ASSESSMENT OF WATER BALANCE OF LAKE ZIWAY AND ITS

TEMPORAL VARIATION DUE TO WATER ABSTRACTION

M.sc. Thesis

ABU ERESSO

December 2010

Haramaya University
i

ASSESSMENT OF WATER BALANCE OF LAKE ZIWAY AND ITS TEMPORAL

VARIATION DUE TO WATER ABSTRACTION

A Thesis Submitted to School of Graduate Studies Through School of Natural

Resource and Environmental Engineering
Haramaya University

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE

IN IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

BY
Abu Eresso

December 2010
ii

Haramaya University
SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

As member of the Examining board of the Final M.Sc. open defense, we

certify that we have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Abu Eresso
Tufa Entitled Assessment of Water Balance of Lake Ziway and Its Temporal
Variation Due to Water Abstraction and we recommend that it be accepted as
fulfilling the thesis requirement for degree of Master of Science in Irrigation
Engineering.
.
Name of Chairman

Signature

Date

.
Name of Major Advisor

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Date

.
Name of Co-Advisor

Signature

Date

.
Name Internal Examiner

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.
Name of External Examiner

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Final approval and acceptance of the thesis is cont ingent upon the submission
of the final copy of the thesis to the Council of Graduate Studies (CGS)
through the Department Graduate Committee (DGC) of the c andidate's major
department.

I hereby certify that I have read this thesis prepared under my direction and
recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement.
.
Name of Major Adviser

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iii

Date

DEDICATION

I dedicate this thesis manuscript to my late father Eresso Tufa and my mother
Fatuma Salife for nursing me with their affection, love generosity,
enchanting hospitality and dedicated partnership in the success of my life and
this work.

iv

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR

I would like to declare that this thesis is my bonafide work and additional
materials and all sources of data used for this thesis work have been
monotonously acknowledged.

This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an
advanced degree, M.Sc. Degree, in Irrigation Engineering at Haramaya
University and is deposited at the University library to be used as a reference
material. It is not submitted anywhere else or to any other institution for the
award of any academic degree, diploma or certificate, but use of it can be
possible through borrowing from the University library under the rules of the
library.

Brief quotations from the thesis are allowable without a special permission
provided that a precise acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for
permission for an extended quotation or reproduction of this manuscript in
whole or in part may be granted by the head of the main department or the
Dean of the School of Graduate Studies when in his or her judgment the
proposed use of the material is in the interests of a scholarship. In all other
instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

Name: Abu Eresso Tufa

Signature
Place: Haramaya University
Date of submission..

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The author, Mr. Abu Eresso, was born on 15 April 1971 in Qoma Anno Arsi
Zone of Oromia Regional State. He attended his elementary School at Qersa
Lutheran Church, Junior secondary school at Qersa Senior School from 1984 1987 and at Assalla comprehensive Secondary school from 1988-1989. After
completion of secondary school in 1989, Mr Abu joined Asmara Unive rsity
and later transferred to Haramaya University (the then Alemaya University of
Agriculture) and completed his undergraduate studies with BSc degree in Soil
and Water Conservation in August 1993.

From 1993 till he joined the Haramaya University as gra duate student, the
author was employed in Oromia Agricultural Development Bureau

and

worked in different levels and capacities: being expert in Soil and Water
Conservation, Dobba District Head of Agricultural Development Office, team
leader of Land Use Planning and Environmental Protection, LLPP (WFP
assisted)

Project

Coordinator

of

west

Hararghe

Zone,

Agricultural

Development Department and Productive Conservation Project Officer for

OSHO at Shashemane.

During his employment year, the author had gained a lot of practical
experiences and knowledge. He coordinated the soil and water conservation
activities, developed rural water supply, monitored and evaluated ongoing
projects. Besides practical experience, he upgraded his professional backup
through technical training on LLPPA, PRA, watershed management and land
use planning, water harvesting, gender streaming and others.

After 14 years of service in various organizations, he joined the School of

Graduate Studies at Haramaya University in July 2008 to pur sue his studies
leading to MSc degree in Irrigation Engineering .

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I would like to thank the Almighty Allah for his endless Grace and
Blessing on me during all these months here at HU and all my life.

