. 3.1)
=
s
In which
[R(s + K)AX - p 2 A 2 - msAr] + m s
(3.1)
sample area,
s
area of top chamber of air loading piston,

area of bottom chamber of a i r loading piston,
area of the loading ram,

r
P2
steady input to the bottom chamber of air loading

piston.
28.
If the consolidation is desired under a Kc value, incremental changes
in a| and o*^ are related by
Now
Aa.'/Ao-; = K
1
3
c
(3.2)
Ao| = Lal
(3.3)
- Au
Ao^ = mAs - Au
(3.4)
Under drained conditions u = constant and thus Au = 0.
Therefore, from
Eqs. 3-2, 3-3 and 3-4,
AO,' = mAs K
(3.5)
Substituting for Ao^ from Eq. 3-1 into Eq. 3-5, we get
(RAsAj - A p A - mAsA^) + mAs = mAs K

2
(3.6)
If p2 is held constant, Ap2 = 0 and Eq. 3-6 reduces to
1
^ - (RA,
- mA ) + m = m K
A
r
c
s
(3.7)
from which the value of ratio relay R factor can be obtained in terms of
the system constants for the desired
value.
In this Investigation,
the input pressure p2 in the bottom chamber of the air loading piston and
the back pressure u were maintained constant.
Therefore, knowing R
factor of the ratio relay, the K factor of the bias relay can be obtained
29.
from the relationship a' = K

1
a'
i.e.,
^ [R(s + K)AX - p2A2 - msA ] + ms - u = K (ms-u)

s
(3.8)
For any value of signal pressure s. Once the constant R on the ratio
relay and constant K on the bias relay are selected, the sample can be
consolidated continuously along the desired constant
ratio path.
A cohesionless s o i l sample has to be set up with some finite

confinement, which makes i t s i n i t i a l effective stress state hydrostatic.
This hydrostatic stress was kept to a practical minimum of about 0.2
2
kgf/cm
(19.6 kPa) following the application of back pressure and prior
to initiating the consolidation phase of loading.
In order to avoid
sudden change of stress state from i n i t i a l hydrostatic stress of about

2
0.2 kgf/cm
(19.6 kPa) to the anisotropic stress condition, which may
cause sudden buildup of excess pore presure and cause collapse of loose
sample, the consolidation stress path was brought to approach the desired
K path during the i n i t i a l stage of consolidation (see Fig. 3.4).
c
This
is done by opening the valve B slowly and admitting the pressure p^, to
the air piston slowly.
Cyclic Loading System

Cyclic loading i s applied by means of an electro-pneumatic (E/P)
transducer driven by a function generator (Fig. 3.2).
Due to the limited
output pressure capability of the E/P transducers, an adjustable ratio

relay was installed to magnify this pressure.
Any desired cyclic load
amplitude can be obtained by appropriate combination of piston size and

multiplication factor of the ratio relay.
16.0
4 ^
4.0
BO
12.0
16.0
20.0
1/2 ((J,'+ <%)
F i g . 3.4
+S
24.0
28.0
32.0
36.0
40.0
IkQf/cm*)
Anisotropic consolidation stress paths.
OJ
31.
In order to maintain a constant c y c l i c load amplitude when large
sample deformation develops, a 1:1 pressure r a t i o volume booster relay
was i n s t a l l e d on both top and bottom chambers of the a i r p i s t o n .
A large
increase i n a i r flow rate and exhausting rate reduced greatly the degradation of c y c l i c load pulse when large deformation
developed.
After consolidation was completed, the pressure i n the top chamber

of
the a i r piston was transferred to the c y c l i c loading system.
With
valve C closed, the pressure i n the c y c l i c loading system was increased

to
the value equals to that i n the consolidation system using the DC-
o f f s e t on the function generator.
A smooth transfer was then made by
c l o s i n g valve B and opening valve C.
3.2
Testing Procedures
3.2.1
Sample Preparation and Saturation
Test samples were formed by p l u v i a t i n g sand i n deaired water which

filled
the sample cavity formed by a membrane lined s p l i t mold.
While
depositing sand, the t i p of the pouring nozzle was always submerged and
maintained at a constant height of about 1 cm above the sedimented sand
surface.
The pouring t i p was traversed l a t e r a l l y over the plan area of
sample In order to form a loose uniform sand d e p o s i t . A l l samples were

formed loose i n this manner. Higher i n i t i a l d e n s i t i e s , i f required, were
obtained by d e n s i f i c a t i o n after the loading cap was i n place.
Densifica-
tion was achieved by tappings on the base of the t r i a x i a l c e l l with a

soft hammer while maintaining a gentle pressure on the loading cap.
The
d e t a i l e d sample preparation techniques have been described previously by

Chern (1981).
These techniques are believed to y i e l d samples of uniform
32.
density throughout (Vaid and F i n n , 1979).
During the process of sample set up i n the loading frame and checking
f o r saturation, the main emphasis was to f i r s t bring a l l samples to a
state of constant e f f e c t i v e stress p r i o r to consolidation.

e f f e c t i v e stress was about 0.2 kgf/cm
ing
This value of
(19.6 kPa), which was the confin-
pressure after the sample was formed.
The careful sample preparation
technique, which involved sedimentation by mutual transfer of sand with

water without contacting a i r , resulted In v i r t u a l l y saturated samples
with B value greater than 0.99.
Other sample preparation techniques, e.g., moist or dry compaction,
frequently give r i s e to nonuniformities i n density over the height of the
sample (Castro, 1969).
to
Moreover, they require a p p l i c a t i o n of f u l l vacuum
the sample i n order to remove the a i r trapped to f a c i l i t a t e
with high back pressure.
saturation
Such procedures r e s u l t i n unknown volume
changes i n the samples and hence an uncertainty i n the estimation of void

r a t i o of the sample.
Furthermore, c e l l pressure has to be applied before
the sample i s percolated with water i n order to dissolve or drive out the
a i r trapped i n the sample.
Thus, the sample f i r s t experiences an effec-
t i v e stress of more than 1.0 kgf/cm
(98 kPa) depending on the l e v e l of
c e l l pressure applied, followed by a loss of t h i s e f f e c t i v e stress when

vacuum i s released at one end during the process of saturation.
Hence
the sample gets consolidated and then rebounded causing stress h i s t o r y

effects i n addition to unknown volume changes.
This volume change may be
s i g n i f i c a n t when the water i s allowed to percolate into the sample.
Very
large volume change can take place e s p e c i a l l y i f the sand contains some
fines.
In any case, the exact amount of volume change i s d i f f i c u l t to
estimate due to Inherent anisotropy of the pluviated samples even
33.
though the a x i a l deformation, i s monitored.

The sample preparation technique adopted i n this i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s
believed to y i e l d more uniform samples, the e f f e c t i v e stress p r i o r to
initiating
consolidation was kept i d e n t i c a l i n a l l samples at a very low

2
value (0.2 kgf/cra ) and no a r b i t r a r y e f f e c t i v e stress h i s t o r y was

imparted to the samples.
e f f e c t i v e stress s t a t e .
was
Consolidation was
started from this i n i t i a l
A complete record of volume changes of samples
kept and hence errors i n the estimation of void r a t i o at the end of
consolidation were eliminated.
Such e r r o r s , together with those associ-
ated with sample preparation by tamping, are e s p e c i a l l y Important In the

study of undrained response of loose samples under r e l a t i v e l y
consolidation
low
pressure.
A f t e r the sample had been saturated, the t r i a x i a l c e l l was

on the loading platform, and the sample loading ram was
loading piston rod.
The sample was
now
tropic consolidation, i f required, was

sure and a x i a l load simultaneously
Section 3.1.2.
connected to the
ready for consolidation.
Aniso-
achieved by r a i s i n g the c e l l pres-
i n a preset r a t i o as described i n
The c e l l pressure was
about 0.5 kgf/cm
centered
increased at a constant rate of
(49 kPa) per minute by the motorized regulator u n t i l
the desired c e l l pressure was
achieved.
During the process of consolida-
t i o n , the volume change, a x i a l deformation and a x i a l load were monitored

at discrete levels of confining pressure.
t i o n stress path f o r Kc
3.4.
r a t i o of 2.0
A t y p i c a l monotonic consolida-
i s i l l u s t r a t e d by path 3 i n F i g .
In the conventional procedure of anisotropic consolidation, the
sample would be f i r s t consolidated i s o t r o p i c a l l y and then sheared under

drained condition to the desired value of K
r a t i o . This i s generally
c
carried out i n one step or i n multiple steps as i l l u s t r a t e d by paths 1
34.
and 2 respectively i n F i g . 3.4.
A monotonic anisotropic consolidation Is
superior to the conventional technique, because of the possible influence

of stress path during consolidation on the subsequent undrained
behaviour.
When the consolidation pressure reached the desired value, the
drainage l i n e was
kept open for a period of time u n t i l the secondary
consolidation, i f any, was
complete.
The
time required for this phase
depends on the type and the l e v e l of consolidation stress used.

rounded and angular sands consolidated
this waiting period was
very short.
For both
to low consolidation pressure,
However, for angular t a i l i n g s sand
under high consolidation s t r e s s e s , a period of more than 20 minutes

elapsed before the volume change got s t a b i l i z e d .
the sample was
During consolidation,
always kept under stress c o n t r o l l e d condition u n t i l the
next stage of loading.
3.2.2
Methods of Loading
Two
types of t e s t s , i . e . , monotonic and c y c l i c loading t e s t , were
performed i n order to study the undrained behaviour of sands.
In each
type of t e s t , either s t r a i n c o n t r o l l e d or stress controlled loading

applied.
was
A l l tests were performed using the conventional t r i a x i a l stress
path, i . e . , the c e l l pressure was
maintained constant during shear.
Undrained Monotonic Loading

Generally, undrained s t r a i n softening behaviour has been studied
testing samples under stress c o n t r o l l e d conditions
et a l . , 1982).
(Castro, 1969;
by
Castro
The dead weight system or a i r piston loading system can
be used for this purpose.
35.
It was
found that the dead weight system i s not suitable for
investigating behaviour of sand that developed limited l i q u e f a c t i o n .

This i s due to the Impact on the sample a f t e r occurrence of steady state
deformation and the sample moving beyond the state of PT with accompanied
increase i n i t s r e s i s t a n c e . The impact force on the sample was
the large i n e r t i a force i n dead weights at PT s t a t e .
due to
As an example, the
actual load acting on the sample during and a f t e r s t r a i n softening i s

shown i n F i g . 3.5
tion.
together with pore pressure response and a x i a l deforma-
High frequency vibrations occurred i n the sample, causing a
complicated
s t r e s s - s t r a i n history a f t e r steady state deformation.
The
data for this test were recorded on an o s c i l l o g r a p h i c recorder.

In contrast to the dead weight system, a i r piston loading i s a low
i n e r t i a system.
Such a loading system was
found to influence the test
results If sand undergoes s t r a i n softening on account of i n t e r a c t i o n of

sample c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s with that of the loading system.
I t was
found
that the steady state strength and s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l (amount of s t r a i n

from peak u n t i l PT state) could vary depending on the piston s i z e ,
position of the piston cylinder and the presence of volume booster.
An
example of such an Interaction Is i l l u s t r a t e d by the r e s u l t s of tests on

two i d e n t i c a l sand samples i n F i g .
3.6.
The samples were loaded
i d e n t i c a l l y except that for one sample the volume of a i r i n the a i r

piston prior to the occurrence of s t r a i n softening response was larger
than for the other.
I t was
found i n preliminary studies that the steady state strength
and s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l obtained under s t r a i n controlled conditions were

comparable to those obtained using the dead weight system.
observed by Castro et a l . (1982).
This was
For these reasons, a l l monotonic
also
36.
40.0
Time
Fig. 3.5
Undrained monotonic loading response with limited

liquefaction using dead weight loading.
37.
Ottawa Sand
2.0
A i r Volume in Piston
0.700
0.701
1.6
small
large
C ' 2.0 k g f / c m
3 c
.9 1.2
\ 3 0.8
0.4
2.0
F i g . 3.6
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
Influence of the pneumatic loading system on the

s t r a i n softening behaviour.
38.
loading tests were performed by using s t r a i n controlled loading system.
However, i t should be noted that the Interaction of the sample with the
stress c o n t r o l l e d loading system occurs i n samples which developed s t r a i n
softening response only.
For samples which developedstrain hardening
response, both the stress c o n t r o l l e d and s t r a i n controlled tests should

y i e l d the same r e s u l t .
After consolidation was completed, the loading platform was raised
or lowered u n t i l the piston rod contacted
the loading crosshead.
With
drainage l i n e closed, the sample was loaded monotonically under s t r a i n

controlled conditions.
used i n a l l t e s t s .
A x i a l s t r a i n rate of about 1.0% per minute was
During the process of loading, a x i a l load, pore
pressure, c e l l pressure and a x i a l deformation were monitored
continuously
by transducers and records obtained on a four pen chart recorder.
Undrained C y c l i c Loading
C y c l i c loading tests were performed i n order to obtain the e f f e c t i v e
confining stress and shear strength at PT state under c y c l i c loading
condition, and also to assess the resistance to c y c l i c loading i n terms
of s t r a i n development.
For reasons described above, only s t r a i n c o n t r o l l e d loading was used
to obtain the steady state strength parameters under c y c l i c loading.
It
was achieved manually by loading and unloading i n the s t r a i n controlled

machine maintaining
constant stress amplitudes.
The s t r a i n rate used i n
these t e s t s was s i m i l a r to that used i n the monotonic loading t e s t s .
3.3
Testing Program
Four types of t r i a x i a l tests were performed:
39,
1.
IC-U
- I s o t r o p i c a l l y Consolidated Undrained Monotonic Loading

Tests.
2.
AC-U
- A n i s o t r o p i c a l l y Consolidated Undrained Monotonic Loading

Tests.
3.
IC-U
- I s o t r o p i c a l l y Consolidated Undrained C y c l i c Loading T e s t s .
4.
AC-U
- A n i s o t r o p i c a l l y Consolidated Undrained C y c l i c Loading

Tests.
Most of the monotonic loading t e s t s were performed i n the compression mode.
However, a,limited number of monotonic loading tests were
also c a r r i e d out i n the extension mode i n order to i l l u s t r a t e possible

differences due to the two modes of loading.
The main purpose of this
t e s t i n g program was to e s t a b l i s h a u n i f i e d picture of the undrained

behaviour of sand under monotonic and c y c l i c loading conditions, and the
manner i n which the void ratio,, consolidation stress r a t i o , l e v e l of
confining pressure and amplitude of c y c l i c loading influence this
behaviour.
Tests were c a r r i e d out on samples having the same i n i t i a l
void r a t i o while varying the consolidation stress r a t i o K c and confining

pressure l e v e l -c
Five series of test with i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e denstiy
varying from 15% to 70% for angular t a i l i n g s sand and three series of
test with i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density varying from 30% to 45% f o r rounded
Ottawa sand were performed.
The consolidation stress r a t i o s were varied
from 1.0 to 2.0 under wide range of consolidation pressure from 2.0
kgf/cm
(196 kPa) to 25.0 kgf/cm
(2450 kPa).
Two types of c y c l i c loading t e s t were performed.
One type of tests
were carried out to examine, under c y c l i c loading conditions, the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of steady state concept established under monotonic loading
condition.
In order to observe the steady state deformation under c y c l i c
40.
loading condition, only i n i t i a l l y loose samples consolidated
to K
ratio
c
of 2.0 and
subjected to consolidation pressure ranging from 2.0

kgf/cm
(196 kPa)
to 25.0
(2450 kPa)
explained
previously, these tests were carried out under s t r a i n
kgf/cm
were tested for both sands.
As
controlled conditions i n order to eliminate the influence of sample

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s - loading system i n t e r a c t i o n on test r e s u l t s .
The
other
type of tests were carried out to obtain the resistance to c y c l i c s t r a i n

development or c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
These tests were performed using
conventional stress controlled c y c l i c loading technique.

two series of tests were performed.
In one
For each sand,
s e r i e s , the sample states
a f t e r consolidation were so chosen that steady state deformation

expected under monotonic loading c o n d i t i o n .
was
These tests consisted of
sample with the same void r a t i o a f t e r consolidation and

stress a l while the consolidation stress r a t i o K was
3c
c
2.0.
the
consolidation
varied from 1.0
to
In the second s e r i e s , the sample states a f t e r consolidation were
chosen such that they were well below the steady state l i n e from
monotonic loading tests and hence no l i q u e f a c t i o n but the development of
c y c l i c mobility was
anticipated.
Again, the samples were prepared with
the same void r a t i o after consolidation and consolidation stress a'

3c
while the consolidation stress r a t i o K was varied from 1.0 to 2.0.
c
main purpose of these two series of tests was
The
to show the influence of
s t a t i c shear on resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .

In addition, several tests were performed to simulate the phenomenon
of spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n . The d e t a i l s of such t e s t i n g w i l l be given
i n Section
5.6.
41.
3.4
Material Tested
Two sands were used i n this laboratory testing program.
One was
Ottawa sand C-109, which has been used extensively i n the laboratory
studies of undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour at UBC and elsewhere.
other was a mine t a i l i n g s sand.
screened.
The
The t a i l i n g s sand was s p e c i a l l y
The f r a c t i o n retained on #60 sieve was v i r t u a l l y a l l quartz
and the grain size d i s t r i b u t i o n almost i d e n t i c a l to that of Ottawa sand.

Thus, the two sands represented sands which d i f f e r e d only i n t h e i r
p a r t i c l e shape, and therefore provided a d i r e c t assessment of the i n f l u ence of p a r t i c l e angularity on the undrained behaviour.
3.4.1
S o i l Description
Ottawa Sand
Ottawa sand i s a natural sand processed by Ottawa S i l i c a Company,
Ottawa, I l l i n o i s .
It meets the ASTM Designation C-109.
uniform, medium sand with rounded p a r t i c l e s .

of the sand i s shown i n F i g . 3.7.
It i s a c l e a n ,
The grain s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n
The sand has a maximum and minimum
void r a t i o s of 0.82 and 0.50 r e s p e c t i v e l y , according to standard test

method ASTM D2049.
The lowest r e l a t i v e density of water pluviated sand
a f t e r i s o t r o p i c consolidation to a^c
= 2.0 kgf/cm
(196 kPa) was about
32.0%.
Mine T a i l i n g s Sand
Mine t a i l i n g s sand was obtained from a copper mining operation i n
Peachland, B r i t i s h Columbia.
It constituted the coarse f r a c t i o n used i n
b u i l d i n g the embankment f o r t a i l i n g s impoundment. The sand consists of
&
100
sE
Z E
+ m
an
Sand
Gravtl
Coaua
E
E ,
tm <> <
Medium
I *
80
Off
c-
iI
I
CoifM
Fin*
a >anc
- J )9
Tai lit g ; - A
Washet
thfou, 1 -it
Sievi
>
40
20
0
100 80
F i g . 3.7
40
20
10 8
1 0:8
Dumttcr (mm)
0.4
0.2
Grain s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n curves of sands t e s t e d .
0.1
0.01
43.
about 80-85% of quartz, 10-15% of mica, traces of chalopyrite and
feldspar and has angular p a r t i c l e s .
The t a i l i g n s sand was
washed through #60
the fines and mica presented.
sieve i n order to remove
Removal of these fines brought both the
mineral composition and the gradation curve of the f r a c t i o n retained on

#60
sieve very s i m i l a r to that of the Ottawa sand C-109.
curve of the sand i s shown i n F i g . 3.7.

size d i s t r i b u t i o n of the two
It may
The
gradation
be noted that the grain
sands are e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l .
This
permits the influence of p a r t i c l e angularity on undrained behaviour to b

isolated without introducing a d d i t i o n a l variables i n the form of gradat i o n and mineral content.
The maximum and minimum void r a t i o s of the
t a i l i n g s sand were found to be 1.060

standard test method ASTM D2049.
and 0.688 r e s p e c t i v e l y , according t
The loosest r e l a t i v e density of water
pluviated sand a f t e r Isotropic consolidation to

kPa) was
3.4.2
=2.0
kgf/cm
(196
about 25.0%.
Consolidation C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
The consolidation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sands were determined at
several i n i t i a l void r a t i o s e^ and consolidation stress conditions.

The relationships between void r a t i o a f t e r consolidation e c and major
consolidation stress
for t a i l i n g s sand are shown i n F i g .
3.8.
Similar r e s u l t s for Ottawa sand are shown In F i g . 3.9.

It may
be noted that considerable
volume reduction occurs on a p p l i -
cation of high confining pressure during consolidation of angular t a i l ings sand ( F i g . 3.8).
However, the volume reduction i s much less for
rounded Ottawa sand under s i m i l a r stress l e v e l s .
Larger compressibility
of angular sand i s a consequence of easy breakage of sharp edges of
OTTAWA
0.80-
*/
SAND
1.0
0.725 O
O 700 A
0.673
0.75-
10
20
20
. 30
0.70-
40
u
Q
30
c
Q
0.65 60
a,
4)
0.6C-
70 a:
80
0.53
90
0.30
0.2
Fig.
3.9
0.4
I I
0.6
0.8 10
Consolidation
Consolidation
1_
2.0
40
Stress,
60
8 0 10 0
0'lc (ka/cm )
characteristics of Ottawa sand.
200
40.0
60.0
L-
100
46.
p a r t i c l e s under high consolidation s t r e s s e s , which makes the p a r t i c l e s to
move into a more compact arrangement.
for
As expected, the volume reduction
a given stress increment decreases with increasing i n i t i a l density.
However, the consolidation curves with various i n i t i a l void ratios tend

to converge under high consolidation pressure.
apparent i n the case of t a i l i n g s sand.
This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
It appears that under very high
confining pressure the f i n a l void r a t i o may be more or l e s s independent

of the i n i t i a l void ratio of the sample.
It may also be noted i n F i g s . 3.8 and 3.9 that f o r a given
initial
void ratio the f i n a l void r a t i o a f t e r consolidation i s a function only of

the major p r i n c i p a l consolidation s t r e s s Q^ > regardless of the c o n s o l i z
dation stress r a t i o K .
c
Such consolidation behaviour of sand has also
been observed f o r Sacramento River sand over an even larger range of

consolidation stress r a t i o and confining stress l e v e l by Lee and Seed
(1970).
This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c behaviour may be used to estimate the f i n a l
void r a t i o of sand after consolidation once the i n i t i a l void r a t i o and

consolidation stress conditions are known.
As w i l l be discussed i n
Section 5.1.4, the curves i n F i g s . 3.8 and 3.9 give a very good basis f o r
preparing samples to a desired f i n a l void r a t i o under a wide range of
consolidation stress conditions.
In this manner the f i n a l void r a t i o
could be reproduced with v a r i a t i o n of l e s s than 1.6% i n r e l a t i v e density.

For a given e., the unique e v s . a' consolidation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
1
c
lc
sand may also have s i g n i f i c a n t importance i n determining the i n - s i t u void
r a t i o as construction proceeds i f the i n i t i a l placement void r a t i o can be
estimated.
This i s e s p e c i a l l y true i f the sand i s loose.
Sampling of
loose sand i s known to always cause d e n s i f i c a t i o n and hence gives higher

strength estimate, which could be unsafe f o r design purposes.
47,
It should be pointed out that the unique consolidation relationships

of sand discussed above are restricted for water pluviated sand and under
normal consolidation only. Other sample preparation procedures, e.g.,
moist tamping, dry compaction, etc., which may impart to the sample a
complex stress history, may not result in such relationships. This will
be especially critical for a sand with rounded particles in which the
total volume change during consolidation is generally very small.
48.
CHAPTER 4
UNDRAINED MONOTONIC LOADING BEHAVIOUR
I
Undrained t r i a x i a l compression tests were carried out on both sands

using confining pressure
ranging from 2.0 to 25.0 kgf/cm
2450 kPa) and K values from 1.0 to 2.0.
(196 to
For each sand, samples were
formed at a fixed i n i t i a l void r a t i o e^ and a series of tests performed

after consolidation to various l e v e l s of a' and K values.
3c
c
Similar
series of tests were then repeated on samples formed at another f i x e d

i n i t i a l void r a t i o .
In t h i s manner, f i v e i n i t i a l void r a t i o states f o r
t a i l i n g s sand and three i n i t i a l void r a t i o states f o r Ottawa sand were

covered.
This enabled i n v e s t i g a t i o n of undrained behaviour which covered
v
a f u l l spectrum
of i n i t i a l states e , 0 ' and K , of sand.
c'
3c
c
Only limited number of tests were performed under t r i a x i a l extension

mode. The objective was to show possible influence of loading path on
the undrained behaviour.
4.1
Typical Undrained Monotonic Loading Behaviour
Stress-strain and pore pressure response together with e f f e c t i v e

stress paths f o r some selected tests on both sands incorporating a range
of end of consolidation states are shown i n Figures 4.1 to 4.10.
It may
be noted that the range of observed undrained response covers the f u l l

range of behaviour described by type 1 to 5 i n Chapter 2.
In the subse-
quent discussions, the magnitude of a x i a l s t r a i n from peak u n t i l the

phase transformaton state ( s t a r t of pore pressure decrease) f o r s t r a i n
softening response w i l l be designated as s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l . With this
49.
d e f i n i t i o n , true l i q u e f a c t i o n corresponds to an unlimited s t r a i n

potential.
T a i l i n g s Sand Test Results

T y p i c a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n and pore pressure response of i n i t i a l l y
loose
samples of t a i l i n g s sand consolidated to low (2.0 kgf/cm ), moderate (8.0

2
kgf/cm ), and high (25.0 kgf/cm ) confining pressures o'

JC
Fig.
Fig.
4.1a,b,c.
The corresponding
are shown i n
e f f e c t i v e stress paths are shown i n
4.2.
I s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample under low confining pressure did
not develop s t r a i n softening response ( F i g . 4.1a)

tive density was
only 25%.
even though the r e l a -
Instead, the sample developed a deviator
stress plateau over a small range of s t r a i n before the shear resistance

started increasing once again due to d i l a t i o n with further s t r a i n i n g .
may
It
also be seen that the s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve a f t e r the plateau was much
f l a t t e r than that i n the i n i t i a l stage of loading.
This i s the t y p i c a l
type 4 response described i n Chapter 2.

A n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample under the same confining pressure, on the other hand, developed a s l i g h t s t r a i n softening even though
i t s r e l a t i v e density was
sample ( F i g . 4.1a).
higher than that of i s o t o p i c a l l y consolidated
Small s t r a i n softening was
s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l of less than 2%.
associated with a small
The sample deformed i n a manner char-
acterized as l i m i t e d l i q u e f a c t i o n , except that the s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l was

very small.
This i s the t y p i c a l type 3 response described i n Chapter 2.
When the confining pressure was
increased to 8.0 kgf/cm
(784
kPa),
both i s o t r o p i c a l l y and a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated samples developed

s t r a i n softening response ( F i g . 4.1b)
even though r e l a t i v e densities were
50.
Tailings Sand
03c''2.0
kgf/cm
e, =1.000
e =0.965
c
D =16.1%
D = 25.5%
rl
rc
&X =2.0
e
e, =0.997
e =0.948
c
D , =16.9%
D =30./%
r
rf:
12.0
Fig. 4 . 1 a

i n i t i a l l y loose t a i l i n g s sand under low confining pressure.
10.0-
8.0 -
6.0
CM
oi
Tailings
4.0
Sand
2
O3J = 8.0 kgf/cm

KC * '.0
Dr)
e; =0.999
ec =0.9/i
Ore
Ke =2.0
e, --0.992
ec =0.87/
0
rc
2.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
=16.4%
=40.1%
= 18.3%
= 50.8%
_i
12.0
14.0
F i g . 4.1b Undrained monotonic compression loading behaviour of i n i t i a l l y

loose t a i l i n g s sand under moderate confining pressure.
52.
Tailings Sand
0 > . 25.0
kgf/cm
3c
LO
LOU
e '0.827
Kc -2.0
40.0"
ri *
e*/.004 D
e - 0,738
F i g . 4.1c
4.0
13.2%
' 62.6 %
2.0
6.0
13.1 %
Drc '86.6%
6,
8.0
/0.0
/2.0
14.0
16.0
Undrained monotonic compression loading behaviour of i n i t i a l l y

loose t a i l i n g s sand under high confining pressure.
Tailings Sand
e(- '1.00
Drj -16.1%
Kc -2.0
l/2(0,'+0 ')
3
(kgf/cm )
2
OJ
F i g . 4.2
Effective stress paths of undrained monotonic compression

loading response of i n i t i a l l y loose t a i l i n g s sand.
54.
much higher than those under the lower confining pressure. Both samples
deformed i n the same manner with steady state conditions over a moderate
range of s t r a i n , before regaining strength due to d i l a t i o n with further
straining.
These correspond to type 2 response described i n Chapter 2.
It may be noted that a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample, which simulates

s o i l element with i n i t i a l shear b i a s , developed more severe loss of
strength and larger s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l than the i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated
one, even though i t s f i n a l r e l a t i v e density was higher.
Furthermore, i t s
shear resistance during steady state was s l i g h t l y less than the i n i t i a l

s t a t i c shear stress after c o n s o l i d a t i o n .
Under high confining pressure of 25.0 kgf/cm
(2450 kPa), both
samples behaved i n a manner s i m i l a r to those under moderate confining

pressure (Fig.
4.1c).
Despite t h e i r much higher r e l a t i v e d e n s i t i e s ,
they developed a severe loss of shear resistance and larger s t r a i n

p o t e n t i a l than samples at moderate confining pressure. The loss i n
resistance was e s p e c i a l l y severe f o r a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample.
Its
shear resistance
was reduced to a value considerably less than the
i n i t i a l s t a t i c shear s t r e s s , and the sample deformed continuously with

unlimited s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l .
Although the r e l a t i v e density i s very high
(86.6%), i t s behaviour i s the same as the true l i q u e f a c t i o n developed i n

very loose sand (type 1 response), with the difference that r e l a t i v e l y
high shear resistance was s t i l l retained during steady state deformation.
Typical s t r e s s - s t r a i n and pore pressure responses of i n i t i a l l y
dense
samples under moderate and high confining pressures i s shown i n F i g .

4.3a,b and the e f f e c t i v e stress paths i n F i g . 4.4.
I s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample under moderate confining pressure
of 8.0 kgf/cm
(784 kPa) developed type 5 s t r a i n hardening response ( F i g .
55.
F i g . 4.3a

dense t a i l i n g s sand under moderate confining pressure.
Tailings Sand
Cc
25.0 kgf/crn?
- LO
e, "0.804
e '0.725
D "68.8%
D -90./%
ri
rc
12.0
F i g . 4.3b

dense t a i l i n g s sand under high confining pressure.
Tailings Sand
e
- 0 . 8 0 0
F i g . 4.4
Drl
70.0%
Effective stress paths of undrained monotonic compression

loading response of i n i t i a l l y dense t a i l i n g s sand.
58.
4.3a), whereas a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample developed type 4
response.
When the confining pressure was increased to 25.0 kgf/cm
(2450 kPa), both I s o t r o p i c a l l y and a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated samples

developed more contractive tendancy even though their r e l a t i v e densities
were much higher than those under moderate confining pressure.
For iso-
t r o p i c a l l y consolidated samples, the response changed from type 5 under

moderate confining pressure to type 4 under high confining pressure,
while that of a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated samples transformed from type
4 to type 2 as the confining pressure increased by the same magnitude.
Typical test results f o r an i n i t i a l l y loose sample under low confining
pressure of 1.84 kgf/cm
(180 kPa) subjected to monotonic extension
loading are shown i n F i g . 4.5. The sample developed s t r a i n softening

response unlike s i m i l a r sample with the same i n i t i a l sample state but
subjected to compression
4.1a).
loading, which developed
type 4 response ( F i g .
The sample loaded i n extension experienced severe loss of shear
resistance with accompanying large s t r a i n potential before i t regained

i t s strength due to d i l a t i o n with further s t r a i n i n g .
Ottawa Sand Test Results

Typical s t r e s s - s t r a i n and pore pressure response of i n i t i a l y
loose
samples of Ottawa sand consolidated to low and high confining pressures

are shown i n F i g . 4.6a,b.
The corresponding e f f e c t i v e stress paths are
shown i n F i g . 4.7.
In contrast to the behaviour of t a i l i n g s sand, a l l i n i t i a l l y loose
samples of Ottawa sand developed s t r a i n softening response with
cant s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l f o r the range of confining pressure and K c
considered.
signifiratio
Strain softening i s p a r t i c u l a r l y severe under low confining
59.
Tailings Sand
O' - 1.84 kgf/cm
12.0
l/2{6{+
0
6"
1-0
0.5
o y ;
1.0
(kgf/cm )
1.5
2.0
F i g . 4.5
Undrained monotonic extension loading behaviour

of i n i t i a l l y loose t a i l i n g s sand.
60.
Ottawa Sand
a 3c ' -2.0 kgf/cm
K
e;
e
K
e;
e
c
' L O
'0.725
Dri
-0.7/2
-2.0
-0.72/
-0.703
Drc
'29.7%
-33.8%
Dri - 3 0 . 9 %
Drc =36.6%
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
/0.0
/2.0
/4.0
(%)
S (%)
a
F i g . 4.6a

loose Ottawa sand under low confining pressure.
61.
Ottawa Sand
25.0
3c'
Kg/cm
LO
e-, =0.728D =28.8%
e =0.68/
D =43.4%
K -2.0
e; =0.723 D =30.3%
e =0.667 D =47.8%
ri
40.01-
rc
ri
rc
F i g . 4.6b Undrained monotonic compression loading behaviour of

i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand under high confining pressure.
Ottawa Sand
e =0.725 D =30.0%
}
ri
i/2(Oi'+03')
(Kgf/cm )
ON
N>
F i g . 4.7
E f f e c t i v e stress paths of monotonic compression loading response

of i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand.
63.
pressure ( F i g .
4.6a).
The sand l o s t much greater percentage of i t s
resistance and developed much larger s t r a i n potential than those under

high confining pressure. A l l samples developed type 2 response, which i s
t y p i c a l of limited l i q u e f a c t i o n , and no type 1 response t y p i c a l of true
l i q u e f a c t i o n was
For
observed.
samples densified to I n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density of 45%, however,
completely d i f f e r e n t responses compared to those of the i n i t i a l l y loose

states were obtained.
Instead of developing s t r a i n softening response,
a l l samples developed s t r a i n hardening or type 4 response, regardless of

the confining pressure. T y p i c a l t e s t r e s u l t s f o r such response are shown
i n F i g s . 4.8a,b and
4.9.
Typical test r e s u l t s for an i n i t i a l l y medium dense sample under a

confining pressure of 8.0 kgf/cm
(784 kPa) and Kc
monotonic extension loading are shown i n F i g .
= 1.0 subjected to
4.10.
Similar to the
behaviour of t a i l i n g s sand, samples with states which developed s t r a i n

hardening response i n compression developed s t r a i n softening response
with s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l under extension loading.
Comparison of T a i l i n g s and Ottawa Sand Response

From the test results of t a i l i n g s and Ottawa sands presented above,
i t may be noted that the s t r a i n softening and s t r a i n hardening behaviour
are
s i m i l a r f o r both sands.
However, there are important differences i n
the factors which control the occurrence of s t r a i n softening or s t r a i n

hardening response i n the two sands.
For t a i l i n g s sand, i t appears that
the confining pressure and consolidation stress r a t i o are the most

important f a c t o r s .
Samples with low r e l a t i v e density can develop s t r a i n
hardening response under low confining pressure and low K r a t i o ,
6k.
Fig.
4.
8a

i n i t i a l l y dense Ottawa sand under low confining pressure.
65.
e (%)
a
Fig
4.8b

i n i t i a l l y dense Ottawa sand under high confining pressure.
Ottawa Sand
e; =0.676 D = 45%
ri
1/2(a,'
+ 0 ')
3
(kgf/cm )
2
as
F i g . 4.9
Effective stress paths of monotonic compression loading response

of i n i t i a l l y dense Ottawa sand.
67.
OffawQ Sand
Tesf /C- U - # 4 5
0 ' =8.0 kgf/cm
e, =0.667 Dr ; =47.8%
s
e =0.647 Drc 54,1%
2
3c
8.0
6.0
CM
o
\
cn
4.0
< 2.0
eft
2.0
4.0
6.0
1/2(0,'+a ')
5
2.0
CM
E
o
F i g . 4.10
4.0
8.0
10.0
(kgf/cm )
6.0
8.0
10.0
Undrained monotonic extension loading behaviour

of i n i t i a l l y medium dense Ottawa sand.
68.
whereas samples even with high r e l a t i v e density can develop s t r a i n
softening response under high confining pressure and high K c r a t i o .
On
the other hand, r e l a t i v e density seems to be the most important factor

for
Ottawa sand.
A l l initially
loose samples developed s t r a i n softening
response over the range of confining pressure and Kc r a t i o considered,

and a l l samples densified to an I n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density large than about
45% developed s t r a i n hardening response, regardless of the confining
pressure and Kc r a t i o .
This difference i n the factors c o n t r o l l i n g the
undrained response of these two sands w i l l be discussed further i n

Section 4.2.
It may also be noted that the modes of loading influence the
undrained behaviour of both sands.
Sand at given r e l a t i v e density may be
safe against l i q u e f a c t i o n (limited or true) under monotonic compression

but may undergo l i q u e f a c t i o n under monotonic extension. The range of
r e l a t i v e density over which l i q u e f a c t i o n can be induced i n extension i s
larger than that i n compression under the s i m i l a r consolidation stress
conditions.
Also the degree of s t r a i n softening i s more severe i n exten-
sion than that i n compression under s i m i l a r i n i t i a l sample states.
These
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are true for both sands.
4.2
Strain Softening and Strain Hardening Responses
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , s t r a i n softening and s t r a i n hardening responses are

described by the shape of the s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve obtained.
In this way,
only q u a l i t a t i v e description as to the undrained behaviour, i . e . , softening
or hardening, can be obtained. Possible relationship of the type of
response either to the s o i l parameter during deformation or to i n i t i a l
69.
state (e , a' , K ) has not been Investigated

c' 3c' c
comprehensively.
In the
investigations reported herein, d i f f e r e n t types of response w i l l be

related to the sample state at phase transformation,
and
and peak, strength
to the i n i t i a l sample s t a t e .
4.2.1
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Undrained Responses
Test results r e l a t i n g void r a t i o a f t e r consolidation e c versus
e f f e c t i v e confining stress o"^ at phase transformation
state for t a i l i n g s
sand prepared at an i n i t i a l void r a t i o e^ of 0.90 are shown i n F i g .

4.11.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between void r a t i o e c and consolidation stress
al which i s v a l i d for any value of K (see F i g . 3.8) i s also shown i n

lc
c
the f i g u r e .
Samples under low consolidation stresses, [ c > developed
s t r a i n hardening response.
As the void r a t i o e c decreases as a result
of increasing consolidation stresses, the samples started to develop

s l i g h t s t r a i n softening associated with small s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l . As the
consolidation stresses are increased
f u r t h e r , the samples developed
s t r a i n softening response with s i g n i f i c a n t (>2%) s t r a i n potential or even

true l i q u e f a c t i o n . It should be noted that data points In F i g . 4.11
contain results for samples consolidated
to various K c r a t i o s .
continuous unique relationship may be seen to exist between eând a^

which describes
the f u l l spectrum of undrained response type 1 to type 5.
This continuous l i n e r e l a t i n g e and al

c
J
at PT state may be divided into
two d i s t i n c t regions of response, i . e . , s t r a i n hardening region and

s t r a i n softening region ( F i g . 4.11).
Due to the unique e ^ o ^ r e l a t i o n -
ship, these two regions of response can also be related uniquely to

consolidation stress al
lc
, regardless of the K
ratio.
In other words,
the undrained response i s uniquely related to consolidation stress a'
1.00
Tailings Sand
1.0
B
0.90"
Consolidation
1.5
20
Curve
(0.80-
0.75-
Note
Steady Stale
Transition
transformation
X State at phase
tor dilative response
070-
0.2
0.4
Effective
0.6
0.8 1.0
Confining
Stress
2.0
4.0
al PT State
oy
(kgf/cm )
6.0
8.0 10.0
20.0
or Effective
Consolidation
40.0
Stress CJ| '
60.0
F i g . 4.11

at PT state for t a i l i n g s sand at
fixed e^ under undrained compression loading.
I.OOt
Tailings
e,
0.95h
1.0
1.0
095
0.90
0.85
0.80
Sand
20
(.5 2 . 0
30
40
0.90\
Consolidation
Curves ( e - Oj ')
c
50
0.651
Critical
Consolidation
Stress
I0, )
c
{60 Q
c r i t
\70
0.801
4
)
V
Note0 Steady
State
Transition
u
oo.TSf
{80 o
"5
XSfofe af phase
transformation for
dilative response
490
0.70H
woo
05L
0.2
Effective
OA
06
Confining
F i g . 4.12
08
10
Stress
20
O 3 ' o r Effective
40
6.0
Consolidation
a t
_J
L.
8.0 10 0
Stress
'110
20.0
400
Oj ' (kgf/cm )
2

state f o r t a i l i n g s sand
with various e^ under undrained compression loading.
60.0
72.
which i s the product of K and al .
c
3c
Fig.
4.12 shows compilation of a l l test results r e l a t i n g e c and o\j
at PT state for t a i l i n g s sand with various i n i t i a l void r a t i o e^. The

relationship between e
figure.
v s . a' f o r various e. i s also shown i n the

c
Ic
i
It may be seen i n F i g . 4.12 that e - a l relationships for various
C
-5
e^ form a series of curves which merge into a unique l i n e below a c e r t a i n

e , depending on e. of the sand.
c
I
It i s found that t h i s unique l i n e
describes the behaviour of a l l samples which developed s t r a i n softening

resulting i n true liquefaction or limited l i q u e f a c t i o n with s i g n i f i c a n t
s t r a i n potential (greater than 2%), regardless of the e^ of the sand.
Thus, for those samples that developed limited l i q u e f a c t i o n , the
concept of a unique steady state l i n e proposed by Castro (1969) may be
used i n the same manner as f o r samples that develop true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
This steady state l i n e i s shown i n F i g . 4.12 by a darkened band. It
should be emphasized that this steady state l i n e comprises of results f o r
limited l i q u e f a c t i o n as well as true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
If the sand developed s l i g h t s t r a i n softening with s t r a i n
less than 2%, the & ~ 2
0
re
l a t i o n s h i p f o r each e^ starts to branch away
from the unique steady state l i n e .

state l i n e , these relationships
s t r a i n softening.
potential
Immediately to the l e f t of the steady
form a region characterized by s l i g h t
This i s shown by the dotted area i n F i g .
4.12 and Is
the region of t r a n s i t i o n from limited l i q u e f a c t i o n , which f i t s within the

concepts of unique steady state l i n e , into the region of s t r a i n hardening
response.
The dotted l i n e i n F i g . 4.12 which separates the regions of
s t r a i n hardening and s l i g h t s t r a i n softening response i s only approximate. A precise determination of t h i s l i n e would require a much more
comprehensive testing program.
73.
From F i g . 4.12,
i t may
be seeu that there e x i s t s a l i m i t i n g value of
consolidation stress cr!

for each e, such that sand with consolidation
lc
i
stress
greater than this value would always develop s t r a i n softening
response with s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l and the

relationships f i t s the unique steady state l i n e .
e
c
~o"^ at PT state
Hereinafter this type
of response w i l l be c a l l e d l i q u e f a c t i o n . In contrast, samples with

consolidation stress
less than this c r i t i c a l value would always
develop either s t r a i n hardening or s l i g h t s t r a i n softening response and

the
e
c
T2
line.
a t
st
a t e relationship does not f i t the unique steady state
This l i m i t i n g value of consolidation stress w i l l be c a l l e d
c r i t i c a l consolidation stress (al )

, .
lc c r i t
f i v e e^, a relationship betwen e^ and
( a ^ c ) c r ^ t may
be obtained.
From the results for test at
c r i t i c a l consolidation stress
This i s shown i n F i g . 4.12
by the dashed l i n e
to the right but more or l e s s p a r a l l e l to the steady state l i n e .
It
may
be noted that (al ) . Increases with decreasing e .

lc c r i t
c
This c r i t i c a l consolidation stress (al )
. separates regions of
lc c r i t
I n i t i a l sample state (e , al ,'K ) which w i l l develop l i q u e f a c t i o n from

c
3c
c
those which w i l l not. Any sample with a state a f t e r consolidation l y i n g
on or to the right of (al ) . l i n e w i l l result i n l i q u e f a t i o n , otherlc c r i t
^
'
wise s l i g h t s t r a i n softening or s t r a i n hardening response w i l l be
developed.
n
(al ) . l i n e thus forms a quantitative
criterion for
lc c r i t
separating regions of l i q u e f a c t i o n from other types of response.

eliminates
It
the a r b i t r a r i n e s s of c r i t e r i o n proposed by Castro (1969) and
Castro and Poulos (1977), which s p e c i f i e s that the i n i t i a l state of sand

has to be well above and to the right of the steady state l i n e , i n order
to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n . It should be noted that
tfîs
the major
consolidation s t r e s s , which i s the product of minor consolidation stress
74.
0 ' and K r a t i o , i . e . , a' and K do not influence the l i q u e f a c t i o n
3c
c
3c
c
behaviour independently.
a!
Therefore, a l l sample states along the constant
path w i l l show the same response as long as conditions at PT state
It w i l l be shown l a t e r that sand with a given e and al ,
c
lc
with al > (al ) . w i l l result In the same peak undrained strength and
lc
lc crit
*
are concerned.
steady state strength under monotonic loading, regardless of the

individual value of al and K .
3c
c
The r e s u l t s of void r a t i o e versus e f f e c t i v e confining stress al at
c
J
PT state for Ottawa sand are shown i n F i g . 4.13. The relationships
between consolidation stress al and e f o r three i n i t i a l void ratios are
lc
c
also shown i n the f i g u r e .
As discussed
i n Section 4.1, a l l i n i t i a l l y
loose samples (upper consolidation curve) developed s t r a i n softening

response with s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l (>2%).
The stress state at
steady state vs e^ f o r these samples may be seen to form a well defined

steady state l i n e with s l i g h t scatter at around e c = 0.70. No i n i t i a l
state gave r i s e to either s t r a i n hardening or s l i g h t l y s t r a i n softening
response.
I n i t i a l l y somewhat denser samples (middle consolidation curve)
under low i n i t i a l stresses al
developed s t r a i n hardening response, but
lc
s l i g h t s t r a i n softening response was obtained under higher al . For a'
lc
Jc
2
up to 25.0 kgf/cm (2450 kPa) and K =2.0 used i n this study, there was
c
no i n i t i a l stress state which led to s t r a i n softening with s i g n i f i c a n t
s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l and hence no data point on the steady state l i n e .
the sand was densified i n i t i a l l y
As
to i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density of about
45%, a l l samples developed s t r a i n hardening response over the same range

of a\
and K values. It may be noted i n F i g . 4.13 that the plots of
Jc
c
void r a t i o versus a l at PT state f o r the two series of tests on i n i t i a l l y
denser samples formed two l i n e s more or less p a r a l l e l to the steady state
085
Sand
OHawa
0.80-
10
Kc
i
1.0
0.725 2.0
0700
0.675
0.75
20
0^
Steady State
30,
Line
Consolidation
Curves
lec -Olc ')
0.70-
40 ~
c
>
Q
50
0.65-
60*
Stale at phase tranformation

for dilative response
41
oloeo
o
>
NoteO Steady state

f Transition
State at phase transformation
for dilative response
70
80
0.5590
0.50
0.2
Effective
1.0
0.5
Confining
F i g . A.13
Stress
Relationship
various
2.0
OV
or
4.0
Effective
between e c
and
6.0
8.0 100
Consolidation
o^ a t PT
Stress
state
e^ under undrained compression
lc
40.0
20.0
(kal/cm )
f o r Ottawa sand
loading.
with
600
100
76.
l i n e obtained from i n i t i a l l y loose samples.
These l i n e s tend to approach
and may eventually merge into the steady state l i n e at extremely high
consolidation stress a' .
lc
This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Ottawa sand i s s i m i l a r
to that of the t a i l i n g s sand.
From the results presented i n F i g .
4.13 i t
appears that the PT state for e^ = 0.70 w i l l merge into the steady l i n e
only when the consolidation stress
considered here.
i s greater than the range
Similarly for I n i t i a l l y loose samples, i t appears that
s t r a i n hardening response can occur under very low consolidation stress

7
only.
Therefore, the c r i t i c a l consolidation stress (o*' ) . _ could not

'
lc crit
be obtained for the range of consolidation stresses and i n i t i a l void

r a t i o considered. However, as discussed i n Section 4.1, sample with
i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density greater than about 45% has l i t t l e p o s s i b i l i t y of
developing s t r a i n softening response.
On the other hand, samples with
i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density looser than about 40%, are highly susceptible to

liquefaction.
Only limited test data were obtained for both sands i n undrained
extension loading.
Only those samples which led to the development of
steady state deformation were covered.

ings sand are shown i n F i g .
4.14a.
Results of these tests for t a i l -
For Ottawa sand, more comprehensive
studies have been made by Chung (1984), and some of h i s test results are
shown i n F i g .
4.14b.
From the limited data obtained, i t i s apparent that
the steady state l i n e i n extension i s not the same as that i n compression

for
each sand.
Furthermore, the extension steady state l i n e for either
sand i s not as well defined as the compression steady state l i n e .
It i s ,
however, clear that for the same e c the steady state strength In extension i s always less than that i n compression because of smaller
at
steady state In extension. Moreover, the range of void ratio over which
77.
1.00
20
0.95
(a) Tailings
\
\
40
/
\
0.S5
Steady State Line

in Compression
50
or
>
0.80
60
\
70
\
\
\
0.75
80
0.70r--
_t_ ....
90
I/O
(b) Ottawa
0.70
Sand
H20
Steady State Line

in C Compression
in
30
vp
o>
40
o
w
Q
50
0.65
in
Q:
60
>
CL)
or
H'o
0.75
0)
100
0.80
CD
05
u
Q
\
O
30
0.90
Sand
|
0)
0.60
70
80
ft
0)
0.55h
90
0.50
0.1
0.2
0.5
Effective
Fig.
4.14
1.0
Confining
2.0
Stress,
5.0
CT^
10.0
20.0
100
50.0
(kgf/cm )
Comparison of steady state condition under compression and

extension.
78.
l i q u e f a c t i o n can be induced i n extension i s much larger than that i n
compression for the same range of consolidation stresses considered.
This difference i n compression and extension behaviour i s believed to be
a consequence of the inherent anisotropy
i n pluviated sand samples.
However, these loading path differences may r e f l e c t c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s In

nature, such as the s o i l elements at the crest and. near the toe of a
p o t e n t i a l f a i l u r e surface.
If such a s i t u a t i o n occurs i n nature,
possible extension mode of loading should not be dismissed.
E f f e c t of P a r t i c l e
Angularity
It was pointed out i n Section 4.1 that Ottawa sand can not develop
s t r a i n softening response once i t i s densified to an i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e
density above 45% f o r the range of consolidation stresses considered.
However, t a i l i n g s sand could develop s t r a i n softening response even
though the f i n a l r e l a t i v e density was over 100%.
From the consolidation
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( F i g . 3.8) I t may be noted that angular t a i l i n g s sand

shows much larger compressibility under high consolidation s t r e s s .
Dur-
ing shear deformation angular sand shows stronger d i l a t i v e tendency under

low consolidation stresses but stronger contractive tendency under higher
consolidation stresses.
This increased contractive tendency i n shear and
higher compressibility during consolidation to high consolidation stress

are believed to be due to the breakage of sharp edges of angular p a r t i c l e
(Vaid et a l . , 1983).
It was found that the fines content (material pass-
ing No. 100 sieve) of angular sand a f t e r shearing increases with increasing consolidation stresses.
F i g . 4.15 shows the comparative grain size
d i s t r i b u t i o n curves of a fresh untested sample and a sample a f t e r

undrained shearing.
An increase i n fines content from less than 1% to
about 6.5% may be observed when the confining pressure of 25.0 kgf/cm
Tailings
Sand
Test AQ - U - #6
05c ' =25.0
kgf/cm
K
-2.0
sm
Sand
Coirs*
E
r>
m *
C
H
Medium
Fin*
Coerse
I3
5i
t ^
100
80
60
A
40
\V
- A rer
i est
/ "
B ifOl
test
20
>
0
Diameter (mm)
F i g . A. 15
G r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t a i l i n g s sand before
and a f t e r
test.
Medium
80.
(2450 kPa) and Kc ratio of 2.0 were used in undrained shear. From the
grain size distribution, i t appears there was no major particle crushing.
This may also be seen from the microphotographs of tailings sand samples
before and after shear testing (Fig. 4.16). Very large amount of fines
may be seen in the sample after testing, whereas there is hardly any
particle with this size in the fresh sample.
For Ottawa sand, on the
other hand, no indication of particle breakage could be observed for the

level of consolidation stresses considered.
Therefore, i t is conceivable
that strain softening response in sand of rounded particles is related to

i n i t i a l loose structure.
Although consolidation of I n i t i a l l y loose
sample to high stresses can result in high relative density, strain softening response can s t i l l develop due to the I n i t i a l loose structure,
which may be mostly preserved during consolidation.
This seems to be
true for other sands with rounded or subrounded particles, such as banding sand used in Castro's (Castro, 1969; Castro et a l . , 1982) studies.
In such sands, liquefaction can develop only i n states of low relative
density.
Thus, for sand with rounded particles, i n i t i a l relative density
provides a good single parameter defining its i n i t i a l state for a prediction of i t s anticipated undrained response as long as no particle
breakage occurs. However, i f the consolidation stresses are high enough
to cause particle breakage, i t is believed that the behaviour of rounded
sand would be similar to that of the angular sand, due to the added
potential compressibility due to particle breakage.
It may also be noted in Fig. 4.12 and 4.13 that the steady state
line for rounded Ottawa sand is much flatter than that of the angular
tailings sand. This feature is another characteristic manifestation of
the
differences in particle shapes.
Similar variations in slope of
81.
After Test
F i g . 4.16
(AC-U-#6)
Microphotograph of t a i l i n g s sand before and a f t e r t e s t .
82.
steady state l i n e with changing p a r t i c l e angularity have been reported by
Castro et a l . (1982).
One important significance associated with the
f l a t steady state l i n e i s the extreme s e n s i t i v i t y to the magnitude of

steady state strength with very small changes i n void r a t i o .
This aspect
of sand behaviour w i l l be discussed further i n l a t e r sections.