The author likes to express his sincere gratitude and respects for his advisors,
Dr Desalegn Chemeda and Professor Shoeb Quraishi, for their keen and much
indebted ceaseless supports and valuable suggestions during the course of the
research works. Their scientific guidance, fr iendly treatments and stimulating
comments made this thesis research work more successful and interesting. The
incessant assistance and professional guidance they provided in preparing the
thesis are priceless without which the completion of the document w ould not
have been realized.

It is also a great pleasure to express his appreciation to the Ministry of Rural

Development and Agriculture (MoRDA) and Oromiya Rural and Agricultural
Bureau Development (RDAD) together for providing financial support for thi s
research work. Moreover, he would like to extend his heartily thanks to Mr.
Abdu Haji Kedir, Gobeni Deputy Head of Oromia Rural and Agricultural
Bureau Development, for seeking and facilitating research budget from
MoRDA, without which this research work would not have been completed on
time.

It is a great pleasure for the author to acknowledge the assistances rendered

and the contributions made by different organizations and individuals during
the course of his field work through provision of data and information as well
as materials required to realize this thesis.

Special thanks go to MoWR staff (Departments of Hydroloy) and NMSA staff

for organizing and providing long period data of different stations. He extends
his thanks to Mr. Samuel Hussien, He ad of Oromiya Irrigation Development
Bureau, for providing valuable data on irrigation coverage of Oromia. He
would also like to express his appreciation for East Shoa and Arsi Zones,
vii

ATJK, Ziway Dugda and Dugda Districts Irrigation Development and

Agricultural Development staff members for providing all the necessary data
during his field works.

The author also appreciates Mr Abdulkerim Bedhaso and his wife, Fariha
Jemal, for their financial assistance and moral support to him and his family
and their supervision of his family all the time while he was at Haramaya
University.

Lastly, but not least, the author is highly indebted to his dear wife Fatuma
Abdalla who financially and physically managed the house and their children
in his absence. He would also like to thank his lovely children; Dureti and
Sifan, for permitting him to leave them alone to pursue his study.

viii

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ATJK

Adami Tullu Jiddo Kombolcha

CRV

Central Rift Valley

CSA

Central Statistical Agency

Eo

Evaporation

ERV

Ethiopia Rift Valley

ET o

Evapotranspiration

FAO

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

HU

Haramaya University

ITCZ

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

Masl

Meter above sea level

Mm 3

Million meter cube

MoRDA

Ministry of Rural Development and Agriculture

MoWR

Ministry of Water Resources

NGO

Non Governmental Organization

NMSA

National Meteorological Service Agency

OIDA

Oromia Irrigation Development Authority

RAD

Rural and Agricultural Development

RADB

Rural and Agricultural Development Bureau

RH

Relative Humidity

TLU

Tropical Livestock Unit

UK

United Kingdom

WMO

World Meteorological Organization

ix

TABLES OF CONTENTS
STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

VI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

VII

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

IX

LIST OF TABLES

XIII

LIST OF FIGURES

XIV

LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDIX

XV

LIST OF APPENDEX FIGURES

XVI

ABSTRACT

XVII

INTRODUCTION

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Hydrologic Cycle of a Watershed

2.2

Watershed

2.3 Lake
2.3.1 Ethiopian lakes and their temporal variation
2.4

Climate

6
8

11

2.5 Water Balance

2.5.1 Water balance equations
2.5.2 Uncertainty in the water balance

12

2.6 Evaporation
2.6.1 Measurements of evaporation
2.6.2 Hydro-meteorological factors affecting evaporation
2.6.2.1 Radiation and temperature
2.6.2.2 Relative humidity
2.6.2.3 Wind Speed

16

2.7 Rainfall
2.7.1 Estimating missing rainfall data

20

13
15

17
18

19
19
20
21

Cont
x

TABLES OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

2.7.2 Gauge consistency
2.7.3 Estimation of areal rainfall
2.7.3.1 Simple arithmetic station average method
2.7.3.2 Weighted average method
2.8
3

Hydraulic Residence Time

23
23

24
24
25

MATERIALS AND METHODS

26

3.1 Description of the Study Area

3.1.1 Location and accessibility
3.1.2 Population
3.1.2.1 Human
3.1.2.2 Livestock
3.1.3 Topography and drainage and geology
3.1.4 Soils
3.1.5 Land use and land cover
3.1.6 Water resources of lake Ziway watershed

26

3.2 Materials and Data used

3.2.1 Data and their sources
3.2.1.1 Hydro-meteorological data

33

3.3 Methodology
3.3.1 Data quality
3.3.2 Filling of missing data
3.3.2.1 Hydrological data
3.3.2.2 Meteorological data
3.3.2.3 Checking data inconsistency
3.3.2.4 Homogeneity test
3.3.2.5 Estimation of areal rainfall over lake Ziway
3.3.2.6 Estimation of evaporation and evapotranspiration
3.3.3 Estimation of surface inflows and outflows
3.3.4 Lake level and storage
3.3.5 Water abstractions

34

3.4

Estimation of water balance for lake Ziway

43

3.5

Estimation of Hydraulic Residence Time of the Lake

45

26
27

27
27
27
28
30
32

33

33
34
35

35
36
37
37
38
38
40
42
43

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

46

4.1

Processing of Rainfall Data

46

4.2

Identification of Homogeneity of Rainfall Stations

47

4.3 Components of Water Balance

4.3.1 Reservoir storage

52
53

Conted
xi

TABLES OF CONTENTS (CONTINUED)

4.3.2
4.3.3
4.3.4
4.3.5
4.3.6

Estimation of areal rainfall over Ziway lake surface

Rivers inflows and surface runoff
Lake surface evaporation
River outflow
Abstraction losses

54
55
58
62
62

4.4

Estimation of Lake Ziway Water Budget

65

4.5

Hydraulic Residence Time of Lake Ziway

68

4.6 Temporal Variation of Ziway Lake Level

4.6.1 Pattern of rainfall and other climatic factors on the lake level
4.6.1.1 Rainfall
4.6.1.2 Temperature
4.6.1.3 Relative humidity
4.6.1.4 Wind
4.6.1.5 Sunshine duration
4.6.2 Pattern of surface runoff (Rivers inflows to the lake)
4.6.3 Relation between lake level fluctuation and inflow components
4.6.3.1 Inflow components
4.6.3.2 Outflow components and lake level fluctuation
4.6.4 Ziway lake level trend
5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECONNENDATION

68
69

69
71
72
73
73
74
79

79
81
83

87

5.1

Summary and Conclusion

87

5.2

Recommendations

90

REFERENCES

93

APPENDICES

105

7.1

Appendix A. Tables

105

7.2

Appendix B. Figures

118

xii

LIST OF TABLES
Table

Page

1 Rainfall distribution and altitude in the lake watershed ................................. 48

2 Mean monthly rainfall distribution over surface of lake Z iway (1987-2007) ... 55
3 Long term mean monthly Rivers inflows and direct runoff to lake ziway
(1975-2004/7) .......................................................................................... 58
4 Mean monthly rate of evaporation (mm) from lake Ziway and physiographic
areas with different methods .................................................................... 61
5 Long term mean monthly discharge of Bulbula river (1980 -2007) .................. 62
6 Land area under irrigation using water from lake Ziway and major rivers ...... 63
7 Mean monthly water abstraction from lake Ziway for different uses .............. 64
8 Long term mean monthly water balance of lake Ziway (1987 -2007) ............... 65
9 Mean monthly water balance of lake ziway and net groundwater flux ............ 66
10 Sensitivity of lake Ziway and water budget components .............................. 69
11 Annual water abstraction from lake Ziway and major rivers ........................ 79