While the discussions presented above are v a l i d f o r hard, c l e a n ,
uniform, medium quartz sand, p a r t i c l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which increases the
compressibility of sand, such as f r i a b l e p a r t i c l e or presence of f i n e s ,
w i l l increase the contractive tendency.
Sand with such p a r t i c l e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l have a steeper steady state l i n e which i s a d i r e c t

r e f l e c t i o n of i t s c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y .
4.2.2
Characteristics of Strain Softening and Strain Hardening Responses

It has been shown i n Section 4.2.1 that f o r any void r a t i o e c
there exists a c r i t i c a l consolidation stress (al ) . f o r t a i l i n g s sand.

lc c r i t
Sand consolidated to i n i t i a l states with void r a t i o e and consolidation
c
stress a I
equal to or greater than ( " ' c ) c r ^ t develops l i q u e f a c t i o n .
The
stress conditions at PT state then f i t the unique steady state l i n e when

the sample i s loaded monotonically.
Otherwise only s t r a i n hardening
response or s l i g h t s t r a i n softening response can be developed.
This
c r i t i c a l consolidation stress separates the i n i t i a l sample state into

regions which w i l l develop l i q u e f a c t i o n and other type of response.
T y p i c a l undrained monotonic loading responses f o r samples consolidated to
the same e
above and below the v(al ) . _ = constant l i n e are shown

lc crit
schematically i n F i g . 4.17.
For case A, i . e . , the i n i t i a l stress state (a^
or to the right of ( i c )
c r
=
t
= K x a^ ) l y i n g on
c
const, l i n e , the sand always develops type
2 response ( l i m i t e d liquefaction) or type 1 response (true liquefaction)

i n the extreme case.
Many cases which f i t this type of response have
been shown by t y p i c a l test r e s u l t s i n Section 4.1.
I n i t i a l stress state
33.
.0o
Contractive
TtVon
<T^ /c'W
( 7
r^ ,\o<*
Region
Consf.
1/2 (cr,'+ cr3';
4.17
Undrained monotonic l o a d i n g response under v a r i o u s

confining pressures.
84,
represented by Case B i s the l i m i t i n g case f o r this category.
The effec-
tive stress states at peak strength and PT state (same as steady state i n
t h i s case) for a l l samples which show t h i s type of response f o r t a i l i n g s
sand are shown i n F i g . 4.18. It may be seen that regardless of the void
r a t i o , confining pressure and consolidation stress r a t i o , the peak stress
states or the stress states at which s t r a i n softening i s i n i t i a t e d leading
to steady state deformation l i e e s s e n t i a l l y on a constant e f f e c t i v e
stress ratio l i n e .
This c h a r a c t e r i s t i c has also been reported by Vaid
and Chern (1983 ) based on r e s u l t s obtained f o r Ottawa sand under c y c l i c

loading condition.
This stress r a t i o w i l l be called the c r i t i c a l e f f e c -
t i v e stress r a t i o (CSR) i n this t h e s i s .
The mobilized f r i c t i o n angle <f>'
at CSR (= 2.54) i s about 25.1 for t a i l i n g s sand.
F i g . 4.18 also shows
the e f f e c t i v e stress conditions at PT states f o r t a i l i n g s sand with

i n i t i a l states which give r i s e to l i q u e f a c t i o n response.
It may be noted
that the PT states also l i e on a constant e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o l i n e ,

regardless of the void r a t i o , confining stress and K c r a t i o of the
sand.
The mobilized cf)' angle i s about 3 6 . 5 f o r this t a i l i n g s sand.
This implies that the steady state l i n e i s a space curve l y i n g on the

plane.
If the i n i t i a l stress state l i e s to the l e f t of (al )

= const.
lc c r i t
(case C i n F i g . 4.17), the undrained response s t a r t s to move into a
t r a n s i t i o n region, which i s characterized by the development of s l i g h t
s t r a i n softening.
The e f f e c t i v e stress state at peak strength for such
I n i t i a l states was found to move c l o s e r and c l o s e r to the PT l i n e as the

degree of s t r a i n softening became less and l e s s .
Case D i s the l i m i t i n g
case f o r t h i s type of response which i s t y p i c a l of the type 4 stresss t r a i n curve.

for
The dotted l i n e j o i n i n g CSR state f o r Case B and PT state
case D ( F i g . 4.17) forms the locus of peak stress state i n t h i s
t r a n s i t i o n region at t h i s p a r t i c u l a r e c . The PT state f o r this type of

response was found to have the same e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o as that f o r
Failure
Envelope
Tailings Sand
16.0 -
0 Initiation of Strain Softening Response

Sfeody State
A Phase Transformation State for
Strain H a r d e n i n g Response a n d
Slight Strain S o f t e n i n g R e s p o n s e
Line
12.0
8.0
= 38.2
^ - ^ ^ - C S R Line
4.0 -
4.0
'
8.0
12.0
16.0
l/2(oy+oV)
F i g . 4.18
20.0
24.0
28.0
i.
32.0
36.0
(kgf/cm )
2
Effective stress conditions at the i n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n softening

response and start of d i l a t i o n of t a i l i n g s sand' under undrained
compression loading.
40
86.
i n i t i a l states which developed steady state deformation, regardless of
the void r a t i o , confining pressure and K c
shown i n F i g . 4.18
ratio.
The actual results
also include data points for test results character-
i s t i c of t r a n s i t i o n a l response.
When the i n i t i a l stress state l i e s further to the l e f t of (cr' ) .
lc crit
= const, line (case E i n F i g . 4.17), the sand develops s t r a i n hardening
response with no peak strength developed.
The PT state for this type of
response, which corresponds to the maximum pore pressure condition, was

also found to have the same e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o at PT states for
states which developed l i q u e f a c t i o n or limited l i q u e f a c t i o n of the trans i t i o n region type.
The
test results shown i n F i g . 4.18
also
incorporate
results of samples which exhibited s t r a i n hardening response.

From the i l l u s t r a t i o n i n F i g . 4.17,
chosen e
the i n i t i a l stress state for the
to the l e f t of (a! ) . = const, l i n e may

lc crit
tute e s s e n t i a l l y a d i l a t i v e region.
be seen to consti-
Sand with i n i t i a l stress states i n
this region w i l l develop s t r a i n hardening or s l i g h t s t r a i n softening

only.
Region to the right of ( a ' ) . = const, l i n e including states on

lc c r i t
this l i n e may
be regarded as the contractive region.
A l l i n i t i a l sample
states in this region w i l l develop steady state deformation.
The shaded
area i n F i g . 4.17
shearing
deformation may
where actual s t r a i n softening occurs during
be c a l l e d the region of contractive deformation.
the stress state reaches the CSR,

developed (0.2 to 0.7%
Before
r e l a t i v e l y small deformation i s
for the sands tested) although considerable
pressure can be Induced and the sample i s e s s e n t i a l l y s t a b l e .

once the stress state reaches the CSR,
pore
However,
preferred slippage between a
majority of p a r t i c l e contacts s t a r t s to occur.
Due
to the initial''loose
arrangement of p a r t i c l e s or breakage at sharp edges of p a r t i c l e In
87.
angular sand under high confining pressure, the p a r t i c l e s tend to
rearrange themselves
into a more compact form.
High pore pressure then
develops as a result of constant volume condition imposed with accompanying large deformation.
This process continues u n t i l the e f f e c t i v e
confining stress becomes low enough to cause a tendency to expand i n

volume with further shearing deformation which occurs at the PT s t a t e .
A l l discussion presented above are based on test r e s u l t s with
i n i t i a l Kc
ratio less than CSR only.
It should be noted that the CSR
simply represents the s t a r t i n g of major rearrangement of p a r t i c l e s during

shear.
Samples consolidated to K c values > CSR, i . e . , to a state within
the shaded area ( F i g . 4.17) would be p o t e n t i a l l y unstable and s t r a i n

softening response could be induced by s l i g h t disturbance. This may
seen from the results of the test shown i n F i g .
sample was consolidated to a' of 8.0 kgf/cm
Jc
about 3.0 which was
greater than CSR.
4.19.
The
be
tailings
(784 kPa) and K
r a t i o of
c
A s l i g h t increase i n shear stress
caused severe reduction i n shear resistance and the sand deformed i n a

manner similar to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Thus, the
sand consolidated i n this shaded region of F i g . 4.17, although stable

under drained conditions, i s p o t e n t i a l l y unstable under undrained
conditions.
Such a region of contractive deformation exists f o r contrac-
t i v e sand only.
Luong (1980) designated the region below the CT l i n e
(same as PT l i n e ) as the contractive domain and the region beyond the CT

l i n e as the d i l a t i v e domain i n the sense that positive pore pressure w i l l
be induced i n contractive domain and d i l a t i o n (reduction i n pore pressure) w i l l start beyond the CT l i n e .
This i s consistent with the term
d i l a t i v e region used here, since the pore pressure reduction w i l l not

occur u n t i l the PT l i n e i s reached even i f the sand develops
strain
88.
Tailings
Sand
#33
Test AC-U-
<?3 ' - 8 . 0 k g f / c m
Kc - 3 . 0
e -0.996
D
-(7.2%
2
ec -0.328
r j
I/2(OI'+0 ')
3
DRZ ~62.4%
(kgf/cm )
F i g . 4.19 Undrained monotonic loading behaviour of t a i l i n g s sand

consolidated i n t o the region of c o n t r a c t i v e deformation.
89.
hardening response.
However, the terms contractive region and d i l a t i v e
region used herein refer to the type of response, i . e . , s t r a i n softening

or s t r a i n hardening expected i n those regions of i n i t i a l state of sand
p r i o r to undrained shear.
For Ottawa sand, test results s i m i l a r to F i g . 4.18
f o r t a i l i n g s sand
representing the stress states at peak strength and steady state for
those states that developed l i q u e f a c t i o n are shown i n F i g . 4.20.
Similar
to the behaviour of t a i l i n g s sand, two constant e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o

l i n e s , one corresponding to CSR and the other PT were obtained, irrespect i v e of the void r a t i o , confining pressure and K c
The stress state at PT state of sample that developed s t r a i n hardening or

s l i g h t s t r a i n softening are also shown i n F i g . 4.20.
As i n the case of
the t a i l i n g s sand, the PT state for s t r a i n hardening response may be seen

to be the same as that of the s t r a i n softening response, regardless of
the void r a t i o , confining pressure and K c
The
mobilized cf)' angles for CSR and PT states f o r Ottawa sand are 2 3 . 5 and
29.5 respectively.
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the slopes of CSR l i n e s f o r these two
sands are nearly equal.
The mobilized
i n t e r p a r t i c l e f r i c t i o n angle ^
angles are very close to the
of the quartz sand, which varies from
2 2 . 8 to 27 according to Horn and Deere (1962).
It appears that
preferred s l i d i n g at a majority of contacts would occur when the effect i v e stress r a t i o reaches the value corresponding to cj>u and thus marks
the I n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n softening response.
Similar to the behaviour i n compression, two d i s t i n c t e f f e c t i v e
stress r a t i o lines corresponding to CSR and PT were found to exist i n
extension mode f o r both sands, as i s c l e a r from the r e s u l t s shown i n
20.0
l/2(0,'
F i g . A.20
+ a ')
3
(kgi/cm )
E f f e c t i v e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s at the i n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g
response and s t a r t of d i l a t i o n of Ottawa sand under undrained
compression l o a d i n g .
o
9 -
Figs. A. 21 and 4.22.
For tailings sand, i t appears that CSR may depend
somewhat on the i n i t i a l relative density of the sample, with mobilized <j>'

angle varying from 18 to 2 3 from the limited data obtained.
Higher CSR
appears to be associated with higher i n i t i a l relative densities. For

Ottawa sand, the mobilized $ ' angle at CSR i s about 15 (Fig. 4.22). The
difference i n CSR i n compression and extension for each sand may be due
to inherent anisotropy i n pluviated sand. The implication of different
CSR in compression and extension on the cyclic loading behaviour will be
discussed In the next chapter.
On the other hand, the PT line in exten-
sion has the same slope as that i n compression for both sands (Figs.
4.21 and 4.22). Since PT state i s a stress state after relatively large
deformation, i t i s conceivable that inherent anisotropy may be erased as
a consequence and hence the PT line w i l l be the same i n both deformation
modes.
4.3
Undrained Strength Under Monotonic Loading
It has been shown i n the previous sections that a sand can develop
either liquefaction or strain hardening response under monotonic loading
depending on i t s state ( e c >
o ^ ) after consolidation.
For liquefac-
tion the major concern i s the strength loss and the associated excessive
deformation, whereas for strain hardening response concern usually
centres on limiting deformation to an acceptable level.
Therefore, i t
would be useful to have strength estimation for these two cases in order
to avoid strength loss and excessive deformation i n contractive sand and
excessive deformation in dilative sand.
92.
Tailings
Sand
1/2 (0','-ha ')

3
(kgf/cm )
2
0 Initiation of Strain Softening Response

a Steady State
F i g . 4.21

softening response and start of d i l a t i o n of t a i l i n g s
sand under undrained extension loading.
Ottawa Sand
F i g . 4.22
Effective stress conditions at the i n i t i a t i o n of

strain softening response and start of d i l a t i o n
of Ottawa sand under undrained extension loading.
OJ
94.
4.3.1
Peak Strength for States Which Developed Liquefaction
T a i l i n g s Sand
The minor e f f e c t i v e confining stress at CSR s t a t e , a' , i s plotted
r
against minor consolidation s t r e s s , 0 " ! ^ , f samples of t a i l i n g s sand

that developed l i q u e f a c t i o n leading to steady state deformation i n F i g .
4.23.
It may be noted that the test r e s u l t s of samples with the same
ratio l i e on a straight line passing

the void r a t i o of the sample.
through the o r i g i n , regardless of
This implies s i m i l a r i t y In e f f e c t i v e
stress path u n t i l the CSR i s reached for samples with the same K
ratio.
c
Thus, the e f f e c t i v e confining stress at CSR state i s a function of
i n i t i a l consolidation stress al and consolidation stress r a t i o K , and
3c
c
may be expressed as
cr'
Jp
f(K ) a'
c
Jc
(4.1)
Plotting the slope of a' vs a' In F i g . 4.23 against K r a t i o , the

-Jp
Jc
c
function f(K ) can be obtained. Such a plot i s shown i n F i g . 4.24, which
c
indicates that f(K ) may be approximated as a l i n e a r function of K as
c
c
follows:
f(K ) = 0.412 K - 0.044
c
c
(4.2)
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note that extension of the r e l a t i o n s h i p of K c vs
a' /al to al l a l = 1.0, I.e., the i n i t i a l consolidation stress condi3p

3c
3p 3c
tion for which no excess pore pressure w i l l be induced during undrained
shear at the instant of i n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n softening corresponds to
K c r a t i o approximately equal to CSR f o r the sand ( F i g . 4.24).
This
implies that s t r a i n softening response i s imminent, i f a sample i s

consolidated at CSR state prior to undrained loading.
S l i g h t disturbance
35.
0 '
3c
Fig
4.23
(kgf/cm )
2
Relationship between e f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i p a l stress at

CSR state and e f f e c t i v e minor consolidation stress for
t a i l i n g s sand.
F i g . 4.24
Relationship between the r a t i o of e f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i p a l

stress at CSR state and e f f e c t i v e minor consolidation
stress vs K r a t i o for t a i l i n g s sand.
ON
97-
could then cause the sample to develop strain softening, leading to

steady state deformation. It should be emphasized that this is true for
contractive sand only.
This phenomenon w i l l be discussed further in the
next chapter In conjunction with spontaneous liquefaction.

It has been shown in previous sections that CSR for a given sand is
a constant stress ratio,
and
ratio.
regardless of the void ratio, confining stress
Therefore, the stress condition at CSR or peak strength
can be expressed as
ip
"
C 0
3p
<'>
where c is the CSR, which is a constant for the given sand (c = 2.54 for
tailings sand) .
Substituting Eqs. 4.1 and 4.2 into Eq. 4.3, the peak shear strength,
S
up
= 1/2 (a' - ol ) , may be obtained as follows:

lp
3p
up
= i (c-1) al
2
3p
(4.4a)
or
S
up
= \ (c-1) (0.412 K
i.
- 0.044) al
Jc
(4.4b)
Hence the peak shear strength may be obtained as a function of i n i t i a l

stress state, al and K . It was further noted that this function f(K )
3c
c
c
in Eq. 4.2 may be approximated by
f(K ) - 0.380 K
c
c
with error less than 3.0%.

F i g . 4.24.
(4.5)
This line (Eq. 4.5) is the dashed line in
Use of Eq. 4.5 instead of Eq. 4.2 in Eq. 4.4b yields
98.
up
j (c-1) 0.38 K a
Z
c JC
0.19 (c-1) al
lc
(4.4c)
Eq. 4.4c implies that the peak strength which occurs at CSR i s a function
of major consolidation stress a^
only.
In other words, the peak stress
condition at CSR state would be the same regardless of the K

r
samples
were consolidated to the same a'
lc
ratio, i f
c
but with d i f f e r e n t K
and a' .
3c
For a clearer i l l u s t r a t i o n of the above conclusions, results of

three sets of t a i l i n g s sand samples each set consolidated
to i d e n t i c a l
al
but samples within the set having d i f f e r e n t combinations of a' and
lc
*
3c
K
are shown i n F i g . 4.25. It may be noted that, as postulated, S

Is a
up
function of a\ only at a l l three levels of al considered.

lc
lc
Thus, the
undrained behaviour i s mainly a function of ^c which i s the product of

K
and al .
3c
This may also be noted from e a r l i e r discussion i n Section
4.2.
Samples s t a r t i n g with the same e. w i l l r e s u l t In the same e and

i
c
the same PT state i f the consolidation stresses al are the same. It has
lc
now been shown further here that the peak stress state w i l l also be the
same provided the samples r e s u l t i n s t r a i n softening response, leading to
steady state deformation.
Since f o r a given e^ the void r a t i o e c a f t e r consolidation i s a
function of al only, regardless of the K r a t i o , the peak shear strength
lc
c
in Eq. 4.4c can be expressed as a function of e instead of al . The
c
lc
calculated peak shear strengths for f i v e e^ as a function of
and
hence e are shown by the peak strength l i n e s i n F i g . 4.26. The actual
c
peak strength test data are shown by the data points i n the f i g u r e . I t
may be noted that the prediction of peak strength by using Eq. 4.4c i s
Tailings
Sand
e = 1.0
t
D - 16.4%
ri
CvJ
E 6.0
K =
c
cn
2.0
4.0
X
1
6" 2.0
CM
2.0
4.0
60
8.0
100
12
1/2 (0/4-03*) (Kgf/cm )
14.0
16.0
18.0
F i g . 4.25
Comparison of undrained monotonic loading response of t a i l i n g s sand under the

same major consolidation stress but with different K r a t i o s .
U3
F i g . 4.26
Undrained strengths of t a i l i n g s sand under monotonic compression

loading.
101 .
very good for i n i t i a l l y loose sample.
For i n i t i a l l y dense samples,
s t r a i n softening response leading to steady state deformation could

develop only under high consolidation s t r e s s .
Very l i t t l e test data were
obtained i n this range of high consolidation s t r e s s e s .
The paired data
points connected by v e r t i c a l lines represent the peak strength (upper

one) and steady state shear strength (lower one), which w i l l be discussed
in the next s e c t i o n .
The PT shear strength l i n e s for s t r a i n hardening
response lying below the steady state l i n e w i l l also be discussed l a t e r .
Ottawa Sand
For Ottawa sand, the relationship between al
and a' as a function
3p
3c
of K
r a t i o i s shown i n F i g . 4.27.
the t a i l i n g s sand may be observed.
Relationship similar to that for

Much less pore pressure i s induced
u n t i l CSR state for samples with high K
r a t i o i n comparison to low K
c
c
This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4.28 i n the plot of a' fal
versus
3p 3c
value. It i s again interesting to note that by assuming a l i n e a r
ratio.
K
relationship between 3 p / 3 c
anc
* ^
r a t i o , the
r a t i o corresponding to
no pore pressure generation u n t i l CSR state was found to be approximately

equal to CSR.
ing
This also implies that the s t r a i n softening response lead-
to steady state deformation i s imminent when the sand i s consolidated
to a state close to CSR.
This i l l u s t r a t e s the s i m i l a r i t y i n undrained
behaviour of both sands i f l i q u e f a c t i o n i s developed. However, due to

very small range of e^ over which l i q u e f a c t i o n can be induced, no attempt
was made to relate peak strength to
(or e^) and hence no
comparison
made of predicted and observed S

as a function of e , similar to F i g .
up
c
4.26.
It may be pointed out that the peak strength w i l l be used l a t e r to
102.
24. Oh
03c'
F i g . 4.27
(kgf/cm )
Relationship between e f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i p a l stress

at CSR state and e f f e c t i v e minor consolidation stress
for Ottawa sand.
0.2 .CSR
1.0
2.0
1.5
2.5
K,
o
F i g . 4.28
Relationship between the ratio of e f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i p a l

stress at CSR state and effective minor consolidation stress
vs K ratio for Ottawa sand.
104.
construct the CSR plane In 3-D effective stress state diagram for a
comprehensive illustration of the undrained behaviour of saturated sand
only.
The effective stress condition at this state may offer an explana-
tion as to the influence of static shear or Kc ratio on the undrained

response. Peak strength should not be used as a design parameter for
sand which undergoes liquefaction since the sample Is not stable at this
state.
4.3.2
Steady State Strength

It has been shown i n the previous section that the PT state coincide
with the unique steady state line provided the sample develops liquefaction.
Moreover, the minor effective confining stress
at steady state
is a function of e c only, regardless of the I n i t i a l void ratio and

consolidation stress conditions.
Since the effective stress state at
steady state lies on the phase transformation line which i s a constant

stress ratio line through the origin, the steady state shear strength S u g
can be expressed as a function of e c only.
This predicted relationship
between e c and steady state shear strength based on the unique relationship between
and e c at steady state i s shown in Fig. 4.29 together
with actual test results.
The predicted values may be seen to be i n good
agreement with observed results.
Similar unique relationships between
steady state shear strength or steady state confining stress and void
ratio e^ have also been reported by Castro et a l (1982).
Relationship between e and S
for Ottawa: sand Is shown i n Fig.
c
us
4.30.
It may be noted that the range of void ratio i n which steady state
deformation can be developed for Ottawa sand i s very small for the range
of consolidation stresses considered.
The steady state shear strength
105.
1.00
Steady State Shear Strength,

F i g . 4.29
(kgf/cm )
Steady state shear strength of t a i l i n g s sand.
0.75
Ottawa
Sand
0.725h
30
0>
U
Q)
Q
0.70 h
40 >
cr
TJ
o
>
CD
0.675H
Q>
50
D
a>
cr
0.65
60
0.625
0
1
2.0
4.0
Steady
Fig.
4.30
Steady
state
6.0
State
shear
8.0
Shear
strength
10.0
Strength,
of Ottawa
sand.
/2.0
S
J4.0 16.0
/8.0
(kgf/cm )
2
u s
ON
107.
Increases rapidly with decreasing e c when the r e l a t i v e l y density i s i n
excess of about 40%.
The steady state shear strength of sand may be regarded as the
stable value of shear stress the sand can s u s t a i n .
Sand subjected to a
s t a t i c shear stress greater than I t s steady state shear strength, which

i s substantially less than i t s drained shear strength, i s p o t e n t i a l l y
unstable under undrained conditions.
Catastrophic f a i l u r e could be
induced i f any type of undrained loading brings the stress state of sand
to the CSR s t a t e .
Therefore, the steady state shear strength should be
used as the design parameter against l i q u e f a c t i o n .
4.3.3
Phase Transformation Strength f o r D i l a t i v e Response

For d i l a t i v e sand i t was shown that al at PT state versus e
3
c
form a
series of curves depending on the e^ of the sand, regardless of the

consolidation stress condition ( F i g . 4.12).
Due to a constant stress
r a t i o at PT s t a t e , the phase transformation shear strength can be determined as a function of e

c
and e..
i
The rpredicted results based on al and

.
3
e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o at phase transformation are shown by a series of

l i n e s i n F i g . 4.26.
A l l these l i n e s l i e below the steady state l i n e .
The- data points correspond to actual test r e s u l t s .
I t may be noted that
for fixed e^ the phase transformation shear strength increases with

decreasing e c and approaches the steady state shear strength as the
sample becomes more contractive with increasing consolidation stresses.
The lines f o r phase transformation shear strength merge into the steady
state l i n e when the consolidation stress i s high enough to cause steady
state deformation.
It should be pointed out that these l i n e s include
test data i n the t r a n s i t i o n region of sand, which r e s u l t s i n s l i g h t

s t r a i n softening and associated very small s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l , and may be
108.
considered to be the same category as the s t r a i n hardening region for
design purposes.
From the e a r l i e r discussion of s t r a i n hardening behaviour of sand,
i t was noted that much f l a t t e r s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve develops after PT
state ( F i g s . 4.3a and 4.8a,b).
From the e f f e c t i v e stress path ( F i g . 4.4)
i t may also be noted that the phase transformation shear strength i s much
less than the corresponding drained shear strength.
Furthermore, the
phase transformation shear strength i s much less than the ultimate

undrained shear strength which can be mobilized only a f t e r very large
deformation.
Therefore, to design against large deformation for d i l a t i v e
sand, the phase transformation shear strength may be the more appropriate
strength parameter to be used i f undrained condition p r e v a i l s .
It should
be pointed out that the strength estimation given here i s good f o r sand
that are not very d i l a t i v e or are even s l i g h t l y contractive which would
have the most p r a c t i c a l concern during undrained loading where l i m i t i n g
deformation are s p e c i f i e d .
For highly d i l a t i v e sand, such as sand with
high r e l a t i v e density under low consolidation s t r e s s e s , the phase transformation shear strength i s very close to the drained shear strength.
The ultimate undrained shear strength w i l l be very high and the s t r a i n
involved i s very small.
Drained shear strength w i l l then be appropriate
for design purposes.

From F i g . 4.12, It may be noted that the series of l i n e s which
branch o f f the unique steady state l i n e are very similar i n shape.
Therefore, r e l a t i v e l y small number of tests have to be performed i n order
to establish the key aspects of undrained behaviour of sand; i . e . , steady
state l i n e , branch o f f l i n e s , consolidation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c r i t i c a l
consolidation stress (o' )
line.
The undrained strength parameters,
109.
i.e.,
steady state shear strength and phase transformation shear strength
can readily be obtained from e - o l plot and the e f f e c t i v e stress ratio of

c
J
PT l i n e .
For sand with a given e^ and consolidation stress conditions,
the undrained response and i t s strength parameter can be determined.

For
sand with known e
and consolidation stress condition, the undrained
c
response, i . e . , l i q u e f a c t i o n or d i l a t i v e response, can be determined from
the (al ) , d i r e c t l y .
lc crit
If l i q u e f a c t i o n occurs, the steady state shear
strength can be determined from e c d i r e c t l y .
For d i l a t i v e response,
the e, can always be interpolated from the consolidation curves (e - a l )

i
c lc
as long as normal consolidation p r e v a i l s .
always be interpolated from F i g . 4.12
Knowing e^, a^ at PT state can
and hence the PT shear strength
estimated.
4.4
3-D E f f e c t i v e Stress State Diagram
Experimental evidence presented previously has indicated that sand

can develop either l i q u e f a c t i o n , s l i g h t s t r a i n softening or s t r a i n hardening response depending on i t s i n i t i a l state (e , al , K ) . Therefore,
c
Jc
c
i t would be of utmost importance to develop a method which would enable
separation of the i n i t i a l states into regions susceptible to l i q u e f a c t i o n
and s t r a i n hardening response, and explain the Influence of i n i t i a l
state
parameters on the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n and s t r a i n hardening

response.
Since most of the studies on the undrained behaviour of sand have
been performed on sands with rounded p a r t i c l e s , i t i s generally believed
that the r e l a t i v e density i s the most important factor c o n t r o l l i n g the
undrained response.
Sand with low r e l a t i v e density may be considered to
no.
be susceptible to l i q u e f a c t i o n without any reference as to i t s consolidation stress conditions.
Based on the r e s u l t s of present study i t has
been shown i n Section 4.1 that this may be a s u f f i c i e n t guideline for

sand with rounded p a r t i c l e s but may be completely Inadequate for sand
with angular p a r t i c l e s .
Moreover, the use of r e l a t i v e density alone can
not explain the influence of confining pressure and s t a t i c shear on the

occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Castro (1969, 1975) proposed the concept of steady state l i n e i n 2-D
^~2
c
space.
The concept of steady state deformation was used to explain
the phenomenon of l i q u e f a c t i o n . It was proposed that the i n i t i a l state

of the sample has to be well above and to the right of the steady state
l i n e i n order to have the p o s s i b i l i t y of l i q u e f a c t i o n occurring.
Atten-
tion was focussed only on the s o i l behaviour during steady s t a t e .
Speci-
f i c a l l y , no quantitative attempt was made to assess whether l i q u e f a c t i o n

could occur for a known i n i t i a l state (e , a' , K ) . Also no r a t i o n a l
c
3c
c
explanation as to the influence of s t a t i c shear on the occurrence of
l i q u e f a c t i o n was o f f e r e d .
A comprehensive understanding of the undrained behaviour of sand can
be obtained only by looking at the undrained behaviour over a whole
spectrum of responses from s t r a i n softening to s t r a i n hardening under
various consolidation stress conditions on d i f f e r e n t types of sand.
Moreover, not only the sample state during steady state deformation but
also at the i n i t i a t i o n of l i q u e f a c t i o n has to be examined i n order to
understand the influence of factors such as void r a t i o , confining stress
and s t a t i c shear, on the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n . This requires a 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress representation of the most important stages, i . e . ,
i n i t i a l state (e , o' , K ) and i n i t i a t i o n of l i q u e f a c t i o n and PT state
111.
during undrained response.
Although the type of undrained response can

-
be predicted by using the e ( o
r e l a t i o n s h i p and the i n i t i a l
sample state i n a 2-D p l o t , as described i n Section 4.2, i t can not

explain the r o l e of s t a t i c shear on the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n . It
w i l l be shown further i n the next chapter that a 2-D plot Is i n s u f f i c i e n t
to predict the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n under c y c l i c loading, even
though i t s u f f i c e s to predict the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n under monotonic loading.
Therefore, i t requires a 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress
representa-
t i o n of state at CSR, steady state f o r s t r a i n softening response and

phase transformation state f o r s t r a i n hardening response.
This i s shown
schematically i n F i g . 4.31, and w i l l be c a l l e d 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state

diagram.
The state of sand i s defined by a point i n 3-D space given by void
r a t i o a f t e r consolidation e , p' = 1/2 (o ' + a') and q = 1/2 (a* - a ' ) .
C
1
J
L
j
Other combination, such as e , a ', a I, may also be used. The I n i t i a l
sample state i s given by the consolidation curve which l i e s on constant

r a t i o plane.
For c l a r i t y of the diagram, the consolidation curves are
not shown i n the f i g u r e .
The main features of the 3-D diagram are the
existence of phase transformation
(PT) and c r i t i c a l e f f e c t i v e stress
r a t i o (CSR) planes which are shown i n the f i g u r e .
The PT plane l i e s
s l i g h t l y below the undrained e f f e c t i v e stress f a i l u r e plane which i s not

shown i n the diagram.
It was shown i n Section 4.2.2. that the steady state f o r liquefact i o n and PT state for s t r a i n hardening response occur at a unique value
of e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o corresponding to PT l i n e ( F i g . 4.18), regardl e s s of the void r a t i o of the sample.
Hence, the unique steady state
l i n e f o r l i q u e f a c t i o n and PT state l i n e s f o r d i l a t i v e response shown i n
Hydrostatic
Fig. 4.31
Plane
(a) 3-D effective stress state diagram for tailings sand and
(b) a typical section at constant e .
113.
F i g . 4.12 are states on the PT plane. . Therefore, the unique steady state
l i n e i s a space curve on PT plane, which r i s e s up above the hydrostatic
plane as the void r a t i o decreases, as shown i n F i g . 4.3la.
The l i n e s
branching away from the steady state l i n e are a series of l i n e s corresponding to the l o c i of PT state f o r d i l a t i v e response f o r several e^.
small section of these curves near the eventual merger into the steady
s t a t e l i n e l i e s i n the t r a n s i t i o n region (darkened area) of s l i g h t s t r a i n
so ftening.
On the CSR plane, there e x i s t another s e r i e s of peak strength l i n e s
for various e^,, which are the l o c i of CSR states f o r those samples which
developed l i q u e f a c t i o n .
shown i n the 3-D diagram.
For c l a r i t y of the diagram, these l i n e s are not

From the peak strength l i n e s shown i n F i g .
4.26, which are the projection of peak strength l i n e s on CSR plane on

e^-q plane, these l i n e s terminate at a c e r t a i n s t a t e .
In other words,
CSR plane does not extend a l l the way to the o r i g i n as shown i n F i g .

4.18.
The state at which the of CSR plane ends are shown by the curve C
In F i g . 4.31a.
The construction of curve C w i l l be discussed i n the next
paragraph.
As discussed i n Section 4.2.1, f o r a given e
c r i t i c a l consolidation stress (a ' ) ,
lc c r i t
to a t
there e x i s t s a
c
(Fig- 4.12). A sand consolidated
equal to or greater than ( { c ) c r ^ t w i l l develop l i q u e f a c t i o n under
monotonic loading.
Otherwise, s t r a i n hardening or s l i g h t s t r a i n soften-
ing responses w i l l be developed.

with decreasing e^.
The ( { c ) c r ^ t
Any combination of
w a s
un
f d
t o
increase
and a ' ^ which r e s u l t s i n
K ol = a'
= ( a ' ) , i s the c r i t i c a l consolidation s t r e s s .
c 3c
lc
lc crit
This Is
shown by the constant ( a ! ) . paths AB i n 3-D diagram ( F i g . 4.31a) and

lc c r i t
i n p'-q plot at constant e c ( F i g . 4.31b). It was also shown i n Section
114.
4.3.1
that a l l samples with state on path AB w i l l r e s u l t i n the same
peak stress state at C and steady state at S.
The peak stress state C

path AB at which
also corresponds to the upper l i m i t of constant al

lc
l i q u e f a c t i o n i s imminent.
This i s also i l l u s t r a t e d by the stress paths
s t a r t i n g from i n i t i a l states A , B and C i n F i g . 4.31b.
Therefore, the
c r i t i c a l consolidation stress condition i n 3-D diagram i s a curved

surface generated by t r a n s l a t i n g the constant o|
the void r a t i o changes ( F i g . 4.31a).
(= ^ [ c ^
c r
^^
path as
The i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h i s curved
surface with the CSR plane forms a l i m i t i n g curve C which i s the lower
bound of the CSR plane.
Below curve C the CSR plane does not e x i s t .
Liquefaction w i l l be i n i t i a t e d when the sample moves into CSR plane i n

t h i s region from below, e.g., sample D, during monotonic loading.
The
shear stress corresponding to the lower bound of CSR plane (curve C i n

Fig.
4.31a) has a very important implication i n the occurrence of l i q u e -
f a c t i o n under c y c l i c loading condition and w i l l be discussed i n the next

chapter.
From the 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram, a c l e a r picture of the
undrained monotonic loading behaviour can be obtained based on the

i n i t i a l state of the sand.
For samples with i n i t i a l states l y i n g on or
to the r i g h t of the ( ^ c ) c r t s u r f a c e , l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l be developed.

Sample state w i l l reach the CSR plane f i r s t and then undergo s t r a i n s o f t ening leading to steady state deformation, f i n a l l y ending at steady state
S (samples A , B , C and D).
For i n i t i a l states l y i n g to the l e f t of
( o ^ c ) c r ^ t surface, s t r a i n hardening response or s l i g h t s t r a i n softening

response w i l l be developed.
The sample state w i l l reach the PT plane
d i r e c t l y (sample E ) or reach the peak strength i n the t r a n s i t i o n region

and then undergo s l i g h t s t r a i n softening (sample F) depending on how
115.
close Che i n i t i a l state i s to the (al
It may
4.3,
) . surface.
lc c r i t
be noted that the undrained behaviour obtained i n Section
i . e . , steady state l i n e , phase transformation
state l i n e s and pore
pressure generation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , which are used to develop the

e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram, are s i m i l a r for both sands.
s i m i l a r 3-D
3-D
Therefore,
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram as that of the t a i l i n g s sand
should e x i s t for Ottawa sand a l s o .
However, due to a rather small range
of r e l a t i v e density over which l i q u e f a c t i o n can be induced for the range

of consolidation s t r e s s considered, no s i m i l a r 3-D
for Ottawa sand.
diagram was
developed
Nevertheless, the r o l e of void r a t i o , confining pres-
sure and K r a t i o on the undrained behaviour were found s i m i l a r for both

c
sands with only minor d i f f e r e n c e s .
These differences w i l l be
discussed
i n the next s e c t i o n .
4.5
Role of Void Ratio, Confining Pressure and S t a t i c Shear Stress on

Undrained Monotonic Loading Behaviour
4.5.1. Void Ratio or Relative Density

Most of the understanding of the undrained behaviour of sand has
come from tests on rounded sands.
It Is generally believed that r e l a t i v e
density i s the most important parameter d i c t a t i n g the undrained response

with no reference as to the associated consolidation s t r e s s conditions
and p a r t i c l e a n g u l a r i t y .
From the consolidation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s discussed i n Chapter 3, i t
may
be seen that a sample with given void r a t i o e c ,can be achieved by
various combinations of e, and consolidation s t r e s s condition a' and K .

i
3c
c
The i n i t i a l state of the sample can l i e e i t h e r to the l e f t or to the
116.
right of the c r i t i c a l consolidation stress surface ( F i g . 4.31a).
The
response under these two conditions w i l l be completely d i f f e r e n t .
There-
fore, specifying void r a t i o or r e l a t i v e density alone without reference

to i t s consolidation stress condition w i l l not give any i n d i c a t i o n as to
the type of undrained response anticipated.
Generally, decreasing e
w i l l increase the c r i t i c a l consolidation

c
s t r e s s l e v e l required to cause l i q u e f a c t i o n . This may be seen from the
increasing c r i t i c a l consolidation stress ( a ! )
. as the void ratio
lc c r i t
decreases from the 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram ( F i g . 4.31a).
seems to be true f o r Ottawa sand a l s o .
This
However, f o r the range of
consolidation s t r e s s considered, the i n i t i a l void r a t i o alone of Ottawa

sand gives a good prediction as to the type of undrained response, as
discussed i n the previous sections.

Undrained behaviour i s normally studied by t e s t i n g i s o t r o p i c a l l y or
a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated samples.
pressure a o n
The Influence of confining
undrained response i s assessed by coupling
such as i n Castro's 2-D,
-a
c
3 state diagram.
As shown i n the
with
o^ c ,
3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram, i t i s the complete sample s t a t e , i . e . ,

e , K and a I , which controls the undrained response.
c
c
JC
a !j
Specifying e
only i s not s u f f i c i e n t to predict the undrained response.
This
and
may
be explained c l e a r l y from the behaviour of sand along a constant a' path

Jc
GB i n F i g . 4.31b.
ratio.
Samples G and B have the same a^
but d i f f e r e n t Kc
As explained i n Section 4.4.1, Sample B w i l l r e s u l t i n l i q u e f a c -
t i o n , whereas G w i l l r e s u l t i n s t r a i n hardening response or s l i g h t s t r a i n

softening response.
117.
The general influence of increasing confining pressure on undrained
response with other two factors e c and
held constant i s Increasing
contractive tendency (e.g. Sample E to D i n F i g . 4.31b).
However, the
influences of a ^ c on the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n i n the contractive

region and the s t r e s s increment required to reach PT state i n the d i l a t i v e region have to be considered
separately due to d i f f e r e n t response
developed i n these two regions.

In the contractive region, the shear stress increment required to
reach the CSR increases with increasing 0 - c but i s proportional to a l ^
due
to the s i m i l a r i t y of stress paths (with same K c ) .
However, the
potential to develop steady state deformation increases with Increasing

a' .
This may be seen from the response of Samples B and D i n F i g .
JC
4.31b.
Sample D w i l l develop much severe strength loss and larger defor-
mation u n t i l steady state strength i s mobilized than Sample B.
Static
shear stress on Sample D could be greater than i t s steady state shear

strength i f the confining stress i s high enough.
state i s p o t e n t i a l l y unstable.
Sample under such a
This i s e s p e c i a l l y serious f o r cases of
high Kc r a t i o .
In the d i l a t i v e region, the shear stress increment required to reach
the PT state also increases with increasing al , but the r a t i o of shear
3c
s t r e s s increment to a^
decreases with increasing a i ^ due to the
increased contractive tendency.
This w i l l be r e f l e c t e d by the decrease
i n resistance to c y c l i c mobility with increasing a^c i n c y c l i c loading,

which w i l l be discussed i n the next chapter.
For sand with rounded p a r t i c l e s a l s o , such as Ottawa sand, the
sample w i l l develop s t r a i n hardening response under very low confining
pressures.
As the confining stress increases, the sample develops s t r a i n
118.
softening response s i m i l a r to that f o r the angular sand.
However, as
stated i n the r o l e of void r a t i o , r e l a t i v e density i s the most important

factor c o n t r o l l i n g the undrained response of rounded Ottawa sand for the
range of consolidation s t r e s s considered h e r e i n .
4.5.3. S t a t i c Shear Stress or Consolidation Stress Ratio

The increase i n s t a t i c shear or K
a'
-3c
r a t i o while maintaining e and

c
c
constant could transform a sample from s t r a i n hardening response to
l i q u e f a c t i o n as discussed before.
The influence of K
r a t i o on the
c
undrained response f o r samples i n the contractive and d i l a t i v e regions

could be quite d i f f e r e n t due to d i f f e r e n t types of deformation developed.
This may be i l l u s t r a t e d by e f f e c t i v e stress paths f o r samples i n the'
contractive and d i l a t i v e regions shown i n F i g .
4.32.
In the contractive region (Sample C^ and

sample with higher K
having same-al ) , the
r a t i o develops higher peak shear strength.
This
c
may also be seen from Eq. 4.4b.
However, the shear stress increment
required to reach the peak strength s t a r t i n g from the i n i t i a l s t a t i c

value always decreases with increasing
ratio.
s u b s t i t u t i n g Eq. 4.4b i n t o the r e l a t i o n of AS
This may be shown by

= S
up
-T
up
where S
s
= peak
up
shear strength and T s = s t a t i c shear s t r e s s .
AS
up
= L[(1/2 (c-1)(0.412 K - 0.044) - 1/2

c
Equation 4.6 implies AS

l i m i t i n g case, i . e . , K
J
(K -1)]
al
c
ic
decreases with increasing

= CSR
ratio.
(4.6)
For the
(=c), the shear s t r e s s increment required
c
to reach the peak strength i s p r a c t i c a l l y zero.
i n other words, the
s t r a i n softening response i s imminent when the sample i s consolidated
120.
under t h i s e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o .
This may also be seen; from the r e l a -
tionship between the pore pressure generated u n t i l l the CSR state and K
c
r a t i o as shown i n F i g . 4.24.
This case may correspond to: the phenomenon
of spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n , which w i l l be discussed further i n the next

chapter.
Due to the unique steady state strength at constant void r a t i o
e^, the p o t e n t i a l to develop steady state deformation Increases with

increasing K
r a t i o . . More severe loss of shear resistance accompanied by
l a r g e r deformation w i l l occur i n sand with high K
than with lower K

c
ratios.
Therefore, not only l i q u e f a c t i o n i s easier to occur but also the
strength loss on l i q u e f a c t i o n i s more severe when the s t a t i c shear stress

i s increased.
From the pore pressure generation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and unique steady
state l i n e observed, i t appears that the behaviour discussed above for
t a i l i n g s sand are also true f o r rounded Ottawa sand.
In the d i l a t i v e region (Samples D^ and D^) also the sand with higher
K
r a t i o develops higher shear strength at PT state and the shear stress
increment required to reach the PT state i s smaller.

that observed i n the contractive region.
This i s s i m i l a r to
However, t h i s s i m i l a r i t y i n
monotonic loading behaviour i n contractive and d i l a t i v e regions can not

be applied to c y c l i c loading behaviour, as w i l l be shown i n the next
chapter.
The same conclusion concerning the influence of s t a t i c shear to
reach the PT state In the d i l a t i v e region appears to be true f o r Ottawa
sand also due to the s i m i l a r i t y of undrained behaviour i n the d i l a t i v e
region i n both sands.
From the discussions presented above, i t may be seen that using
r e l a t i v e density or a 2-D e -o I representation i s i n s u f f i c i e n t for
121 .
predicting the undrained response.
Undrained response i s mainly
c o n t r o l l e d by major consolidation stress o ^ f o r
a given sand.
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram developed t i e s the e f f e c t s of
The
3-D
and a l
on the undrained response and also provides a method to predict the

undrained response given the i n i t i a l state of the sand.
It also provides
a general understanding as to the r o l e s of void r a t i o , confining pressure

and s t a t i c shear s t r e s s on the undrained monotonic loading behaviour.
122.
CHAPTER 5
UNDRAINED CYCLIC LOADING BEHAVIOUR
It was discussed
i n Chapter 2 that s t r a i n development during
cyclic
loading could be either due to l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility or a

combination of two. Although both l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c mobility
result i n large deformation which i s unacceptable for engineering
purposes, the mechanisms of s t r a i n development as a consequence of l i q u e faction and c y c l i c mobility are quite d i f f e r e n t .
Therefore, the e f f e c t
of factors on the s t r a i n development due to these two mechanisms could be

quite d i f f e r e n t too. In order to understand the influence of f a c t o r s ,
such as void r a t i o , confining pressure and s t a t i c shear stress l e v e l , on
the s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading thus requires a clear understanding as to the mechanism which i s responsible f o r the s t r a i n development. Moreover, It would be desirable to be able to predict whether
liquefaction or c y c l i c mobility w i l l be induced under c y c l i c loading
given the I n i t i a l state of the sand and the amplitude of c y c l i c load
applied.
1
Although Vaid and Chern (1983 ' ) made clear d i s t i n c t i o n s between

l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c mobility as the mechanisms of s t r a i n development
during c y c l i c loading, the studies were limited to one sand and one
confining pressure only.
Therefore, no general guideline was offered to
predict the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility under c y c l i c

loading given the i n i t i a l state of the sample and the c y c l i c
loads
applied.
This chapter describes tests on samples of both sands consolidated
to various i n i t i a l states to i l l u s t r a t e the mechanisms of l i q u e f a c t i o n
123.
and c y c l i c mobility for s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading.
The 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram developed under monotonic loading

tions i s then used, together with c y c l i c loading
condi-
results to develop a
comprehensive method for prediction of the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n or

c y c l i c mobility given the i n i t i a l state of the sand and the c y c l i c loads
applied.
A r a t i o n a l explanation as to the influence of factors a f f e c t i n g
the resistance to s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading i s presented i n

an attempt to c l a r i f y some of the controversial aspects of c y c l i c
loading
response reported i n l i t e r a t u r e .
5.1
Liquefaction Induced Under C y c l i c Loading
In order to demonstrate occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n during c y c l i c

loading, a series of tests were performed on i n i t i a l l y
both sands.
loose samples f o r
A l l sand states (e , a l , K ) a f t e r consolidation were so

c' 3c
c
chosen that liquefactions were expected under monotonic loading
condi-
tions.
i n order
Tests were performed under s t r a i n controlled conditions
to avoid the influence of loading system on the post-peak s t r e s s - s t r a i n

behaviour, as discussed i n Chapter 3.
For i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated
2 a l c required
sand, the c y c l i c stress r a t i o
<J
(
j C y/
to cause l i q u e f a c t i o n to occur Is very high and close to
the peak shear strength under monotonic loading.
Moreoever, under this
high c y c l i c stress r a t i o , l i q u e f a c t i o n occurs invariably i n the extension

mode, which i s not the main focus of study i n these i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
Therefore, only samples consolidated
series of t e s t .
to high K c r a t i o were used i n this
The results obtained i n this series of tests were used
to e s t a b l i s h c r i t e r i a for l i q u e f a c t i o n to occur under c y c l i c

conditions.
loading
124.
Another series of c y c l i c loading tests were performed i n order to

confirm the l i q u e f a c t i o n c r i t e r i a established by the e a r l i e r test s e r i e s .
These test r e s u l t s are also used to I l l u s t r a t e the influence of various
factors on the resistance to s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading
(Section 5.4).
5.1.1
Liquefaction During C y c l i c Loading

Typical results I l l u s t r a t i n g s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s and pore
pressure response of t a i l i n g s sand under various levels of confining

pressure are shown In F i g . 5.1a,b,c, together with the e f f e c t i v e stress
paths.
It may be seen that during the f i r s t few cycles of loading, pore
pressure accumulated progressively and the e f f e c t i v e stress path moved

toward l e f t .
Its
However, the sample accumulated
very small s t r a i n before
state reached a c e r t a i n e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o .
Further straining
beyond this e f f e c t i v e stress ratio caused the sample to lose i t s shear

resistance, which was accompanied by the development of large unidirect i o n a l deformation ( c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of liquefaction) and pore pressure
increase.
The sample deformed continuously over a s i g n i f i c a n t range of
a x i a l deformation i n the same manner as the steady state observed under

monotonic loading conditions.
This continuous deformation was arrested
in a l l samples after large straining except i n the case under high

confining pressure ( F i g .
5.1c) which developed unlimited s t r a i n (true
l i q u e f a c t i o n ) without causing d i l a t i o n .
showed a sudden turnaround.
The e f f e c t i v e stress path then
The sample kept on strengthening with
decreasing pore pressure while the e f f e c t i v e stress path moved toward the
undrained f a i l u r e envelope u n t i l the peak c y c l i c load applied was
reached.
125.
5.Oh
\/2
F i g . 5.1a
(a, '+(J ')

3
(kgf/cm )
Undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of contractive t a i l i n g s

sand under low confining pressure.
126.
l/2(0i'+03 ')
F i g . 5.1b
(kgf/cm )
2
Undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of contractive t a i l i n g s

sand under moderate confining pressure.
127.
32.0\-
F i g . 5.1c
(%)
Undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of contractive

sand under high confining pressure.
tailings
Tailings
Sand
1/2
F i g . 5.1c
(Cont'd)
(oy + oy)
(kgf/cm )
Undrained c y c l i c l o a d i n g behaviour of c o n t r a c t i v e
sand under high c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e .
tailings
129.
For Ottawa sand, behaviour similar to that for t a i l i n g s sand was
observed.
Typical test results i l l u s t r a t i n g s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves and
pore pressure
response are shown i n F i g . 5.2a,b,c, along with the effec-
tive stress paths.
Unlike the behaviour of the t a i l i n g s sand, a l l
samples of Ottawa sand developed limited s t r a i n s before the continuous

deformations were arrested.
high confining pressure.
No unlimited s t r a i n was developed even under
Such behaviour of Ottawa sand i s similar to
that observed under monotonic loading conditions.