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

Page

1 Location map of the study area .................................................................... 26

2 Topography of lake Ziway watershed ........................................................... 28
3 Distribution of major soil types in the watershed .......................................... 30
4 Land use map of lake Ziway watershed ........................................................ 31
5 Meteorological stations around Lake Ziway .................................................. 36
6 Rivers and Lake level Gauging St ations ....................................................... 41
7 Inconsistency test for stations bordering the lake .......................................... 47
8 Mean monthly rainfall distribution of Katar sub -watershed ........................... 49
9 Mean monthly rainfall distribution of Meki sub -watershed ............................ 50
10 Stations with similar rainfall distribution in the watershed .......................... 51
11 Stations with similar rainfall distribution in the Watershed ......................... 51
12 Stations with similar rainfall distribution in the Watershed ......................... 52
13 Mean monthly Ziway lake level .................................................................. 53
14 Mean annual Katar hydrograph at Fite and Habura ...................................... 56
15 Long term mean monthly hydrograph of Meki river ..................................... 57
16 Annual rate of evaporatin from lake ziway with Penman (1987 -2009) ......... 60
17 Long term mean annual water balance components of lake Ziway without
groundwater flux ..................................................................................... 67
18 Mean annual rainfall of Kulumsa, Koshe and weighted average of Ziway
watershed ................................................................................................ 70
19 Annual mean temperature of Ziway Meteorological Station ......................... 71
20 Mean monthly RH of Ziway watershed Meteorological Stations ................... 72
21 Mean monthly wind speed of Ziway watershed Meteorological Stations ....... 73
22 Mean monthly sunshine (hours) duration of Ziway lake watershed
Meteorological Stations ........................................................................... 74
23 Annual depths of Katar sub -watershed of rainfall and Katar flow depth ....... 75
24 Annual discharge of Katar river (1975 -2004) .............................................. 75
25 Annual discharge of Meki river (1975 -2003) ............................................... 77
26 Mean monthly hydrograph of Bulbula river at Karkarsitu (1980 -2007) ......... 78
27 Monthly Scatter plot between lake level and katar flow depth ...................... 80
28 Scatter plot between lake level and Meki river flow depth ........................... 80
29 Long term mean monthly total inflows and lake level .................................. 81
30 Annual Lake level and Bulbula flow depth (1975 -2007) .............................. 82
31 Scatter plot between lake level and Bulbula river ........................................ 83
32 Lake level for the last 33 years (1975 - 2007) .............................................. 84
33 Annual lake level for the last 29 years (1977 -205) ...................................... 84
34 Annual lake level fluctuation against rainfall distribution in watershed ........ 85

xiv

LIST OF TABLES IN APPENDIX

Appendix Table

Page

1 Yearly rainfall distribution of Lake Ziway watershed Stations (mm) ............ 105
2 Monthly rainfall distribution of Lake Ziway watershed Stations (mm) ......... 106
3 Mean monthly Pitch evaporation for Ziway Meteorological Station ............. 107
4 Mean monthly Pitch evaporation for Kulumsa Meteorological Station ......... 108
5 Mean monthly penman method evaporation for Ziway Station ..................... 109
6 Mean monthly evaporation with CROPWAT method of for Lake Ziway ....... 110
7 Mean monthly sunshine duration of Lake watershed Meteorological Stations 111
8 Mean monthly wind speed of Lake watershed Meteorological Stations ........ 111
9 Mean monthly discharge of Katar at Habura gauging Station ....................... 112
10 Monthly discharge of Meki ...................................................................... 113
11 Monthly flow of Bulbula .......................................................................... 114
12 Long term mean monthly lake level (m) at Bochessa ................................. 115
13 Mean monthly Temperature of lake Ziway watershed ( 0 C) ......................... 116
14 Mean monthly RH of lake Ziway watershed (%) ........................................ 116
15 Mean monthly Sunshine duration of lake Ziway watershed (hours) ............ 116
16 Total Population in adjacent districts of lake Ziway .................................. 117
17 Livestock population in adjacent district of lake Ziway ............................. 117

xv

LIST OF FIGURES IN APPENDEX

Appendix Figure

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Page

Drainage disposal of Share Ethiopia to lake Ziway ..................................... 118

Small irrigation of farmers from lake water ................................................ 118
Treatment plant of Batu town water supply from lake Ziway. ...................... 119
Katar Fall at Fite (at middle stage of the river) ........................................... 120
Lake Ziway gauging Station (1635.10 Masl at Bochessa) ............................ 120
Katar gauging Station at Habura ................................................................ 121
Ziway Meteorological Station view ............................................................ 121

xvi

ASSESSMENT OF WATER BALANCE OF LAKE ZIWAY AND IT S

TEMPORAL VARIATION DUE TO WATER ABSTRACTION

ABSTRACT
Lake Ziway is locally called Hara Danbal, is naturally existing exorheic
reservoir situated in Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia with an average water
surface area of 440km 2 , 2.5 m average depth and total drainage area of 7488
km 2 and located at 1636 masl. Katar and Meki rivers are two major perennial
rivers drained into the lake and Bulbula river spills out from the lake. The
lake is currently used for irrigation, domestic water supply, fishing,
transportation and recreation. Newly development activities around the lake
and uncontrolled water abstraction from the lake have been certainly
disturbed the hydrologic balance of the lake. The objective of this study was
to analyze the water balance component s. This activity was performed
applying continuity equation of water Balance Model. The monthly water
budget of lake Ziway was determined from inflow components (direct rainfall,
Katar and Meki rivers and runoff from un -gauged parts part of the watershed)
and outflow components (evaporation, Bulbula river and water abstraction
from the lake). Average rainfall over lake Surface was estimated using simple
arithmetic mean method and evaporation from the lake was assessed by
Penman method while from agricultural land was estimated with CropWat.
Gauged inflow, outflow from Bulbula river and lake level data were collected
from Ministry of Water Resources, Department of Hydrology and inflow from
un-gauged parts of the watershed was computed using area ratio method.
Water abstraction from lake was estimated from irrigated land and average
seasonal crop water requirements. The model was then developed using the
values of each water budget components. The mean annual inflow to the lake
was estimated about 1096.83Mm 3 and that of the outflow as 1114.30
Mm 3 .Evaporation consumed about 74.04% of total annual inflows while
annual water abstraction consumed about 11.72% of it (inflows). The outflow
from the lake to River Bulbula was estimated about 15.84% of total annual
inflow components of water budget of the lake. Annual inflow components of
lake water budget showed declined trend whereas outflow components
(evaporation and abstraction) showed increasing trend. But recent drop in
lake level was not only the effect of drought, but water abstraction had a
significant role in temporal variation on lake level during average to low
rainfall years. The declining of outflow of Bulbula river from this lake and
rising in annual evaporation rate from the lake water surface certainly will be
responsible for changing of this Lake to endorheic lake in near future.
Therefore, it is recommended to look a solution for minimization of the extent
of outflow components (rate of evaporation and over utilizations of water from
this lake) for its future sustainability.

xvii

xviii

INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia is a country with diversified landscapes and climatic conditions in the

world. The topography of the country can be broadly grouped into uplifted
central highlands, tapering into peripheral lowlands that als o include the Rift
Valley (Seleshi et al., 2007). These varied topography and complex geological
history that began millions of years ago and continues, accentuates the
unevenness of the surface; a highland complex of mountains and bisected
plateaux characterizes the landscape of the country. The great East African Rift
Valley runs from Jordan to Mozambique bisecting Ethiopia into two highlands
(Seleshi et al., 2005 and Tenalem, 2005) and forming the Ethiopia Rift Valley
(ERV).

The Ethiopian Rift Valley is one of the great East African Rift Valleys and also
called the Afro-Arabian Rift Valley which was created by volcanic and faulting
activities that formed volcano -tectonic depressions in the floor of the rift, which
later became lakes.

The floor of Ethiopian Rift Valley encompasses three major water basins from
northeast to southwest, Awash basin (Koka,Gemari and Abe), Central Rift Valley
(CRV) basin (Ziway, Langano, Abijata and Shala) and Southern basin (Awasa,
Abaya, Chamo and Chew-Bahir) as most important lakes (Halcrow, 1989). The
climate of these regions is hot and dry and best described as semi -arid for most
of the year, with the rainy season between June and September an d the dry season
from OctoberFebruary and the small rainy season in between Mar ch to April
(Schroder, 1984). Mean annual rainfall is generally about 700 mm (Dagnachew,
2002). Temperature of the area has increased on about 1 -1.5 0 C for the last 3
decades. A rise in 1 0 C will result in an increase of significant potential
evapotranspiration. The extent of rainfall is decreasing by about 15% from 1965 2005 (Dagnachew et al., 2007; Dilnesaw et al., 2007; Helco et al., 2007).