The e f f e c t i v e stress states at which s t r a i n softening response was
i n i t i a t e d during c y c l i c loading are shown i n F i g s . 5.3 and 5.4 for t a i l ings sand and Ottawa sand r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t may be seen that for both
sands a l l data points l i e e s s e n t i a l l y on the c r i t i c a l e f f e c t i v e stress
r a t i o (CSR) l i n e obtained under monotonic loading conditions.
This
unique CSR line under monotonic and c y c l i c loading was also observed by
2
Vaid and Chern (1983 ) f o r Ottawa sand under low confining pressures.
5.1.2
A p p l i c a b i l i t y of Steady State Concept to Liquefaction Under C y c l i c

Loading Conditions
Test r e s u l t s In the previous sections showed that the l i q u e f a c t i o n
occurs during c y c l i c loading i n the same manner as observed under monotonic loading conditions.
In order to consider the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of the
steady state concept and the 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram developed
under monotonic loading conditions to predict the occurrence of liquefaction under c y c l i c loading conditions, the uniqueness of steady state
under monotonic and c y c l i c loading conditions has to be examined.
The minor e f f e c t i v e confining stress
loading condition versus void ratio e
at steady state under c y c l i c
are shown by data points i n F i g s .
130.
2.5
2.0
0.43 kgf/cm
CM
(.5
CJ
>*D
-SC
LO
Ottawa Sand
Test AC - U
CO
as
o
Y?
cy
-#55
0*3^ = 2.0 kgf/cm

Kc =2.0
ej =0.722
Dri =30.6%
=
366%
er =0.703
're
0.5
2.0
4.0
a.o
6.0
/o.o
(2.0
14.0
CM
u
1.0
rj
0.5 h
C\J
1/2 (Cf,'-hCJ ') (kgf/cm')

3
F i g . 5.2a
Undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa

sand under low confining pressure.
131 .
Ottawa Sand
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
&a (%)
1/2
F i g . 5.2b
(0*,*-rd ';
3
( k g f / c m
12.0
Undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of i n i t i a l l y loose

Ottawa sand under moderate confining pressure.
F i g . 5.2c
Undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of i n i t i a l l y loose

Ottawa sand under high confining pressure.
Ottawa
Sand
1/2
F i g . 5.2c (Cont'd)
(Oi'+03 ')
(kgf/cm )
Undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa

sand under high confining pressure.
20.0
4.0
8.0
12.0
16.0
1/2 (Of'+O^)
F i g . 5.3
20.0
24.0
28.0
32.0
36.0
40.0
(kgf/cm )
Effective stress conditions at the i n i t i a t i o n of strain softening

response and start of d i l a t i o n of t a i l i n g s sand under undrained
O J
20.0
Ottawa Sand
1/2 (Of'+Oj)
F i g . 5.A
(kgf/cm )
2
E f f e c t i v e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s at the i n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g
response and s t a r t of d i l a t i o n of Ottawa sand under undrained
cyclic loading.
UO
Ul
136.
5.5 and 5.6 f o r t a i l i n g s sand and Ottawa sand r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The range of
a'^ covered under c y c l i c loading spans the f u l l range covered under monotonic loading.
ing
Average steady state l i n e s obtained under monotonic load-
conditions are shown by s o l i d l i n e s , and i t may be noted that the
c y c l i c loading results f i t very c l o s e l y the results from monotonic loading
over the entire range of void ratio considered
for both sands.
Furthermore, the c y c l i c loading test data i n F i g s . 5.3 and 5.4 show that
the effective stress states at steady state also l i e on the same PT line
obtained under monotonic loading.
Therefore, the steady state i s not
affected by the loading paths which bring the sand to this state, and the
steady state concept developed under monotonic loading conditions can be
used for c y c l i c loading conditions a l s o .
Due to the uniqueness of steady state l i n e and PT l i n e under monotonic and c y c l i c loading conditions, the steady state shear strength can
be obtained as a function of e a l s o .
c
The results f o r t a i l i n g s sand and
Ottawa sand are shown i n F i g s . 5.7 and 5.8 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
C y c l i c loading
and monotonic loading results may be seen to be defined by a unique curve

for
each sand. It may be pointed out that the existence of steady state for a sand
with a given i n i t i a l state does not necessarily imply that l i q u e f a c t i o n

w i l l develop under c y c l i c loading.
The c r i t e r i a whether a sand with a
given i n i t i a l state w i l l develop l i q u e f a c t i o n under c y c l i c loading i s

discussed i n the next s e c t i o n .
5.1.3
C r i t e r i a to Cause Liquefaction Under C y c l i c Loading

It has been shown that the c r i t i c a l
e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o (CSR) at
which s t r a i n softening response i s i n i t i a t e d leading to l i q u e f a c t i o n
/.OOi
O.I
0.2
0.5
Steady
1.0
State
2.0
50
Confining Stress,
10.0
0'
3
20.0
50.0
1000
(kgf/cm )
2
oj
F i g . 5.5
Comparison of steady state confining stress of t a i l i n g s sand under

monotonic and c y c l i c loading conditions.
0
0.80-
-10
>
-80
0.55 -
o Cyclic loading
fesf
result
-90
i
sol
'
0.1
l
I
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
Steady State Confining Stress, 0 '
I
0.2
F i g . 5.6
100
20.0
(kgf/cm )
50.0
1100
100.0
Comparison of steady state confining stress of Ottawa sand under

CO
139.
Fig. 5.7
Comparison of steady state shear strength of tailings

sand under monotonic and cyclic loading conditions.
0.75
Ottawa Sand
0.725
30
0.70
Steady
State Shear
Strength
obtained
from
monotonic
loading
tests.
/
/
40
0.675
Rati
O
~0
"
50
Xi
06.5
o
06
.250 20
. 40
. 60
.
i
Cycl/c
test result
.J40
100
. 120
. 1
. 160
.60
i
8.0
Steady State Shear Strength, S
Fig. 5 . 8
loading
u s
(kgf/cm )
Comparison of steady state shear strength of Ottawa sand under

141.
under c y c l i c loading conditions i s the same as that under monotonic loading
conditions.
Moreoever, the steady state concept developed under
monotonic loading conditions can also be applied to l i q u e f a c t i o n under

c y c l i c loading conditions.
Therefore, the 3-D
diagram developed f o r monotonic loading may

for
l i q u e f a c t i o n to occur under c y c l i c
It was
e f f e c t i v e stress state
be used to develop c r i t e r i a
loading.
shown i n Chapter 4 that for a given void r a t i o e Q
there
exists a c r i t i c a l consolidation stress (al ) . above which the sand

lc crit
develops l i q u e f a c t i o n under monotonic loading, and below which only
s t r a i n hardening response or s l i g h t s t r a i n softening can be induced ( F i g .
4.12).
Due
to the demonstrated uniqueness of steady state under mono-
tonic and c y c l i c loading, therefore, the f i r s t c r i t e r i o n for l i q u e f a c t i o n

to occur under c y c l i c loading i s that the i n i t i a l state of the sand ( e c >
al , K ) must be above the c r i t i c a l consolidation stress N(al )
3c' c
lc crit
surface.
In other words, the sand must at an i n i t i a l state (e , al , K )

c' 3c' c
which has the p o t e n t i a l to develop steady state deformation.
Whether a
sand with such an. i n i t i a l state can develop l i q u e f a c t i o n or not then

depends further on the c y c l i c loadings applied, which constitutes another
c r i t e r i o n and i s discussed i n the next paragraph.
l i e below the (al ) . s u r f a c e
lc crit
(Fig.
&
For i n i t i a l state that
J
4.31), the steady
state can not
'
be
achieved and hence l i q u e f a c t i o n can not be induced.

As discussed i n the previous chapter, the CSR
plane exists only i n
the region above peak shear strength at c r i t i c a l consolidation stress

(ol )
(state C i n F i g . 5.9
lc crit
for the fixed void r a t i o e ) and

c
the
e f f e c t i v e stress path CS i s the lowest stress path over which s t r a i n

softening response i s developed leading to steady state deformation.
Hence the peak shear strengh at (al
(strength at C) i s the lowest
143.
l e v e l of shear s t r e s s to be applied i n order to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Due
to the uniqueness of CSR and steady s t a t e , the c y c l i c loading applied
must therefore result i n peak stress state above state C.

CSR
Only then the
l i n e w i l l be reached i n order to have l i q u e f a c t i o n i n i t i a t e d .
Such a
s i t u a t i o n can be i l l u s t r a t e d by the e f f e c t i v e stress path plots of three

samples at constant void r a t i o e^ and a^
in Fig.
5.9.
For sand with no s t a t i c shear stress (Sample A1 ) , although the

p o t e n t i a l to develop steady state deformation e x i s t s ( f i r s t
criteria
s a t i s f i e d ) under monotonic loading, for the l e v e l of c y c l i c stress shown

i n the f i g u r e , the stress state of the sand with continued c y c l i c loading
w i l l reach the CSR
l i n e i n the region where CSR state does not exist
(dashed l i n e below C ) .
case.
Hence, l i q u e f a c t i o n can not be Induced i n t h i s
C y c l i c loading w i l l move sample state progressively toward the PT
l i n e and only c y c l i c mobility w i l l develop, which w i l l be discussed i n

Section 5.2.
Liquefaction f o r state A1
can be developed only by applying
c y c l i c load with shear stress amplitude equals to the peak shear strength
(S
j_) under monotonic loading.
Under t h i s c o n d i t i o n , l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l
be induced i n the f i r s t compression loading, which i s i d e n t i c a l to

monotonic l o a d i n g .
Increasing the s t a t i c shear stress l e v e l while holding a^ c
to a value l e s s then the peak shear strength S
constant
^ (Sample A 2 ) , two
condi-
tions can occur, depending on the amplitude of c y c l i c loading a p p l i e d .

If the t o t a l shear stress i s less than S , , i . e . , x + T ' < S , , the
upl
s2
cy
upl
sample state with continued c y c l i c loading w i l l reach the CSR
region where CSR
developed.
i n the
state does not e x i s t , and hence l i q u e f a c t i o n can not
Under t h i s c o n d i t i o n , only c y c l i c mobility can be induced.
However, i f the amplitude of c y c l i c load i s large enough such that the
be
t o t a l shear stress i s greater than S , , i . e . , x + T

> S , , the
upl
s2
cy
upl
sample state with continued c y c l i c loading w i l l reach the CSR
region where CSR
at CSR
state does e x i s t .
i n the
Liquefaction w i l l then be i n i t i a t e d
l i n e , provided that the number of stress cycles i s large enough to
move the e f f e c t i v e stress state of sample to the CSR state by
the
progressive development of residual pore pressure.

For sand with I n i t i a l s t a t i c shear stress greater than the peak
shear strength S
^ at C (Sample Ag ) , the sand state w i l l always reach
the CSR i n the region where CSR state e x i s t s .
Hence l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l
always be developed provided the number of stress cycles i s large enough

to move the e f f e c t i v e stress state of sample to the CSR
It should be noted that the peak shear strength S
f o r the chosen e c
state.
, at (a' )
upl
lc crit
Is s l i g h t l y greater than the steady state shear
strength (S
Therefore, for p r a c t i c a l purpose the steady state shear
strength may
be used as the minimum value of t o t a l shear stress instead
of the peak shear strength value at C.
Thus, the second c r i t e r i o n for
l i q u e f a c t i o n to occur i s that the maximum shear stress ( s t a t i c + c y c l i c )

must be greater than the steady state shear strength.
That these two
conditions must be simultaneously s a t i s f i e d f o r l i q u e f a c t i o n to occur

under c y c l i c loading w i l l be examined by actual tests In the l a t e r
sections.
It may
be pointed out that the two c r i t e r i a s p e c i f i e d above for
occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n under c y c l i c loading are the necessary conditions only.
Whether a c t u a l l i q u e f a c t i o n can be developed or not depends
on the number of s t r e s s cycles a p p l i e d .
If the number of stress cycles
i s not large enough to move the sample state to the CSR
s t a t e , no
l i q u e f a c t i o n can be induced, even though both c r i t e r i a s p e c i f i e d above
145.
are s a t i s f i e d .
However, the combination of c y c l i c loading and pore
pressure increase due to pore pressure r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the s o i l mass

following the termination of c y c l i c loading could move the sample state
to
the CSR state and I n i t i a t e l i q u e f a c t i o n .
This i s e s p e c i a l l y important
i f the i n i t i a l s t a t i c shear stress i s greater than the steady state shear

strength, since the pore pressure increase due to c y c l i c loading coupled
with the pore pressure increase due to post c y c l i c pore pressure redist r i b u t i o n could lead to the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Therefore, an
i n i t i a l condition with T " > S

should always be avoided i n order to
s
us
eliminate the p o s s i b i l i t y of l i q u e f a c t i o n under c y c l i c loading.
For Ottawa sand also the CSR i s unique, regardless of the loading
paths which brings the sample state to the CSR, and the steady state Is
unique after l i q u e f a c t i o n has been induced.
Therefore, the c r i t e r i a
specified above for angular t a i l i n g s sand can be applied to sand with

rounded p a r t i c l e s a l s o .
However, i n order to examine the existence or
non-existence of steady s t a t e , the i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density alone may be

used for the range of consolidation stress considered h e r e i n , as
discussed i n Chapter 4.
It should be noted that the discussions presented above apply to
compression deformation mode only.
to extension mode a l s o .
However, similar concept should apply
I t w i l l be shown l a t e r by actual test results
that l i q u e f a c t i o n can be induced i n extension mode i f these two c r i t e r i a

specified above are s a t i s f i e d i n extension mode.
5.1.4
Test Results
A series of c y c l i c loading tests on samples consolidated to the same
e and o' but with various levels of K r a t i o were carried out to

c
3c
c
146.
examine the v a l i d i t y of the c r i t e r i a established f o r l i q u e f a c t i o n to
occur for both sands.
The i n i t i a l sample states were so chosen that the
sand would experience l i q u e f a c t i o n under monotonic loading.
These
results w i l l also be used l a t e r i n Section 5.4 to i l l u s t r a t e the

influence of e , o l and K on the resistance to s t r a i n development unde
c
3c
c
cyclic
loading.
For t a i2 l i n g s sand,, the minor e f f e c t i v e consolidation stress a^ c of
16.0 kgf/cm (1568 kPa) and r e l a t i v e density a f t e r consolidation D
of
rc
70% were used. Four series of tests with consolidation stress r a t i o K
c
of 1.0, 1.25, 1.5 and 2.0 were performed.
The i d e n t i c a l f i n a l void r a t i
under various consolidation stress conditions was achieved by

consolidating samples prepared with i n i t i a l void ratios e^, obtained by
interpolating between the consolidation curves ( F i g . 3.8). Extremely
consistent f i n a l densities were obtained with variations i n r e l a t i v e
density less than 1.6%.
This also served as a check of the consolida-
t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sand discussed
i n Chapter 3.
The results of c y c l i c stress r a t i o a . /2a' (= x /a' ) versus

dcy
3c
cy
3c
number of stress cycles to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility are
shown In F i g . 5.10.
If c y c l i c m o b i l i t y developed, the number of cycles
refer to those needed to accumulate 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n .

develops, a x i a l s t r a i n i n excess of 2.5%
If liquefaction
develops u n t i l steady s t a t e .
It may be seen that not a l l samples developed l i q u e f a c t i o n , although

p o t e n t i a l to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n i n monotonic loading existed f o r a l l
i n i t i a l states.
A combination of i n i t i a l stress conditions and c y c l i c
loading amplitude dictated whether l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility would
Tailings
Sand
0 " ' - 16.0 k g f / c m
3c
e
Drc
c
0.20-
- 0 8 0 0 t 0.006
'70.01 1.6%
o
o
1.0
1.25
1.5
2.0
0.15
Cvj
0.10
Note- X
indicates
no liquefaction
induced. 2.5% axial sfrafns
were used for cyclic mobility.
0.05-
Number
F i g . 5.10
10
of cycles,
20
50
100
Cyclic stress required to cause liquefaction or 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n for contractive

t a i l i n g s sand consolidated to various
ratios.
148.
develop.
Fig.
Both l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c mobility r e s u l t s are presented i n
5.10 to f a c i l i t a t e discussion of the c r i t e r i a to cause l i q u e f a c t i o n
under c y c l i c loading.
For i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated states (K = 1.0) and a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y
c
consolidated states with
lity.
= 1.25, a l l samples developed c y c l i c mobi-
T y p i c a l s t r a i n developments and pore pressure responses during
c y c l i c loading f o r such i n i t i a l states are i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5.11.

Since the maximum shear stresses ( s t a t i c + c y c l i c ) were less than 2.4
kgf/cm
=1.0 and 1.25 respecc

t i v e l y , which are s u b s t a n t i a l l y less than the steady state shear strength
for
(235 kPa) and 4.7 kgf/cm
(461 kPa) for K
the e selected (about 5.6 kgf/cm

c
lower bound), l i q u e f a c t i o n could
not develop.
For a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated state with
= 1.5, however, both
l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c mobility could develop depending on the amplitude

of c y c l i c load applied ( F i g . 5.10).
For c y c l i c stress r a t i o greater than
0.13, l i q u e f a c t i o n developed, whereas f o r c y c l i c stress r a t i o less than

0.13
c y c l i c mobility developed.
These two cases are i l l u s t r a t e d by the
s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves and pore pressure responses i n F i g . 5.12a,b. In

Fig.
5.12a, the c y c l i c stress r a t i o r e s u l t s i n maximum shear stress of
6.10 kgf/cm
(598 kPa) which i s s l i g h t l y greater than the steady state
shear strength.
About 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n was developed i n the 5th loading
cycle with accompanying pore pressure increase.
In F i g . 5.12b, however,
the maximum shear stress Is s l i g h t l y less than the steady state shear
strength.
Consequently no sudden development of s t r a i n associated with
steady state deformation occurred. The s t r a i n developed progressively

with number of stress cycles as a r e s u l t of c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
This may
also be seen from the plot of s t r a i n development versus number of stress

cycles i n F i g . 5.13.
149-
4.0
3.0
2.0
Ext.
F i g . 5.11
1.0
a(%)
/.0
2.0
Comp.
Tyipcal undrained c y c l i c loading response for

contractive t a i l i n g s sand showing c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
150.
Tailings
O&-I6-0
Kc
I6.0\-
Sand
kgf/cm
/.5
ec
'0.805
(a)
0dcy /203c '
5th cycle
Drc ' 68.4%

= 0.J53
6th cycle
13 th cycle
12.0]
Estimated Steady
State Strength
8.0
4.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
e (%)
8.0
10.0
(6.0
(o)
CT
dcy
/2Cr ' - 0 . / 0 9
3c
Estimated Steady State Strength
I2.0\
/
*d
8.0
4.0
66th cycle
36th cycle
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
e (%.
a
F i g . 5.12 T y p i c a l undrained c y c l i c loading response f o r contractive

t a i l i n g s sand showing (a) l i q u e f a c t i o n , and (b) c y c l i c
mobility.
151.
From the two test examples shown above, both i n i t i a l states satisfy
the first criterion. But, the occurrence of liquefaction depends in
addition on whether the maximum shear stress condition in relation to
steady state strength is satisfied.
For anisotropically consolidated state with
= 2.0, a l l samples
developed liquefaction (Fig. 5.10). In this test series, the static

2
shear stress equals 8.0 kgf/cm
(784 kPa), which i s substantially higher
than the steady state shear strength.
Thus, both criteria are satisfied,
and hence liquefaction occurs in a l l samples.
Typical strain development
with number of stress cycles for such samples is shown in Fig. 5.13.
Ottawa Sand
For Ottawa sand, minor effective consolidation stress a' of 2.0
3c
2
kgf/cm
(196 kPa) and relative density after consolidation D
were used.
of 35.5%
Three series of tests with Kc ratios of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0
were carried out.
Similar method as used in preparing the tailings sand
sample was employed to achieve samples with identical f i n a l density.

Again, very consistent final relative density was obtained, with variation less than 1.0% from the desired target.
A l l i n i t i a l sample states
chosen would develop liquefaction under monotonic loading.

The results showing cyclic stress ratio a, /2o' versus the number
dcy
3c
of stress cycles to develop liquefaction are shown in Fig. 5.14.
results for
The
= 1.19 obtained from previous studies by Chern (1981) are
also shown in the figure.
In contrast to the behaviour of tailings sand,
a l l samples developed liquefaction, regardless of the K c ratio.

For isotropically consolidated state, although the cyclic shear
2
stress applied (0.18 kgf/cm ) to one sample was less than the steady
No. of cycles, N
F i g . 5.13
T y p i c a l S t r a i n development vs number of c y c l e s
c o n s o l i d a t e d to v a r i o u s K
ratios.
c
for contractive
t a i l i n g s sand
OHawa
Sand
O^. 2.0 kgf/cm

e - 0 706 0 0 0 3
D 3 5 . 5 % 11.0 %
efl - 2 . 5 % 8 5 . 0 %
2
r c
i.o
1.5
2.0
1.19
0.J5
u
CVJ
0.05
10
20
50
100
200
No. of cycles, N
F i g . 5.14
Cyclic stress required to cause liquefaction for i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand

consolidated to various K r a t i o s .
154.
2
state shear strength In compression (about 0.35 kgf/cm ) at the chosen

e c , this c y c l i c shear stress was greater than the steady state shear
2
strength i n extension (less than 0.1 kgf/cm ).
Therefore, l i q u e f a c t i o n
occurred i n extension mode. This i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the e f f e c t i v e stress

paths i n F i g . 5.15. Typical s t r a i n development with the number of stress
cycles i s shown i n F i g . 5.16,
As the K r a t i o increased to 1.19
c
although the s t a t i c shear stress
was less than the steady state shear strength i n compression mode, the
maximum shear stress ( s t a t i c + c y c l i c ) was s l i g h t l y larger than the
steady state value.
Therefore, l l q u e f a t i o n occurred i n compression mode.
This Is shown by the dashed line i n F i g .
5.14. The corresponding s t r a i n
development with the number of stress cycles i s shown i n F i g . 5.16.

For states with K
ratios of 1.5 and 2.0, the s t a t i c shear stresses
were equal to or greater than the steady state shear strength i n compression.
Therefore, l i q u e f a c t i o n occurred on the compression side i n a l l
cases.
From the r e s u l t s for both sands presented above, I t may be concluded
that both c r i t e r i a must be met i n order to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n under
Liquefaction can not be induced i f the maximum shear
stress c r i t e r i o n i n r e l a t i o n to steady state shear strength Is not s a t i s fied even though the sample has the p o t e n t i a l to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n .
It w i l l be shown i n Section 5.2 that l i q u e f a c t i o n can never be induced i f
the f i r s t c r i t e r i o n i s not met, no matter what c y c l i c stress amplitude i s
applied.
It should also be emphasized that these two c r i t e r i a hold for
l i q u e f a c t i o n i n compression as well as extension mode. Extension mode

should be checked i f c y c l i c loading results i n s i g n i f i c a n t shear stress
reversal.
In case both c r i t e r i a are met i n compression as well as
Ottawa Sand
Fig. 5.15
Typical i l l u s t r a t i o n of liquefaction of i s o t r o p i c a l l y
consolidated Ottawa sand under c y c l i c loading.
No. of c y c l e s , N
F i g . 5.16
T y p i c a l s t r a i n development vs number of c y c l e s f o r i n i t i a l l y
c o n s o l i d a t e d to v a r i o u s K
ratios.
l o o s e Ottawa sand
157.
extension, l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l always occur i n extension mode due to a much
lower CSR i n extension as shown by test results i n Section 4.2.2.
5.2
C y c l i c M o b i l i t y Induced Under C y c l i c Loading
It was shown i n the previous section that a sand develops c y c l i c

mobility i f the shear stress c r i t e r i o n i s not s a t i s f i e d , even though the
sand has the potential to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n .
In this section, i t w i l l
be shown that a sand can develop only c y c l i c mobility i f the steady state
can not be achieved for the given i n i t i a l s t a t e .
both sands consolidated
A series of tests on
to i n i t i a l sample states below the c r i t i c a l
consolidation stress (al ) . surface w i l l be used to i l l u s t r a t e t h i s

lc c r i t
mechanism of s t r a i n development during c y c l i c loading. These r e s u l t s
w i l l also be used to i l l u s t r a t e the influence of various factors (e ,
c
CT^c, K ) on the resistance to s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading.
5.2.1
Strain Development Due to C y c l i c M o b i l i t y

2
It was shown by Vaid and Chern (1983 ) that dense Ottawa sand does
not suffer l i q u e f a c t i o n under c y c l i c loading.
In such sand very small
deformations are developed u n t i l the e f f e c t i v e stress state of sand

reaches the PT l i n e .
S i g n i f i c a n t amount of deformation i s developed
during the loading phase when the stress state crosses the PT l i n e .
Unloading thereafter causes large increase i n pore pressure, bringing the
sample close to the transient state of zero e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , but with
very l i t t l e change i n deformation.
Repetition of this phenomenon of
stress state moving a l t e r n a t e l y i n t o the region beyond the PT l i n e s with

cycles of loading ultimately results i n a transient state of zero
158.
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , which i s responsible f o r further accumulation of
deformation.
For t a i l i n g s sand, t y p i c a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n and pore pressure
response and e f f e c t i v e stress paths f o r i s o t r o p i c a l l y and a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y

consolidated samples are shown i n F i g s . 5.17 and 5.18.
were consolidated to D
of 70% under
These two samples
of 2.0 kgf/cm
(196 kPa) , such

rc
Jc
that t h e i r i n i t i a l states l i e w e l l below the ( a ' )
surface. Therelc crit
f o r e , the steady state can not be achieved, according to the r e s u l t s

discussed i n Chapter 4.
I s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample ( F i g .
5.17), accumulated very
small deformation u n t i l i t s e f f e c t i v e stress state reached the PT l i n e .

From the f i r s t cycle u n t i l 29th cycle of loading, the s t r a i n amplitude
increased from 0.1% to 0.6% although the residual pore pressure reached
80% of the i n i t i a l consolidation pressure. However, the a p p l i c a t i o n of
30th cycle of loading produced a disproportionate e f f e c t .
amplitude during t h i s stress cycle increased to about 1.0%.
amplitude increased further from 1.0%
stress c y c l e s .
(Fig.
The s t r a i n
The s t r a i n
to about 10% i n the next eleven
From the pore pressure response during the 30th cycle
5.17b), i t may be noted that sample showed a decrease i n pore
pressure when the maximum shear stress was reached (points 3 and 4 ) .
This feature Is d i f f e r e n t from those observed i n the previous loading
cycles (e.g.
points 1 and 2 ) .
The e f f e c t i v e stress state at which the
sample starts to d i l a t e (decrease i n pore pressure) was found to be

e s s e n t i a l l y the same as the PT l i n e obtained under monotonic loading.
Thus, the attainment of PT state also s i g n i f i e s the onset of s i g n i f i c a n t
deformation of d i l a t i v e sample during c y c l i c loading.
It should be noted
that the stress state at PT l i n e moved closer and closer to the o r i g i n

(Fig.
5.17c) as the c y c l i c loading continued.
This concept of stress
E
o
u
To/lings Sand
Test IC-U - #27
cy
0 '"2.0 kgf/cm
K
-1.0
"0.814 D "66.1%
"0.799 D "70.2%
2
3c
c
rl
rc
.17a
Typical undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated

dilative
Tailings
Sand
Test I C - I U -
Fig.' 5.17b
T y p i c a l undrained c y c l i c
#27
l o a d i n g behaviour of i s o t r o p i c a l l y
consolidated
dilative
P
Tailings Sand
Test
I C-IW-#27
F i g . 5.17c
Typical undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of

consolidated d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand.
isotropically
162.
Tailings
_i
1.0
F i g . 5.18a,b
Sand
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
Typical undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of anisot r o p i c a l l y consolidated d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand.
Tailings Sand
Fig. 5.18c
T y p i c a l undrained c y c l i c l o a d i n g behaviour of a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y
c o n s o l i d a t e d d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand.
164.
path moving beyond the PT l i n e i n order to develop large deformation can
s t i l l be applied when the transient state of zero e f f e c t i v e stress i s
reached.
Reloading i n both the compression and extension regions caused
d i l a t i o n (points 5 to 6 and 7 to 8) with accompanying large deformation,

p a r t i c u l a r l y a f t e r attainment of transient states of zero e f f e c t i v e
stress.
Unloading resulted i n large increase i n pore pressure (points 6
to 7 and 8 to 9) but with very l i t t l e change i n a x i a l deformation.

For
a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample ( F i g . 5.18), the c y c l i c
stress amplitude was selected so as to cause a s l i g h t amount of shear

stress r e v e r s a l .
S i g n i f i c a n t amount of a x i a l deformation was observed
during the f i r s t cycle of loading.

associated with l i q u e f a c t i o n .
However, this deformation i s not
The sample In fact d i l a t e d and showed a
turnaround i n e f f e c t i v e stress path ( F i g .
5.18c), a behaviour similar to
that observed for d i l a t i v e sand under monotonic loading.
The e f f e c t i v e
stress r a t i o at the s t a r t of d i l a t i o n (decrease i n pore pressure) was

found to be approximately the same as that of the PT l i n e obtained
before.
Unloading of shear stress during the stress cycle caused
increase i n pore pressure with very l i t t l e change i n a x i a l deformation

(point 1 to 2). Reloading the sample beyond the PT l i n e again caused
s i g n i f i c a n t amount of deformation and decrease i n pore pressure.
This
behaviour Is s i m i l a r to that observed f o r i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated

sample once Its stress state reached the PT l i n e .
However, due to only
s l i g h t amount of shear stress reversal involved, the transient state of

zero e f f e c t i v e stress was never r e a l i z e d .
Consequently, instead of
deformations increasing with number of stress c y c l e s , the accumulated

deformations leveled o f f as the e f f e c t i v e stress path got v i r t u a l l y
s t a b i l i z e d with increasing c y c l e s .
165,
After 55 cycles of loading, the c y c l i c stress amplitude was
Increased s l i g h t l y so as to cause 0.1 kgf/cm
reversal.
(9.8 kPa) of shear stress
The r e s u l t s of such loading cycles are shown by the data
points i n f u l l dots i n F i g . 5.18.
In f i v e additional stress c y c l e s , the
a x i a l s t r a i n amplitude increased from 0.4% to 5.2% ( F i g .
5.18a) and
accumulated a x i a l s t r a i n increased from 5% to more than 7%.
Unloading of
shear stress during the stress cycle caused the sample to reach the
transient state of zero e f f e c t i v e stress with very l i t t l e change i n
deformation (points 5 to 6 and 7 to 8 ) .
On the other hand, loading
caused the sample to develop large deformation with accompanying drop i n

pore pressure (points 6 to 7 and 8 to 9 ) .
This behaviour i s s i m i l a r to
that observed f o r the i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated case.

From the r e s u l t s presented above, i t may be concluded that f o r d i l a tive sand the deformation during c y c l i c loading i s due to c y c l i c m o b i l i t y
instead of l i q u e f a c t i o n associated with steady state deformation.
Signi-
ficant amount of s t r a i n can be developed only when the stress state

reaches the PT l i n e .
Repetition of stress state moving into the region
beyond the PT l i n e i s responsible f o r further accumulation of deformation.
However, the rate of s t r a i n accumulation with number of stress
cycles Is generally slow i f no shear stress reversal i s involved.
This
has a very important implication on the e f f e c t of s t a t i c shear stress on

the resistance to s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading, and w i l l be
discussed i n Section 5.4.
The phenomenon of c y c l i c m o b i l i t y was often a t t r i b u t e d to the
r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of water content within the test specimen during c y c l i c
loading, e s p e c i a l l y i n the case with shear stress r e v e r s a l (Casagrande,
1975;
Castro, 1969 and 1975; Castro and Poulos, 1977).
I t has been
166.
argued that near the top of the specimen, the void r a t i o of sand
increases, and near the bottom i t decreases.
Appearance of necking
and
bulging of samples under the top loading cap during c y c l i c loading has
been advanced In support of this view.
deformations
The pore pressure buildup and
measured i n the laboratory were suggested to be due
to the formation of such loose zone within the specimen.
chiefly
Hence the
change i n e f f e c t i v e confining stress i n state diagram during c y c l i c loading, such as shown i n F i g . 5.19
for d i l a t i v e sample, i s considered
ficti-
tious i n the sense that i t represents average c o n d i t i o n s . Therefore, the

state point may
not reach the condition of zero e f f e c t i v e confining
stress i f the specimen were to remain uniform.

However, from the results shown above there i s good direct and
i n d i r e c t evidence showing that this progressive softening may not be due
to nonuniform deformation developed within the specimen.
It has been
shown i n previous sections that progressive increase i n pore pressure

during c y c l i c loading causes very small s t r a i n u n t i l the stress, state
reaches the PT state ( F i g . 5.17).
Under this s t r a i n l e v e l , there i s no
evidence that r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of water content can take place within the

specimen.
Moreover, the progressive Increase i n pore pressure and
deformations
can also be induced i f c y c l i c loading does not result i n
shear stress r e v e r s a l , i n which case the condition of transient zero

e f f e c t i v e stress ( F i g . 5.18)
never occurs - the condition which has been
considered responsible for development of nonuniformities.
Under this
stress condition, d e n s i f i c a t i o n i n bottom part of the specimen and

loosening l n top part as suggested can not occur.
It appears that
necking can occur only l n sample with nonuniform sample density or a f t e r

very large s t r a i n has developed.
By using the conventional procedures of
Effective
Fig.'5.19
Confining
Stress,
0*3'
Schematic i l l u s t r a t i o n of monotonic and c y c l i c

loading response of saturated sand in 2-D state
diagram.
168.
sedimentation and moist compaction, there i s a tendency for reconstituted
samples to achieve higher density i n the bottom portion and lower density
i n the top. Consequently, i n such specimens, nonuniform deformation
tends to occur and r e l i a b l e results may not be obtained.
Therefore, i t
i s very important to emphasize the sample formation techniques so as to

y i e l d sample with uniform density throughout. By using the improved
sample preparation techniques described In Chapter 3, the sample did not
develop necking even when the transient state of zero e f f e c t i v e stress
was reached.
It has been further i n f e r r e d that d i l a t i v e sand, which develops
negative pore pressure after reaching PT state under monotonic loading
( F i g . 5.19), can not develop progressive softening under c y c l i c loading
s i m i l a r to that of the contractive sample, i f the specimen were to remain
uniform (Castro and Poulos, 1977; Casagrande, 1975).
As discussed i n
Chapter 4 and this chapter, d i l a t i o n can occur only after the stress
state reaches the PT l i n e .
Therefore, the development of negative pore
pressure under monotonic loading i s a behaviour after large deformation.

However, c y c l i c loading behaviour i s a small s t r a i n phenomenon u n t i l the
stress state reaches the PT l i n e .
Therefore, d i l a t i v e response a f t e r
large deformations under monotonic loading ( F i g .
5.19) does not imply
that the same behaviour w i l l occur under c y c l i c loading.
It i s well
known that dense sample, which develops volume expansion under monotonic
loading, causes volume reduction under c y c l i c loading.
It has also been
shown by Luong (1980) that c y c l i n g a sample under PT l i n e causes volume

reduction under drained conditions.
Volume expansion can occur only when
the sample i s cycled i n the region beyond PT l i n e .
Under undrained
condition, this volume reduction r e s u l t s i n rebound i n s o i l structure to
the extent required to keep the volume constant.

by the schematic diagram i n F i g . 5.19
(1975).
This may
be i l l u s t r a t e d
proposed by Seed, Pyke and
Martin
This i n t e r p l a y of volume reduction and s o i l structure rebound
results i n build up of pore pressure as the c y c l i c stress a p p l i c a t i o n

continues.
Therefore, c y c l i c mobility i s another c l a s s of problem under
c y c l i c loading, and can occur i n sand during earthquake loading.
5.2.2. C r i t e r i a to Cause C y c l i c M o b i l i t y Under C y c l i c Loading

It has been shown i n Section 5.1.3
that sand with the p o t e n t i a l to
develop l i q u e f a c t i o n , i . e . , the steady state e x i s t s , w i l l develop c y c l i c

mobility i f the maximum shear stress ( s t a t i c + c y c l i c ) i s less than the
steady state shear strength.
It was
further shown i n Section 5.2.1
that
sand with i n i t i a l state l y i n g below the c r i t i c a l consolidation stress

a
( j _ c ) c r j t surface, i . e . , steady state can not be achieved, develops

c y c l i c mobility only, regardless of the amplitude of c y c l i c load applied.
Therefore, i t may
be concluded that sand with any condition that does not
s a t i s f y the c r i t e r i a to cause l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l develop only c y c l i c

mobility.
However, the c r i t e r i a for l i q u e f a c t i o n should be examined both
i n compression and extension regions i f shear stress reversal i s

involved.
The above c r i t e r i a for c y c l i c mobility to occur i s v e r i f i e d by
performing a series of tests on both sands consolidated below the
(al )
surface.
These tests are discussed i n the following s e c t i o n .
5.2.3. Test Results

A series of c y c l i c loading t e s t s on samples consolidated to the same
170.
e and al but with various l e v e l s of K r a t i o were performed to examine
c
3c
c
the c r i t e r i a for c y c l i c mobility to occur.
The i n i t i a l sample states
were so chosen that the steady state can not be achieved i n compression
for
both sands.
For Ottawa sand, however, the steady state exists i n
extension mode at the chosen void r a t i o .
These tests also serve to
i l l u s t r a t e the importance of the mode of loading on undrained behaviour.

Results
from these test results w i l l also be used l a t e r i n section 5.4 to
i l l u s t r a t e the influence of e , al and K on the resistance to s t r a i n

c
3c
c
development under c y c l i c
loading.
For t a i l i n g s sand, the minor e f f e c t i v e consolidation stress ai of
3c
2
2.0 kgf/cm (196 kPa) and r e l a t i v e density after consolidation D
of 70%
rc
were used.
Three series of test with K c r a t i o of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 were
performed. Under these conditions, a l l I n i t i a l sample states l i e well to

the l e f t of the steady state l i n e s (compression and extension).
Hence
the steady state can not be achieved i n a l l cases.

The r e s u l t s of c yJ c l i c stress r a t i o a, /2al versus number of stress
dcy 3c
cycles to develop 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n f o r various K c r a t i o s are shown In
Fig.
5.20. A l l samples developed c y c l i c m o b i l i t y , regardless of the
i n i t i a l state of., the sample and the amplitude of c y c l i c loads applied.

Typical results of s t r a i n development versus number of stress cycles are
also i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5.21.
I s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated
sample developed very small deformations
u n t i l the stress state reached the PT l i n e .
The deformation
increased
r a p i d l y thereafter due to development of transient state of zero effect i v e stress (see F i g . 5.21).
Fig..5.20
Cyclic stress required to cause 2.5% a x i a l strain for d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand

consolidated to various K r a t i o s .
5.0
Tailings
0* '2.0
3c
"0.801
*c
1.0
1.5
2.0
c
o
kgf/cm
ec
4.0
3.0
Sand
2
Drc -69.5%
0.193
0.344
0509
c/) 2.0
o
X
/.0
15
20
No. of cycles, N
F i g . 5.21
Typical strain development vs number of cycles for d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand consolidated

to various K r a t i o s ,
c
173.
For
a n i s o t r p i c a l l y consolidated samples with K c = 1.5, the s t r a i n
development i s s i m i l a r to that for the i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated case,

except that the i n i t i a l s t r a i n accumulation u n t i l the stress state
reached the PT l i n e i s larger ( F i g .
5.21).
This may be due to the
presence of i n i t i a l s t a t i c shear bias and much larger c y c l i c load

applied.
A small amount of s t r a i n was induced whenever the t o t a l shear
stress approached
i t s maximum value causing a small s t r a i n accumulation
a f t e r each cycle of loading.

For
sample with K
= 2.0, the s t r a i n accumulation i s quite d i f f e r e n t
from the other two cases.
Relatively large s t r a i n was developed during
the f i r s t cycle of loading.
This was due to the fact that the i n i t i a l
e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o was high.
During the loading phase of the f i r s t
stress c y c l e , the stress state reached the PT l i n e and thus a rapid

accumulation of s t r a i n was observed from the beginning of the t e s t .
However, the rate of s t r a i n accumulation decreased gradually because
states of transient zero e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s , necessary f o r rapid s t r a i n
accumulation, did not occur due to no shear stress r e v e r a l .
The sample
accumulated 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n i n 10 stress c y c l e s , and i t took another 45

cycles to accumulate additional 2.5%
For
axial s t r a i n .
sample with the same e c but under higher confining pressure,
i t was shown i n Section 5.1.4
that only c y c l i c mobility i s developed when
the maximum shear stress i s less than the steady state shear strength.
For
such I n i t i a l states the relationships between c y c l i c stress ratio
versus number of stress cycles to develop 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n for

and 1.25
were shown In F i g . 5.10.
low confining pressure ( F i g .

increasing K
= 1.0
Trends similar to those observed under

a
5.20), i . e . , increasing < j C y ^ 3 c with
r a t i o , may be observed even under higher levels of
174.
confining pressure.
Ottawa Sand
For Ottawa sand, minor e f f e c t i v e consolidation stress ai of 2.0
3c
2
kgf/cm (196 kPa) and r e l a t i v e density a f t e r consolidation D
of 51.5%
rc
were used.
Three series of test with Kc r a t i o of 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0 were
performed.
Under these conditions, the i n i t i a l sample states l i e below
the steady state l i n e i n compression.
Therefore, the steady state can
not be reached i n compression mode f o r these samples.
However, i t w i l l
be shown l a t e r that steady state i n extension can be reached f o r these

samples.
It was found that a l l samples developed c y c l i c mobility except the
one with K c = 1.0 which developed l i q u e f a c t i o n i n extension mode. The
results of c y c l i c stress r a t i o a^C y^ 2
a
ersus number of stress cycles
to develope 2.5% a x i a l t r a i n due to c y c l i c mobility or l i q u e f a c t i o n i n

extension mode are shown i n F i g . 5.22. The r e s u l t s f o r K c = 1.19, which
are interpolated from a previous study by Chem (1981), are also
presented In the f i g u r e .
The r e s u l t s f o r both l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c
mobility are presented here i n order to f a c i l i t a t e discussion of the

c r i t e r i a f o r occurrence of c y c l i c m o b i l i t y and l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Typical
results of s t r a i n development versus number of stress cycles for these

tests are shown i n F i g . 5.23.
For I s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample, the c y c l i c stress applied
exceeded the steady state shear strength i n extension. Therefore, l i q u e f a c t i o n occurred i n extension mode. This i l l u s t r a t e s the importance of
examining the existence of steady state both i n compression and extension
Ottawa
Sand
2.0 kgf/cm
0.655 0.003
-51.5 1.0%
2
DTC
0.4
Q
A
0.3
CM
*c
1.0
1.5
2.0
(.19
-2.5%
0.2
4
N o t * ' X ' ' ' * sampla
d*v*lop*d liquefaction
n d
0.1
F i g . 5.22
10
No. of c y c l e s ,
20
50
100
c a
200
Cyclic stress required to cause 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n for medium dense

Ottawa sand consolidated to various K r a t i o s .
^4
No. of cycles, N
F i g . 5.23
Typical strain.development vs number of cycles for medium dense

Ottawa sand consolidated to various K r a t i o s .
c
i
ON
177.
modes, i f significant amount of shear stress reversal is involved.
A l l anisotropically consolidated samples (K^ = 1.19, 1.5 and 2.0)
developed cyclic mobility (Fig. 5.22). The strain development versus
number of stress cycles (Fig. 5.23) is similar to that for the tailings
sand with similar Kc ratios.
Accelerated increase in axial deformation
was observed only i f transient state of zero effective stress occurred

after the sample state crossed the FT l i n e .
stress reversal (K
For the case with no shear
= 2.0), large deformation was developed In the f i r s t
loading cycle when the stress state reached the PT l i n e .
However, the
strain accumulation slowed down in the subsequent cycles because no

transient state of zero effective stress developed for the cyclic load
amplitude applied.
5.3
Resistance to Strain Development Under Cyclic Loading
It has been shown in the previous sections that large cyclic and
residual strains are developed once the sand develops liquefaction or
cyclic mobility particularly after reaching the transient state of zero
effective stress.
In the case of no shear stress reversal, the sand can
never reach the condition of zero effective stress under cyclic loading.
Nevertheless, large undesirable deformation could accumulate.
faction develops, large deformations are inevitable.
If lique-
Hence, the accumu-
lated strain Is often used as the failure critierion against cyclic loading.
The strain level considered as failure depends on the type and
relative importance of the earth structure considered.

The accumulation of strain during cyclic loading may be due to
liquefaction or cyclic mobility or a combination of both. Because of
178.
d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n development mechanism i n l i q u e f a c t i o n
and c y c l i c
m o b i l i t Jy , the influence of factors (e , ol , K ) on the resistance to

'
c
3c
c
s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading i s l i k e l y to be influenced by the
mechanism of deformation as well as the s t r a i n l e v e l of i n t e r e s t .
If liquefaction
occurs, r e l a t i v e l y large deformation (at least
2.5%
a x i a l s t r a i n for the sands tested) w i l l be developed, once the liquefaction i s induced.
Therefore, i f 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n development were used
as the f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n , occurrence of liquefacton could be considered

as f a i l u r e .
However, i f higher s t r a i n l e v e l were s p e c i f i e d , then the
t o t a l s t r a i n to f i a l u r e could be the combination of l i q u e f a c t i o n

c y c l i c mobility following l i q u e f a c t i o n .
and
Such a case may be seen from the
s t r a i n development versus number of stress cycles f o r the t a i l i n g s sample

with K C = 1.5 and c y c l i c stress ratio of 0.157
i n F i g . 5.13.
The sand
accumulated about 3.5% a x i a l s t r a i n at the end of stress cycle i n which

liquefaction
and only l
1 / 2
developed.
%
Further accumulation of s t r a i n was
slowed down
additional s t r a i n developed i n the next stress
cycle.
Similar features of s t r a i n accumulation due to c y c l i c mobility following

liquefaction may be seen i n Figs. 5.1b and 5.2c.
Due
of these two mechanisms for development of specified
to the combination
l e v e l of s t r a i n , the
influence of f a c t o r s , e.g., s t a t i c shear, on the resistance to s t r a i n

development under c y c l i c loading may be d i f f e r e n t depending on whether
liquefaction
only or c y c l i c mobility only develops.
that 2.5% a x i a l s t r a i n due to liquefaction
It should be noted
i s for the l i m i t i n g case when
t o t a l shear stress Is s l i g h t l y greater than the steady state shear

strength.
When t o t a l shear stress i s considerably larger than the steady
state strength, much larger deformation w i l l be developed.

seen from the s t r a i n development due to l i q u e f a c t i o n
This may
i n Figs.
5.13
be
and
179.
5.16.
For
sand with state i n the t r a n s i t i o n region ( F i g .
potential due to s t r a i n softening i s very small.
4.17), the s t r a i n
It i s conceivable that
the s t r a i n developed due to s t r a i n softening under c y c l i c loading would

be very small as w e l l .
Thus, the s t r a i n development for such
initial
states may be regarded as due mainly to c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
5.4
Influence of Certain Factors on the Undrained C y c l i c Loading

Behaviour
The most Important 'factors which Influence the undrained c y c l i c

loading behaviour of sand are void r a t i o , confining pressure and s t a t i c
shear s t r e s s .
The role of these factors on the undrained c y c l i c loading
behaviour of sands w i l l be discussed i n this s e c t i o n .
5.4.1
Void Radio or Relative Density

Most of the knowledge on undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of
saturated sand has been derived from studies on natural rounded sands.
It i s generally believed that r e l a t i v e density i s the most important
factor controlling; occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
Sand
with r e l a t i v e density less than about 40% has been suggested to always
develop l i q u e f a c t i o n , whereas sand with r e l a t i v e density greater than
about 45% c y c l i c m o b i l i t y , without reference to the p a r t i c l e characteri s t i c s and i n i t i a l stress condition of the sand.
It w i l l be shown In the
following that this may be a good approximation f o r rounded sand, but may
not be true for angular sand.
Consider the e f f e c t i v e stress state plot of the 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress
180.
state diagram at a constant void r a t i o as shown i n F i g . 4.31b.
From the
consolidation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sand, i t was noted that the sand can be

consolidated to t h i s void r a t i o by various combination of i n i t i a l void
ratios e, and consolidation stress conditions a' and K .
i
3c
c
The sand with
i n i t i a l state to the l e f t of the ( a ' ) . = constant l i n e has no

lc crit
p o s s i b i l i t y to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n . It can only develop c y c l i c mobility
except
i n a small t r a n s i t i o n region
immediately
to the l e f t of (aj )
K
6
}
l c crit
= constant l i n e which may develop s l i g h t s t r a i n softening followed by
cyclic mobility.
On the other hand, sand with i n i t i a l state on or to the
right of (a I ) . = constant l i n e can develop l i q u e f a c t i o n i f the c y c l i c

lc c r i t
stress applied i s large enough to cause t o t a l shear stress greater than
i t s steady state shear strength.
Occurrence of these phenomena was
i l l u s t r a t e d by c y c l i c tests on samples with the same void r a t i o i n F i g s .

5.10 and 5.20.
It may be noted that a l l samples under low confining
pressure ( F i g . 5.20) developed c y c l i c m o b i l i t y , whereas samples under

high confining pressure could develop l i q u e f a c t i o n i f the shear stress
criterion for liquefaction i s s a t i s f i e d .
It may also be noted from F i g .
5.1c that l i q u e f a c t i o n can be induced i n samples with very high r e l a t i v e

density (more than 85%) i f the consolidation stresses are high enough.
For
Ottawa sand with rounded p a r t i c l e s the r e l a t i v e density seems to
be the most Important factor c o n t r o l l i n g the undrained c y c l i c loading

behaviour for the range of consolidation stresses considered herein.
For
sample with i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density larger than about 45%, the steady

state can not be achieved even under high confining pressure, and hence
l i q u e f a c t i o n Is not expected under c y c l i c loading at least In the
compression mode. However, for I n i t i a l l y looser samples, l i q u e f a c t i o n
does occur under the same range of consolidation s t r e s s e s .
181.
Therefore, for sand with rounded p a r t i c l e s the r e l a t i v e density

gives a good i n d i c a t i o n as to the undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour
since a l i m i t i n g value of D ^ alone w i l l s u f f i c e to separate regions of
l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
However, for sand with angular
p a r t i c l e s , specifying the void r a t i o or r e l a t i v e density alone without

reference to the associated consolidation stress conditions i s not
s u f f i c i e n t to ascertain whether l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility w i l l
develop during c y c l i c loading.
The Influence of void r a t i o or r e l a t i v e density on the occurrence of
l i q u e f a c t i o n Is that Increasing
the r e l a t i v e density increases
the
c r i t i c a l consolidation stress ( a ' ) . i n order to have the p o s s i b i l i t y

lc c r i t
to developv l in q u e f a c t i o n . This i s shown by
the increasing of (al )
J
lc crit
with decreasing
void r a t i o i n the 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram
( F i g . 4.31).

Even specifying
and a^
f o r a sand i s s t i l l i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r a
prediction of the undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour with repsect to

development of l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
by two
This may
be i l l u s t r a t e d
samples with the same void r a t i o and confining pressure but with
d i f f e r e n t Kc
r a t i o s (Samples G and B i n F i g . 4.31b).
For Sample G,
steady state can not be achieved, and hence l i q u e f a c t i o n can not

developed.
the
be
For Sample B, however, the steady state can be achieved, and
l i q u e f a c t i o n can be developed i f the c y c l i c load Is large enough to cause

maximum shear stress greater than the steady state shear strength f o r the
void r a t i o under consideration.
This i s also true when the
sample state at G i s to the r i g h t of the (a' )
initial
= constant l i n e .
Such
182.
a behaviour i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the test r e s u l t s shown i n F i g .
C y c l i c mobility occurred i n samples with low K c
f a c t i o n developed i n samples with high K
5.10.
r a t i o , whereas lique-
r a t i o even though they had

c
i d e n t i c a l eând 2 '
a
Furthermore, the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n depends
on the amplitude of c y c l i c load applied.
This i s apparent from the
undrained behaviour of sand with K
i n F i g . 5.10
= 1.5
i n which the
c
lowest l e v e l of c y c l i c stress amplitude caused c y c l i c mobility instead of
l i q u e f a c t i o n at higher stress amplitudes.
For Ottawa sand, however, as discussed
i n the previous s e c t i o n , the
i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density appears to be the most important factor controll i n g the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c mobility f o r the range of
consolidation stress considered h e r e i n .
The e f f e c t of l e v e l of confining pressure on the undrained c y c l i c
loading behaviour not only dictates the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n or
c y c l i c mobility as discussed above, but also Influences
s t r a i n development under either type of response.
the resistance to
This may
be
illustra-
ted by the response of samples with the same void r a t i o and K^ratio
but
d i f f e r e n t confining pressures ( F i g . 5.24).

For samples i n the d i l a t i v e region (D1
can be developed.
and D 2 ) , only c y c l i c mobility
An increase i n confining pressure always results i n
increasing contractive tendency.
Therefore, f o r the same c y c l i c stress
r a t i o applied, the sample under higher confining pressure w i l l show a

f a s t e r pore pressure buildup with cycles of loading and reach the PT
e a r l i e r than that under lower confining pressure.
Therefore, the
resistance to s t r a i n development w i l l always decrease with increasing

confining pressure.
Evidence for this argument may
c y c l i c loading test r e s u l t s shown i n F i g s . 5.10
be seen from the
and 5.20.
For each K
line
5.24
I n f l u e n c e of c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e on the r e s i s t a n c e to
s t r a i n development under c y c l i c l o a d i n g .
134.
value for which c yJ c l i c mobility developed, the resistance curve a, /2a'
dcy
3c
vs N for lower confining pressure i s located higher than that for higher
confining pressure.
This reduced resistance to s t r a i n development due to
increasing confining pressure has also been observed by Vaid, Chern and
Tumi (1983) for both angular and rounded sands.
In their i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
sands were tested under simple shear conditions with no s t a t i c shear and
i n i t i a l sand states which gave r i s e to only c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
For samples In the contractive region (C^ and C
l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l be developed, as discussed before.
i n F i g . 5.24),
In this region, two
aspects of the influence of the l e v e l of confining pressure may

F i r s t l y , due to the uniqueness of CSR,
required to reach the CSR
stress r a t i o .
the pore pressure r a t i o s
be noted.
Au/a^
line w i l l be the same under the same c y c l i c
However, due to the increased contractive tendency under
higher confining pressure i n Sample C2
than Sample C^, i t i s conceivable
that Sample C2 w i l l reach the CSR l i n e faster (less number of cycles)

than Sample C^.
In other words, the resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n
(a,
/2a' required to reach CSR l i n e In a fixed number of cycles) w i l l
dcy
3c
be decreasing with increasing confining pressure.
Secondly, the poten-
t i a l to develop steady state deformation and the associated loss i n shear

resistance for sample under higher confining pressure i s always higher
than the one under lower confining pressure due to the uniqueness of
steady state strength ( F i g . 5.24).
Therefore, for sand under higher
confining pressure not only the l i q u e f a c t i o n i s easier to be induced but

also the deformation associated with l i q u e f a c t i o n and the loss i n shear
resistance Is more severe than those under lower confining pressure.
185.
5.4.3
Static Shear Stress or Consolidation Stress Ratio

For sand with a given e
c
and a ' , increasing K r a t i o may

3c
c
transform
the undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour of sand from c y c l i c mobility under

low Kc
r a t i o to l i q u e f a c t i o n under high Kc
shown i n e a r l i e r F i g . 5.10.
ratio.
This has been
Therefore, i n order to predict the undrained
c y c l i c loading behaviour of a sand sample, the shear stress component at

the end of consolidation has to be considered
r a t i o and confining pressure.
i n addition to the void
In t h i s regard the 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress
state diagram developed under monotonic loading conditions, together with

the amplitude of c y c l i c loading imposed provides a complete d e s c r i p t i o n
as to the expected mechanism of s t r a i n development during undrained
c y c l i c loading of saturated sand.
Similar concept can also be used f o r Ottawa sand with rounded
p a r t i c l e s , with the difference that i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density may
suffice
to predict the existence of steady state f o r the range of consolidation

stress considered
herein.
The influence of s t a t i c shear or K c

loading behaviour may
r a t i o on undrained c y c l i c
be i l l u s t r a t e d more c l e a r l y by p l o t t i n g the r e s i s t /
2a
ance to s t r a i n development ( < j C y' ' 3 c required to cause 2
1/2
and
5%
and al as a function
rc
Jc
Such test r e s u l t s f o r t a i l i n g s sand are shown i n F i g .
a x i a l s t r a i n i n 10 cycles) at fixed values of D

of K c
ratio.
5.25a at D r c
D
rc
= 69.5%
and a I
= 70% and a l = 16.0

Jc
sand at a l =2.0
Jc
=2.0
kgf/cm
kgf/cm
35.5%) are shown i n F i g s .
kgf/cm
(1568
(196 kPa) and i n F i g . 5.26a at
kPa).
Similar r e s u l t s for Ottawa
but d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e densities (51.5% and

5.25b and 5.26b.
Because of the d i f f e r e n t
mechanisms of s t r a i n development, the Influence of s t a t i c shear on the

undrained c y c l i c loading behaviour should be considered separately i n the
186.
0.6
(a) T a i l i n g s
Sand
a3c' = 2.0 k g f / c m
e
=0.80/ 0.002
D
=69.5 0 . 5 %
2
r c
0
0.4
(b) Offawo Sand

O ^ ' =2.0 k g f / c m
e
= 0 6 5 5 0.003
D
5 / . 5 1.0%
2
r c
0.3
- o
S = 5.0%
a
>!?
2.5 %
OJ
\
>
o
Liquefaction
(in
extension)
1.0
F i g . 5.25
N = 10
1.5
2.0
Influence of s t a t i c shear stress on the resistance

to strain development under c y c l i c loading: (a)
d i l a t i v e t a i l i n g s sand; (b) i n i t i a l l y medium dense
Ottawa sand.
187.
Ol
1.0
Fig.
1.5
5.26
L_
2.0
Influence of s t a t i c shear stress on the resistance to

s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading: (a) contractive
t a i l i n g s sand; (b) i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand.
188.
contractive and d i l a t i v e regions.
For t a i l i n g s sand under low confining
r
v
pressure,
the i n i t i a l sample
state was
'
constant for the void r a t i o considered.

of Kc
may
to the l e f t of (al )
._ =
lc crit
Therefore, samples at a l l l e v e l s
r a t i o being d i l a t i v e developed c y c l i c mobility ( F i g . 5.25a).
be seen that the resistance to c y c l i c mobility ( f o r 2.5%
i n 10 stress cycles) increased from 0.238 to 0.515

was
increased from 1.0
to 2.0.
ance to c y c l i c m o b i l i t y may
It
axial strain
when the Kc
ratio
Similar magnitude of increase i n r e s i s t -
be noted f o r s t r a i n l e v e l of 5%.
As
discussed i n Section 5^2.1, rapid accumulation of s t r a i n due to c y c l i c

mobility i s possible only when transient state of zero e f f e c t i v e stress
occurs during c y c l i c loading.
Therefore, the higher the s t a t i c shear,
the higher i s the c y c l i c stress amplitude required to cause t h i s

condition to occur and hence a consequent Increase In resistance to
cyclic mobility.
For Ottawa sand with D
= 51.5%, a trend s i m i l a r to that for t a i l -
rc
ings sand under low confining pressure may
be noted ( F i g .
5.25b).
However, unlike the t a i l i n g s sand, which developed c y c l i c mobility

regardless of the
ratio.
low K c
r a t i o , Ottawa sand developed l i q u e f a c t i o n at low
This has also been discussed e a r l i e r i n Section 5.2.3.
For
this
r a t i o , although the i n i t i a l sample state i s i n d i l a t i v e region
In the compression deformation mode, i t i s contractive i n the
extension
deformation mode. Therefore, l i q u e f a c t i o n would be induced i n extension

mode, i f the applied c y c l i c shear stress exceeds the steady state shear
strength i n extension.
As the s t a t i c shear stress i n compression
increases, the c y c l i c stress amplitude required to cause l i q u e f a c t i o n i n

extension mode also increases.
Thus the I n i t i a l increase i n resistance
to c y c l i c s t r a i n developments at low K c
r a t i o i n F i g . 5.25b i s due to a
189.
d i f f e r e n t s t r a i n development mechanisms.
compression below which l i q u e f a c t i o n
found to be around 1.10.
c y c l i c m o b i l i t y , and
could be Induced i n extension
Beyond t h i s K c
hence the
l i m i t i n g value of Y.^ i n
The
was
r a t i o , a l l samples developed
resistance to c y c l i c mobility increased
with increasing s t a t i c shear s t r e s s , which i s s i m i l a r to the behaviour o

t a i l i n g s sand that developed c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
It may
also be noted from the r e s u l t s shown i n F i g . 5.25
that
the
resistance to c y c l i c mobility i s influence by the s t r a i n l e v e l adopted.

This i s more s i g n i f i c a n t i n the region of high s t a t i c shear.
under high s t a t i c shear stress l e v e l may
develop the
Sample
lower l e v e l of
prescribed s t r a i n i n a s p e c i f i e d number of stress c y c l e , but may

many more cycles to accumulate higher l e v e l of s t r a i n due
take
to the slow
down i n the rate of s t r a i n accumulation i n the case of non-stress

reversal ( F i g s . 5.21
and
5.23).
Therefore, the resistance curves diverg
rapidly i n the region of non-stress

For
reversal.
t a i l i n g s sand under high confining pressure, i . e . , i n i t i a l
stat
H
i s to the right of (al ) ._ = const, l i n e for the D
selected, lique
lc crit
rc
'
f a c t i o n can not be induced at low K c
r a t i o and
be developed, as discussed i n Section 5.1.4.

mobility may
only c y c l i c mobility
The
resistance to c y c l i c
be seen to increase with increasing K c
which i s similar to the behaviour of d i l a t i v e sands.
r a t i o ( F i g . 5.26a),
From the trend of
the curve, this increase i n resistance to c y c l i c m o b i l i t y peaked at

r a t i o of about 1.35.
At
this Kc
shear stresses approaches the

f o r the
Kc
considered.
values > 1.35
and
r a t i o , the sum
can
of s t a t i c and
Kc
cyclic
lower bound of steady state shear strength
Therefore, l i q u e f a c t i o n
s t a r t s to develop for
the resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n decreases dramatic-
a l l y with increasing s t a t i c shear.
190.
For Ottawa sand at low r e l a t i v e density, similar trend as that of
the t a i l i n g s sand under high confining pressure may be noted ( F i g .
5.26b).
Relative values of the steady state shear strength and c y c l i c
shear stress applied were such that the i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated sample

should not develop l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Therefore, the increase i n resistance
with i n i t i a l increase i n K c should be the r e s u l t of c y c l i c mobility

developed.
It was, however, found that this increase i n resistance at
low Kc ratio was due to the occurrence of l i q u e f a c t i o n i n extension

mode and not the development of c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
Increasing the s t a t i c
shear i n compression increases the c y c l i c load amplitude required to

exceed the steady state shear strength i n extension.
This trend
continues u n t i l the s t a t i c shear stress i s high enough to cause liquefaction i n compression mode. This l e v e l of s t a t i c shear was found to be
corresponding
to Kc r a t i o of about 1.15. Beyond this s t a t i c shear
stress l e v e l , l i q u e f a c t i o n always developed In compression mode, and the

resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n decreased with increasing s t a t i c shear stress
level.
From the above r e s u l t s on both sands, i t may be concluded that the
resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n always decreases with increasing s t a t i c shear
stress l e v e l .
diagram.
This may be explained from the 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state
As discussed i n Sections 5.1.1, occurrence of liquefaction i s
due to the e f f e c t i v e stress state of contractive sand reaching the CSR

state and consequent i n i t i a t i o n of s t r a i n softening response leading to
steady state deformation.
Therefore, the resistance to liquefaction, i s
nothing but the c y c l i c stress ratio required to move the sample state to
the CSR state i n a fixed number of stress c y c l e s .
For easy v i s u a l i z a -
t i o n , this may be I l l u s t r a t e d by the e f f e c t i v e stress path plot of 3-D
191
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram at constant e c as shown i n F i g .
Tt may
5.27.
be noted i n this figure that the stress space to be traversed
the l e f t tn order to reach the CSR
to
state i s less i n the case of sand with
higher s t a t i c shear stress (case 2) than the sand with lower s t a t i c shear
stress (case 1) .
Therefore, the c y c l i c stress r a t i o or the number of
stress cycles required to move the sample state from the i n i t i a l state to
the CSR
state i s less for higher Kc
faction i s l e s s .
(Fig.
and hence the resistance to lique-
From the trend of the l i q u e f a c t i o n resistance curves
5.26), i t appears that the resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n would be very
low when a sand sample i s i n i t i a l l y

close to the CSR
state.
consolidated
to an i n i t i a l
state
Slight shear disturbance or even a pore pressure
increase could cause the sand to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n . This would

correspond to the phenomenon of spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n , and w i l l be
discussed
further in Section
5.6.
Comparing the stress states at CSR

i t may
f o r Samples 1 and 2 i n F i g .
5.27,
further be noted that the potential to develop steady state
deformation i n Sample 2 i s much higher than that i n Sample 1.
Much
severe loss of resistance and larger deformation w i l l be developed In

Sample 2, once l i q u e f a c t i o n i s i n i t i a t e d .
s t r a i n development due
This may
to l i q u e f a c t i o n i n F i g .
5.13.
Behaviour of sand a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y consolidated

not within the scope of this i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
also be seen from the
i n extension mode was
Chung (1984) found that
increasing the s t a t i c shear i n extension mode also causes decrease i n

resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n for Ottawa sand.
The
resistance curve i n F i g .
5.26b can thus be extended in the extension region.
Chung's findings are
consistent with those reported herein and could be explained

framework of steady state concepts.
within
the
192.
1/2
F i g . 5.27
(oy+ oy)
Schematic i l l u s t r a t i o n showing the influence of s t a t i c

shear stress on the resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n under
193.
From che examination of results for both sands i n the contractive
and d i l a t i v e regions, completely different trends i n l i q u e f a c t i o n and
c y c l i c mobility response may be noted.
Increasing the s t a t i c shear
stress to the same l e v e l , e.g., Kc = 2.0, the resistance to c y c l i c

mobility ( f o r 2.5% e ) increased from 0.238 to 0.515 f o r t a i l i n g s sand
a
and from 0.167 to 0.308 f o r Ottawa sand ( F i g . 5.25a,b), whereas the
resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n decreased from 0.176 to 0.074 for t a i l i n g s
sand and from 0.114 to 0.056 f o r Ottawa sand ( F i g . 5.26a,b).
Therefore,
i t may be concluded that the resistance to s t r a i n development could

decrease or increase depending on whether l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility
i s involved.
It Is often believed (Lee and Seed, 1967 , 1970) that s o i l
element i n slope i s more resistant to c y c l i c s t r a i n development than that

under the l e v e l ground and suggestion i s made that c r i t i c a l i n i t i a l state
would correspond to i s o t r o p i c consolidation, which represent an I n i t i a l l y
zero s t a t i c shear.
This w i l l be true for s o i l elements which develop
c y c l i c mobility o n l y .
On the contrary, according to Castro and Poulos
(1977) and Casagrande (1975), the resistance to s t r a i n development for

s o i l element i n the slope i s always less than that under the l e v e l ground
and the suggestion
i s made that tests be performed on a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y
consolidated samples simulating appropriate i n i t i a l s t a t i c shear.
Again,
this w i l l be true for s o i l elements which develop l i q u e f a c t i o n only.

Therefore, a clear understanding of the mechanism responsible f o r s t r a i n
development i s necessary for a r a t i o n a l assessment of influence of
c e r t a i n factors on the undrained c y c l i c loading response of sand.
It i s also i n t e r e s t i n g to note that the Influences of s t a t i c shear
stress on the undrained monotonic and c y c l i c loading behaviour are
similar.
Increasing the s t a t i c shear stress l e v e l for fixed e
and a'
194.
can transform a sand from s t r a i n hardening response to l i q u e f a c t i o n under
monotonic loading conditions, and from c y c l i c mobility to l i q u e f a c t i o n
under c y c l i c loading conditions.
The resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n (stress
increment u n t i l peak i n monotonic loading) was found to decrease with

Increasing s t a t i c shear stress l e v e l under both loading conditions.
However, this s i m i l a r i t y can not be applied to monotonic s t r a i n hardening
response and c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
Under monotonic loading conditions, the
shear stress increment (Aa,/2al ) required to reach the PT state i s of

d
Jc
a
concern, whereas the c y c l i c stress ( ^C y^2c ^
re
iuired
to accumulate a
specified amount of s t r a i n i s of i n t e r e s t under c y c l i c loading conditions.
The former constitutes a strength c r i t e r i o n , while the l a t t e r i s
a deformation c r i t e r i o n .
The shear stress increment required to reach
the PT l i n e under monotonic loading was found to decrease with increasing

s t a t i c shear which i s the reverse of the resistance to c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
5.5
Prediction of Undrained C y c l i c Loading Behaviour
It was shown i n Section 4.4.2 that 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state

diagram gives a complete d e s c r i p t i o n of undrained behaviour under monotonic loading conditions, given the i n i t i a l state (e , a' , K ) of the
c
Jc
c
sand.
Under c y c l i c loading conditions, i t has further been shown i n
Sections 5.1 and 5.2 that the undrained behaviour depends i n addition on
the amplitude of c y c l i c loads a p p l i e d .
The necessary c r i t e r i a for l i q u e -
f a c t i o n to occur under c y c l i c loading conditions are 1) the sand must

have the p o t e n t i a l to develop steady state deformation, i . e . , the steady
state can be achieved, and 2) the c y c l i c load amplitude applied must be
large enough to cause the maximum shear stress ( s t a t i c + c y c l i c )
greater
195.
than i t s steady state shear strength and 3) s u f f i c i e n t number of load

cycles are applied to move e f f e c t i v e stress state of sand to the
line.
CSR
Otherwise, only c y c l i c mobility or very small deformation can be
developed.
From the consolidation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sand and the
mentioned above, a flow chart may
criteria
be drawn to examine whether l i q u e f a c -
t i o n can be developed i n a sand with a given i n i t i a l state and

loads.
This i s shown i n F i g .
applied
5.28.
In order to examine the f i r s t c r i t e r i o n , the i n i t i a l state of the

sand Is located l n the 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram.
This i n i t i a l
state of the sand i s obtained d i r e c t l y from the known void r a t i o e
and
the stress conditions i n the ground or from the known I n i t i a l void r a t i o
ej_ and the consolidation stress c o n d i t i o n s .
For sand elements with
i n i t i a l states below the c r i t i c a l consolidation stress (a! ) . ^ surface

lc crit
( F i g . 4.31), i . e . , steady state can not he achieved, only c y c l i c mobility
(together with s l i g h t s t r a i n softening for states s l i g h t l y below
(al
) . surface) can be induced, regardless of the c y c l i c

lc crit
applied.
loads
For sand elements with i n i t i a l state on or above the
( a l c ) c r ^ t s u r f a c e , i . e . , steady state can be achieved, p o t e n t i a l to

develop l i q u e f a c t i o n always e x i s t s .
a
For Ottawa sand with rounded p a r t i c l e s , the ( ] ^ c r i t *
difficult
At loose e., (al ) .^ i s extremely

small (see Figure 4.13).
J
1'
lc crit
In fact the s t r a i n softening and d i l a t i v e branch o f f does not appear even
to obtain.
at
values as small as 0.13
kgf/cm
e., (al ) . i s exceptionally l a r g e .

I'
lc crit
J
O
(12.7
kPa).
And
at s l i g h t l y denser
However, the i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e
density alone gives a good p r e d i c t i o n as to the p o t e n t i a l to develop

liquefaction.
196.
3-D Effective Stress

State Diagram
Steady State Exist?
>
S ?
us
Cyclic Mobility
Yes
Liquefaction
F i g . 5.28
Flow chart for assessing the p o t e n t i a l of l i q u e f a c t i o n

or c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
197.
Once the p o t e n t i a l to develop l i q u e f a c t i o n i s determined and i s
found to e x i s t , the second c r i t e r i o n has to be examined.
Liquefaction i
p o s s i b l e , regardless of the i n t e n s i t y of the c y c l i c loads applied, i f th

i n i t i a l s t a t i c shear stress i s greater than the steady state shear
strength of the s o i l element, which i s a unique function of i t s e c .
This condition should always be avoided because combinations of pore
pressure generated from c y c l i c loading and possible r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of
pore pressure i n the surrounding s o i l elements during and a f t e r c y c l i c
loading may cause l i q u e f a c t i o n and associated large deformations.
However, i f the s t a t i c shear stress i s less than the steady state shear
strength, l i q u e f a c t i o n i s possible only when the maximum shear stress
( s t a t i c + c y c l i c ) i s greater than the steady state shear strength.
Otherwise, only c y c l i c mobility can be developed.
It may be pointed out that very l i m i t e d amount of monotonic loading
tests have to be c a r r i e d out i n order to e s t a b l i s h the 3-D e f f e c t i v e
stress state diagram of sand.
The key aspects of the undrained c y c l i c
loading behaviour of a l l s o i l elements i n the earth structure can then b

predicted from the 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram and c y c l i c load
applied, i . e . , whether l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility w i l l develop, thu
enabling a f i r s t hand i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the mechanism responsible f o r
s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading conditions.
5.6
Phenomenon of Spontaneous L i q u e f a c t i o n
As discussed i n the l a s t two chapters, l i q u e f a c t i o n i s the r e s u l t o

occurrence of s t r a i n softening response leading to steady state deformat i o n when the e f f e c t i v e stress state of sands i s brought to the CRS
state.
This s t r a i n softening response can occur i f p o t e n t i a l for l i q u e -
198.
faction exists and when the total shear stress acting on the s o i l element
is greater than i t s steady state shear strength.
occur on account of some shear disturbance
The change i n state can
applied to the s o i l element,
which can be either s t a t i c or c y c l i c i n nature.
If this disturbance i s
very small, the phenomenon Is called spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n .

The
shear disturbance
under s t a t i c conditions can be caused by
increases In shear stress due to erosion of toe of slope or surcharge

applied on slope.
It was shown by Eq. 4.6 i n Section 4.4.2 that for
t a i l i n g s sand the shear stress increment to reach the CSR state under
monotonic loading conditions decreases as the s t a t i c shear stress acting
on the sand increases.
When the i n i t i a l sample state i s close to the CSR
state, the shear stress increment required to I n i t i a t e l i q u e f a c t i o n i s

very small.
This may also be seen from the r e l a t i o n s h i p of pore pressure
generated u n t i l the CSR state due to monotonic loading versus K c r a t i o

in F i g s . 4.24 and 4.28 for both sands.
For sand consolidated
to even
higher Kc r a t i o , I.e., i n the region of contractive deformation ( F i g .

4.17), a s l i g h t increase i n shear stress can trigger s t r a i n softening
response leading to steady state deformation.
Such a phenomenon was
i l l u s t r a t e d by the example i n F i g . 4.19. By an Increase In shear stress

less than 8% of the s t a t i c shear s t r e s s , catastrophic f a i l u r e was
Induced.
From the trend of resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n versus K c r a t i o
curves shown i n F i g . 5.26, i t appears that the resistance to l i q u e f a c t i o n
i s very small when the sand i s consolidated
state.
to a state close to the CSR
For Ottawa sand consolidated to K c r a t i o of 2.0, the resistance
to l i q u e f a c t i o n i s about 0.056.
The shear stress disturbance
magnitude corresponds to earthquake with a
of this
of 0.05g according
to the
199.
s i m p l i f i e d procedure proposed by Seed and I d r i s s (1971).
Such a small
change i n shear stress required to cause i n s t a b i l i t y i s indeed a case of

spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n .
For K c
r a t i o higher than 2.0, the shear
disturbance required to cause l i q u e f a c t i o n i s even lower.
For t a i l i n g s
sand, however, due to r e l a t i v e l y high confining pressure Involved, the

c y c l i c stress r a t i o under this confining pressure corresponds to a r e l a t i v e l y strong earthquake even though the c y c l i c stress r a t i o Is very low.
Besides the shear stress disturbance discussed above, the change In
sample state can also occur due to r i s e i n pore pressure.
This r i s e of
pore pressure could be the result of f l u c t u a t i o n of ground water l e v e l or

r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of excess pore pressure during or a f t e r earthquake
from the surrounding s o i l elements.
shaking
To i l l u s t r a t e this mechanism of
i n i t i a t i o n of l i q u e f a c t i o n , s p e c i a l tests were performed on both sands.

An i n i t i a l l y loose sample was consolidated a n i s o t r o p i c a l l y to K c
of 2.0, and a i
=2.0
kgf/cm
(980 kPa) f o r t a i l i n g s sand.
ratio
(196 kPa) f o r Ottawa sand and 10.0 kgf/cm

Back pressure was
then increased slowly
while maintaining the s t a t i c shear stress constant.
By doing so the
e f f e c t i v e stress state of sand was moved h o r i z o n t a l l y toward the CSR

line.
After the e f f e c t i v e stress state reached the state corresponding
to the CSR s t a t e , the drainage l i n e was closed.

pore pressure was
observed which was
A s l i g h t Increase i n
followed by a catastrophic f a i l u r e
i n a manner s i m i l a r to that observed during l i q u e f a c t i o n .

results for both sands are shown i n F i g s . 5.29
and
Typical
5.30.
Thus spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n w i l l be triggered as soon as the

sample state reaches the CSR
state under undrained conditions due to a
very small disturbance at which s t r a i n softening response leading to

steady state deformation i s i n i t i a t e d .
This phenomenon can, however,
200.
F i g . 5.29
Spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n induced by pore pressure increase in

i n i t i a l l y loose Ottawa sand.
201 .
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
to/
1/2 (oy+oy)
F i g . 5.30
10.0
12.0
(kgf/cm )
2
Spontaneous liquefaction induced by pore pressure increase in

contractive t a i l i n g s sand.
202.
occur only i f the sand i s subjected to s t a t i c shear stress greater than

i t s steady state shear strength.
For t a i l i n g s sand, this s i t u a t i o n can
e x i s t only when an i n i t i a l l y loose sample i s consolidated to high confining pressure and high K c r a t i o .
This i s shown i n F i g .
5.31.
It may
be seen that for i n i t i a l l y loose sample with K c = 2.0 the confining

pressure o l ^ has to be greater than 7.0 kgf/cm
(686 kPa) i n order to
have s t a t i c shear stress greater than i t s steady state shear strength.

For
sand with K c = 1.5, the s t a t i c shear stress i s always less than i t s
steady state shear strength for the range of consolidation stress

considered.
Therefore, under this K c (= 1.5) r a t i o , sand i s always
safe against such kind of f a i l u r e .
Due to very high confining pressure
required to have the condition discussed above to e x i s t f o r K c = 2.0, a

very large pore pressure Increase Is required In order to bring about
such a f a i l u r e .
In the example shown i n F i g . 5.30, an increase i n pore
pressure by about 3.0 kgf/cm
(294 kPa), which corresponds to a r i s e of
30 m i n water head, i s necessary to t r i g g e r spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n .

Therefore, i t appears there i s rare p o s s i b i l i t y f o r such f a i l u r e to be
induced i n t a i l i n g s sand unless the sand i s consolidated to K c
ratio
close to or greater than the CSR.

Rounded Ottawa sand, however, behaves quite d i f f e r e n t l y compared to
the angular t a i l i n g s sand.
For i n i t i a l l y loose sample under K c
ratio
of 1.5 and 2.0, as shown i n F i g . 5.32, the s t a t i c shear stress i s higher

than i t s steady state shear strength under low confining pressure. The
r a t i o of s t a t i c shear stress to the steady state shear strength decreases
with increasing confining pressure. The l e v e l of confining pressure
below which the s t a t i c shear stress i s greater than i t s steady state
shear strength depends on the K c r a t i o of the sand.
For i n i t i a l l y
0.95Consolidation Curve
(ej =1.0}
Tailings Sand
Static Shear Sfress

(Kc= 1.5, ej =100)
Steady
State Shear
Strength
Static Shear Stress

(Kc = 2 0, e, = 1.00,
0.70- 100
0 1
0.2
0.5
Static
Fig. 5.31
Shear
1.0
Stress
2.0
5.0
10 0
20.0
T or Steady Stare Shear Strength S

s
U 3
50.0
100.0
(Kgf/cm )
Comparison of r e l a t i v e v a l u e s of s t a t i c shear s t r e s s and steady s t a t e shear

f o r t a i l i n g s sand at two K
ratios.
strength
0.80Ottawa
10
Sand
20
0.75
Consolidation C u r v e
(e; = 0.725)
30
0.70-
40
o
<D
Static
Shear
Stress
( K c = l.5, ej = 0.725)
o
Steady
0.65
"a
Stale Shear
50
Strength
Stotic Shear Stress

(K c =2.0, e, - 0.725)
60
0.60
70
>
80
0.55
90
0.50
0.1
100
0.2
0.5
Static
F i g . 5.32
Shear
1.0
Stress
2.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
or Steady State Shear Strength
50.0
U 3
100.0
(kgf/cm )
Comparison of r e l a t i v e v a l u e s of s t a t i c shear s t r e s s and steady s t a t e shear

f o r Ottawa sand a t two K
ratios.
c
strength
o
205.
loose sand, i t i s about 5.0 and 20.0 kgf/cm
r a t i o of 1.5 and 2.0
respectively.
(490 and 1960 kPa) f o r K c
Therefore, sand with rounded
p a r t i c l e s i s more susceptable to spontaneous l i q u e f a c t i o n .
Relatively
small pore pressure increase has to occur i n order to reach the CSR
and consequently trigger l i q u e f a c t i o n .
state
206.
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS
Undrained monotonic and c y c l i c loading behaviour of a saturated

angular and a rounded sand has been studied under t r i a x i a l conditions
over a confining pressure ranging up to 25.0 kgf/cm
i s o t r o p i c and anisotropic consolidation h i s t o r i e s .
(2450 kPa) and both

The fange of beha-
viour under monotonic loading spanned between s t r a i n hardening at one end

to various degrees of s t r a i n softening (termed l i q u e f a c t i o n or l i m i t e d
liquefaction) at the other.
S i m i l a r l y , the range of behaviour respons-
i b l e for development of s t r a i n under c y c l i c loading consisted of liquefaction or c y c l i c mobility or a combination of both.
C y c l i c mobility
refers to the development of s t r a i n during c y c l i c loading which i s not

due to the occurrence of s t r a i n softening response.
These d e f i n i t i o n s of
l i q u e f a c t i o n and c y c l i c mobility now enjoy a general acceptance among

researchers.
Based on test results on angular sand, the following
conclusions may be drawn.

1)
Under monotonic loading, the s t r a i n softening response i s i n i t i -
ated at a c r i t i c a l value of e f f e c t i v e . s t r e s s r a t i o (CSR), regardless of

the r e l a t i v e density and consolidation stress conditions of the sand.
2)
The termination of s t r a i n softening response, which i s charac-
terized by the s t a r t of d i l a t i o n (PT S t a t e ) , also occurs at a unique

value of e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o , regardless of the r e l a t i v e density and
consolidation stress conditions of the sand.
When s t r a i n hardening
response develops, the start of d i l a t i o n , characterized by a decrease i n

pore pressure a f t e r a p o s i t i v e maximum value, also occurs at the same
e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o as the PT state of s t r a i n softening response.
207.
3)
Under extension loading, the CSR i s less than that i n compres-
s i o n , but the e f f e c t i v e stress ratios at PT state i n compression and

extension are the same.
4)
Under monotonic loading, the stress conditions at PT state f o r
s t r a i n hardening response form a series of l i n e s i n void r a t i o - e f f e c t i v e

confining pressure p l o t .
These l i n e s are function of i n i t i a l void r a t i o
only, regardless of the consolidation stress conditions.
With
Increasing
consolidation s t r e s s e s , these l i n e s f o r various i n i t i a l void r a t i o merge

into a unique steady state l i n e representing s t r a i n softening response,
characterized as l i m i t e d or true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
This implies that the
concept of unique steady state l i n e can be used even when the sand
develops s t r a i n softening response with s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a i n p o t e n t i a l
(greater than about 2% f o r the sand tested) and i s not necessarily
r e s t r i c t e d to unlimited s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of true l i q u e f a c t i o n .
5)
From the consolidation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and stress conditions at
PT s t a t e , a r e l a t i o n s h i p between void r a t i o
e^
and c r i t i c a l
consolida-
tion stress (al ) . emerges.

Sand at a void r a t i o e under consolidaa
lc c r i t
c
tion stress al > (al ) . f o r e w i l l develop l i q u e f a c t i o n , regardless
lc
lc crit
c
of the i n d i v i d u a l magnitudes of K and
^ ^ lc^crit'
s t r a i n hardening or s l i g h t s t r a i n softening response w i l l develop.

( l )
a
C T
^
ec -
l i n e thus provides a quantitative d i v i s i o n of i n i t i a l states
i n t o regions of l i q u e f a c t i o n and s t r a i n hardening response on undrained

loading.
6)
A 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram f o r the sand characterizes
comprehensively the anticipated monotonic loading response of sand from

the knowledge of i t s end of consolidation state e , a' and K .
c
3c
c
a
This
state diagram i n e c > l/2(cj+a^), l/2(aj-a^) space features a ( [ c ) c r t
208.
surface which separates end of consolidation states of sand into regions
of l i q u e f a c t i o n and s t r a i n hardening response or s l i g h t s t r a i n softening
response.
for
A knowledge of the complete i n i t i a l state of sand i s necessary
assessment of the anticipated monotonic loading response.
This
response can not be predicted by s p e c i f y i n g r e l a t i v e density alone or

even the combination of r e l a t i v e density and confining pressure.
The 3-D
e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram also o f f e r s a r a t i o n a l explanation as to

the influence of r e l a t i v e density, confining pressure and s t a t i c shear
stress on the monotonic loading behaviour.
7)
Under c y c l i c loading, the s t r a i n development could be due to
l i q u e f a c t i o n or c y c l i c mobility or the combination of both.
If l i q u e f a c -
tion develops, the CSR, e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o at PT state and steady

state l i n e are the same as those observed under monotonic loading. If
c y c l i c mobility develops, the e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o at PT state i s also
the same as that observed under monotonic loading.
Therefore, the stress
conditions which characterize the key features of s t r a i n softening and

s t r a i n hardening response are not influenced by the type of load (monotonic or c y c l i c ) applied, and thus the 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram
provides a l i n k between monotonic and c y c l i c loading behaviour.
8)
The 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram developed for monotonic
loading can be used to develop the c r i t e r i a f o r the occurrence of liquef a c t i o n and c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .

f a c t i o n are:
(a! ) .
lc c r i t
The c r i t e r i a f o r the occurrence of l i q u e -
( 1 ) the i n i t i a l sand state must l i e on or above the
surface, (2) the maximum shear stress ( s t a t i c + c y c l i c ) i s

'
greater than the steady state shear strength, and ( 3 ) s u f f i c i e n t number

of load cycles are applied to move the e f f e c t i v e stress state of sand to
the CSR l i n e .
Otherwise, only cycTic moblity or very small deformation
209.
can be developed.
9)
The
influences of r e l a t i v e density and confining pressure on
the
c y c l i c loading behaviour are s i m i l a r to those on the monotonic loading

behaviour.
However, the influence of s t a t i c shear stress on c y c l i c load-
ing behavior could be quite d i f f e r e n t depending on whether l i q u e f a c t i o n

or c y c l i c mobility i s developed.
If the sand develops l i q u e f a c t i o n , an
increase i n s t a t i c shear stress always r e s u l t s i n a decrease i n r e s i s t ance to l i q u e f a c t i o n . On the other hand, i f i t develops c y c l i c m o b i l i t y ,
increasing s t a t i c shear stress always r e s u l t s i n an increase i n r e s i s t ance to c y c l i c m o b i l i t y .
These conclusions
are i n agreement with those
suggested by Castro and Seed i f a proper recognition of the mechanism of

s t r a i n development under c y c l i c loading i s made.
The conclusions
angular sand.
drawn above are based on the r e s u l t s of tests on
These conclusions
are also true for rounded sand.
However, for the range of consolidation stress considered herein

range of
al
Jc
(the
considered i s larger than what would be encountered In
most p r a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s ) , the i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e density alone provides a

good single parameter for characterizing this i n i t i a l state of rounded
sand.
For i n i t i a l l y loose s t a t e s , the sand always develops l i q u e f a c t i o n ,
regardless of the i n i t i a l stress conditions.
The response, however,
changes to s t r a i n hardening or s l i g h t l y s t r a i n softening i f i n i t i a l r e l a tive density exceeds a certain minimum value (about 40%
tested).
for the sand
It appears that the l i q u e f a c t i o n response i n rounded sand i s
related to an i n i t i a l loose s t r u c t u r e , which i s not altered even a f t e r

the application of large confining pressure.
210.
REFERENCES
Bishop, A.V., Webb, D. and Skinner, A.E. (1965). " T r i a x i a l Tests on

S o i l s at Elevated C e l l Pressure," Proc. 6th ICSMFE, Montreal, V o l . 1, pp.
170-174.
Bjerrum, L., Kringstad, S. and Kummeneje, 0. (1961). "The Shear Strength
of Fine Sand," Proc. 5th ICSMFE, P a r i s , V o l . 1, pp. 29-37.
Casagrande, A. (1936). "Characteristics of Cohesionless Soils Affecting
the S t a b i l i t y of Slopes and Earth F i l l s , " J o u r , of the Boston Society of
C i v i l Engineers, Jan. 1936.
Casagrande, A. (1975). "Liquefaction and C y c l i c Deformation of Sands, A
C r i t i c a l Review," Proc. 5th Pan American Conf. on S o i l Mech. and Found.
Engng., Buenos A i r e s , V o l . 5, pp. 79-133.
Castro, G. (1969). "Liquefaction of Sands," Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard S o i l
Mech. Series, No. 81, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y .
Castro, G. (1975). "Liquefaction and C y c l i c Mobility of Saturated
Sands," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. D i v . , ASCE, V o l . 101, No. GT6, Proc.
Paper 11388, pp. 551-569.
Castro, G. and Poulos, S.J. (1977). "Factors Affecting Liquefaction and
C y c l i c Mobility," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE, V o l . 103, No.
GT6, Proc. Paper 12994, pp. 501-516.
Castro, G., Poulos, S.J., France, J.W. and Enos, J . L . (1982).
"Liquefaction Induced by Cyclic Loading," Report Submitted to National
Science Foundation, March, 1982.
Chern, J.C. (1981). "Effect of S t a t i c Shear on Resistance to
Liquefaction," M.A.Sc. Thesis, The University of B r i t i s h Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada.
DeAlba, P., Seed, H.B. and Chan, C K . (1976). "Sand Liquefaction i n
Large-Scale Simple Shear Tests," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE,
V o l . 102, No. GT9, Proc. Paper 12403, pp. 909-927.
Dobry, R. and Alvarez, L . (1967). "Seismic Failures of Chilean T a i l i n g s
Dams," Jour, of the S o i l Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, V o l . 93, No. SM6,
Proc. Paper 5582, pp. 237-260.
Finn, W.D.L. (1981). "Liquefaction P o t e n t i a l : Developments Since 1976,"
I n t . Conf. on Recent Advances In Geot. E a r t h . Engng. and S o i l Dynamics,
St. Louis, M0, pp. 655-681.
Finn, W.D.L. and Byrne, P.M. (1976). "Liquefaction Potential of Mine
Tailings Dams," Proc. 12th I n t . Conf. on Large Dams, Mexico C i t y , V o l . 1,
pp. 153-177.
211 .
Finn, W.D.L., Pickering, D.J. and Bransby, P.L. (1971). "Sand
Liquefaction i n T r i a x i a l and Simple Shear Tests," Jour, of the Soil Mech.
and Found. Div., ASCE, V o l . 97, No. SM4, Proc. Paper 2039, pp. 639-659.
Finn, W.D.L. and Vaid, Y.P. (1977). "Liquefaction Potential from Drained
Constant Volume Cyclic Simple Shear Tests," Proc. 6th World Conf. on
Earth. Engng., New Delhi, Session 6, pp. 7-12.
Green, G.E. (1969). "Strength and Compressibility of Granular Materials
Under Generalized Strain Conditions," Ph.D. Thesis, University of London,
Imperial College of Science and Technology.
Gueze, E . (1948). " C r i t i c a l Density of Some Dutch Sands," P r o c , 2nd
ICSMFE, Rotterdam, V o l . 3, pp. 125-130.
Horn, H.M. and Deere, D.U. (1962). " F r i c t i o n a l Characteristics of
Minerals," Geotechnique, V o l . 12, No. 4, pp. 319-335.
Ishihara, K., Tatsuoka, F. and Yasuda, S. (1975). "Undrained Deformation
and Liquefaction of Sand Under Cyclic Stresses," S o i l s and Foundations,
V o l . 15, No. 1, pp. 29-44.
Klohn, E.J., Maartman, C.H., Lo, R.C.Y. and Finn, W.D.L. (1978).
"Simplified Seismic Analysis for T a i l i n g s Dams," P r o c , ASCE Specialty
Conf. on Earth. Engng. and S o i l Dynamics, Pasadena, CA., pp. 540-556.
Koppejan, A.W., Wamelen, B.M. and Weinberg, L . J . (1948). "Coastal Flow
Slides i n the Dutch Province of Zeeland," P r o c , 2nd ICSMFE, Rotterdam,
V o l . 5, pp. 89-96.
Lee, I.K. (1966). "Stress-Dilatancy Performance of Feldspar," Jour, of
the S o i l Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, V o l . 92, No. SM2, Proc. Paper 4734,
pp. 79-108.
Lee, K.L. (1978). "End Restraint E f f e c t s on Undrained Static T r i a x i a l
Strength of Sand," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE, V o l . 104, No.
GT6, Proc. Paper 13838, pp. 687-704.
1
Lee, K.L. and Seed, H.B. (1967 ). " C y c l i c Stress Conditions Causing
Liquefaction of Sand," Jour, of the S o i l Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE,
V o l . 93, No. SMI, Proc. Paper 5058, pp. 47-70.
2
Lee, K.L. and Seed, H.B. (1967 ). "Dynamic Strength of A n i s o t r o p i c a l l y

Consolidated Sand," Jour, of the S o i l Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, V o l .
93, No. SM5, Proc. Paper 5451, pp. 169-190.
Lee, K.L. and Seed, H.B. (1970). ' "Undrained Strength of A n i s o t r o p i c a l l y
Consolidated Sand," Jour, of the S o i l Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, V o l .
96, No. SM2, Proc. Paper 7136, pp. 411-428.
Lee, K.L. and Vernese, F . J . (1978). "End Restraint Effects on Cyclic
T r i a x i a l Strength of Sand," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE, V o l .
104, No. GT6, P r o c Paper 13839, pp. 705-719.
212.
Lindenberg, J . and Koning, H.L. (1981). " C r i t i c a l Density of Sand,"
Geotechnique, V o l . 31, No. 2, pp. 231-245.
Luong, M.P. (1980). "Stress-Strain Aspects of Cohesionless Soils Under
C y c l i c and Transient Loading," I n t . Symp., Swansea, U.K.
Poulos, S.J. (1971). "The Stress-Strain Curves of S o i l s , " Geotechnical
Engineers Inc., Winchester, Mass., pp. 1-80.
Poulos, S.J. (1981). "The Steady State of Deformation," Jour, of the
Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE, V o l . 107, No. GT5, Proc. Paper 16241, pp. 553562.
Rowe, P.W. and Barden, L . (1964). "Importance of Free Ends i n T r i a x i a l
Testing," Jour, of the S o i l Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, V o l . 90, No.
SMI, Proc. Paper 3753, pp. 1-27.
Sangrey, D.A. Castro, G., Poulos, S.J. and France, J.W. (1978). "Cyclic
Loadings of Sands, S i l t and Clays," P r o c , ASCE Specialty Conf. on
Earthquake Engng. and S o i l Dynamics, Pasadena, CA., V o l . 2, pp. 836-851.
Seed, H.B. (1979). " S o i l Liquefaction and Cyclic Mobility Evaluation for
Level Ground During Earthquakes," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE,
V o l . 105, No. GT2, Proc. Paper 14380, pp. 201-255.
Seed, H.B. (1981). "Earthquake-Resistant Design of Earth Dams," I n t .
Conf. on Recent Advances i n Geot. Earthquake Engng. and S o i l Dynamics,
St. Louis, MO, V o l . 3, pp. 1157-1173.
Seed, H.B. and I d r i s s , I.M-. (1971). "Simplified Procedure for Evaluating
S o i l Liquefaction Potential," Jour, of the S o i l Mech. and Found. Div.,
ASCE, V o l . 97, No. SM9, Proc. Paper 8371, pp. 1249-1273.
Seed, H.B. and Lee, K.L. (1966). "Liquefaction of Saturated Sands During
C y c l i c Loading," Jour, of the Sol Mech. and Found Div., ASCE, Vol 92, No.
SM6, P r o c Paper 4972, pp. 105-134.
Seed, H.B. and Lee, K.L. (1969). "Pore Water Pressure i n Earth Slopes
Under Seismic Loading Conditions," Proc. 4th World Conf. on Earth.
Engng., Santiago, V o l . 3, A-5, pp. 1-11.
Seed, H.B., Lee, K.L., I d r i s s , I.M. and Makdisi, F . l . (1975). "The
Slides i n the San Fernando Dams During the Earthquake of February 9,
1971," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE, V o l . 101, No. GT7, Proc.
Paper 11449, pp. 651-688.
Seed, H.B., Pyke, R. and Martin, G.R. (1975). "Analysis of the Effect of
M u l t i - D i r e c t i o n a l Shaking on the Liquefaction C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Sands,"
Report No. EERC 75-41, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University
of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, C a l i f o r n i a .
1
Vaid, Y.P. and Chern, J.C. (1983 ). "Effect of S t a t i c Shear on Resistance to Liquefaction," Soils and Foundations, V o l . 23, No. 1, pp.
47-60.
213.
2
Vaid, Y.P. and Chern, J.C. (1983 ). "Mechanism of Deformation During

Cyclic Undrained Loading of Saturated Sands," I n t . Jour, of S o i l Dynamics
and Earthquake Engng., V o l . 2, No. 3, pp. 171-177.
Vaid, Y.P., Chern, J.C. and Tumi, H. (1983). "Effect of Confining
Pressure and P a r t i c l e Angularity on Resistance to Liquefaction," Proc.
4th Canadian Conf. on Earthquake Engng., Vancouver, pp. 341-351.
Vaid, Y.P. and Finn, W.D.L. (1979). "Effect of Static Shear on
Liquefaction Potential," Jour, of the Geot. Engng. Div., ASCE, V o l . 105,
GT10, Proc. Paper 14909, pp. 1233-1246.
Yoshimi, Y. and Oh-Oka, H. (1975). "Influence of Degree of Shear Stress
Reversal on the Liquefaction Potential of Saturated Sand," S o i l s and
Foundations, V o l . 15, No. 3, pp. 27-40.

PHD B. Columbia 1985 Undr Respons of Sat Sands - Liquef and Cyclic Mobility Chern - 1985

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

PHD B. Columbia 1985 Undr Respons of Sat Sands - Liquef and Cyclic Mobility Chern - 1985

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

UNDRAINED RESPONSE OF SATURATED SANDS

WITH EMPHASIS ON LIQUEFACTION AND CYCLIC MOBILITY

B.S., National Taiwan University, 1968

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

We accept this thesis as conforming

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

In presenting t h i s thesis i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of the

agree that permission for extensive copying of t h i s thesis

be granted by the head of

department or by h i s or her representatives.

understood that copying or publication of t h i s thesis

The University of B r i t i s h Columbia

An experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the undrained monotonic and c y c l i c

These studies are aimed at obtaining a

u n i f i e d approach to the undrained behaviour of sand spanning from s t r a i n

response and l i n k i n g the c y c l i c loading behaviour to the monotonic

It i s also aimed at i n v e s t i g a t i n g the differences In

undrained loading behaviour of sand with d i f f e r e n t p a r t i c l e a n g u l a r i t y .

s t a t e (PT), regardless of the r e l a t i v e density and consolidation stress

For s t r a i n hardening response, the s t a r t of d i l a t i o n also

occurs at the same e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s r a t i o of PT f o r s t r a i n softening

It i s shown that the unique steady s t a t e l i n e concept f o r

s t r a i n hardening response, however, form a s e r i e s of l i n e s , which are

e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s state behavioural model i s developed, which

enables p r e d i c t i o n of the anticipated undrained loading behaviour ( s t r a i n

It Is shown that a complete s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of i n i t i a l state of

sand, i . e . , void r a t i o , confining pressure and s t a t i c shear, i s required

Under c y c l i c loading, i f l i q u e f a c t i o n develops, the CSR, e f f e c t i v e

e f f e c t i v e stress r a t i o at PT state i s also the same as that observed

Thus, the 3-D e f f e c t i v e stress state diagram

provides a l i n k between monotonic and c y c l i c loading behaviour, and i s

The influences of void r a t i o and confining pressure on

the c y c l i c loading behaviour are s i m i l a r to those f o r the monotonic loading behaviour.

However, the influence of s t a t i c shear on c y c l i c loading

behaviour can be completely d i f f e r e n t depending on whether l i q u e f a c t i o n

However, for the range of consolidation stresses of

GENERAL ASPECTS OF UNDRAINED BEHAVIOUR OF SAND

3.1. Test Apparatus

3.1.2. Loading System

3.2. Testing Procedures

3.2.1. Sample Preparation and Saturation

3.2.2. Methods of Loading

3.3. Testing Program

3.4. Material Tested

UNDRAINED MONOTONIC LOADING BEHAVIOUR

4.1. Typical Undrained Monotonic Loading Behaviour

4.2. S t r a i n Softening and S t r a i n Hardening Responses

4.2.1. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Undrained Responses

4.2.2. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S t r a i n Softening and

4.3.1. Peak Strength for States which Developed

4.3.2. Steady State Strength

4.3.3. Phase Transformation Strength f o r D i l a t i v e

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont'd)

4.5. Role of Void Ratio, Confining Pressure and

4.5.1. Void Ratio or Relative Density

4.5.2. Confining Pressure

4.5.3. S t a t i c Shear Stress or Consolidation

UNDRAINED CYCLIC LOADING BEHAVIOUR

5.1. Liquefaction Induced Under C y c l i c Loading

5.1.1. Liquefaction During C y c l i c Loading

5.1.2. A p p l i c a b i l i t y of Steady State Concept to

5.1.3. C r i t e r i a to Cause Liquefaction Under C y c l i c

5.1.4. Test Results