The CRV of Ethiopia consists of a chain of lakes, streams and wetlands with
unique hydrological and ecological characteristics. The wide diversity of
landscapes and ecosystems comprises extensive biodiversity wetlands. At the
same time, the CRV is one of the environmental vulnerable areas in the country.
Being a closed basin, relatively small interventions in land and w ater resources
can have far-reaching consequences for ecosystem services and potentially
undermine the sustainability of the areas ( Dagnachew et al., 2004; Tenalem,
2007).

The Ethiopian Central Rift Valley and its environment are important areas in
connection with their water resources. Lake Ziway is one and most economic
significant among four CRV lakes (Ziway, Langanno, Abijata and Shalla) . It has
two perennial rivers (Katar and Meki) and intermittent streams that drain to th is
lake from adjacent highland areas. Water from this lake and its environs are
significantly used for domestic supply, agricultural and recreational purposes.
Lands adjacent to the lake are very important for crop production using both
rain-fed and irrigation agriculture (Dagnachew et al., 2005; Fransico et al.,
2008).

Lake Ziway and its watershed is however, one of the environmentally vulnerable
areas of the country (Dagnachew, et al., 2005, 2007; Scholten, 2007). It has a
total population of about 1,323,321 with an average population density of 1.5
people/ha and total livestock population of about 850000 Tropical Livestock
Units (TLU). The annual water abstractions from the Lakes and Rivers for
different water uses are estimated to be above 150 -200 Mm 3 (Helco et al., 2007).
This situation of lake Ziway and its Environment is a typical example of
competing claims for land and water resources ( Dagnachew et al., 2007; Wolter,
2007; Francisco, 2008).

Population pressure and economic development as well as the settlement of large scale foreign and national horticulture and floriculture enterprises are putting
2

pressure on land and water resources. The main reasons for the increased
settlement in the last 10 years are due to suitability of climatic conditions and
favorable governmental policies to attract foreign investment (Vuik, 2008).
Small-scale irrigation agriculture has largely increased in recent years around
lake Ziway area and upstream of main rivers (Katar and Meki). In addition, None
Governmental Organization (NGOs) was donating water pumps to poor farmers
resulting in extra water abstraction in relation to rain-fed farming. These
developments have caused increased water consumption from and around Ziway
lake resulting in a reduced outflow from this Lake.

Ziway town, the capital of Adami Tullu Jiddo Kombolch (ATJK) district is
located on western shore of this Lake. The existence and protection of the Lake
is, therefore, very critical to the town and the population residing within the
entire watershed. Most of the population depends on agriculture that is directly
or indirectly related to the water resources of the watershed including lake,
feeder rivers and groundwater.

Despite its importance in a wide spectrum of purposes, proper assessment of the

components of the hydrologic c ycle in terms of water balance of the lake, land
use of the area and total available resources are extremely essential for any plan
of sustainable utilization of the water resources of the area. This demands the
establishment of a proper conceptual hydrolo gic assessment of the area and
identification of factors accountable for depletion of water resources. This is
useful for policy formulation, planning and identification of the problems with
respect to the rising demand. In this regard, assessing water bal ance of this Lake
is one of the most important tools which can be used to quantify the outflow
components that affect the lake water resource significantly.

There are different approaches of assessing water balance of any given

hydrological unit; for a watershed, water balance can be assessed using soil water
balance or watershed water balance model, while continuity equation and storage
3

equation are more appropriate for lakes and reservoirs. Yemane (2004) assessed
water balance of lake Awassa using stora ge equation and Melkamu (2005) used
continuity equation to evaluate water balance of lake Tana.

So far, little emphasis has been given to assessing water balance of the lake
Ziway and the dominant components that significantly affect the lake fluctuation.

The general objective of this study is to analyze water balance components of

lake Ziway using continuity equation.

The specific objectives of this study include:

To estimate monthly and annual inflows to the lake and outflows from the
Lake,
To quantify the extent of water abstraction from the lake,
To develop monthly and annual water balances for the lake Ziway and
To see the temporal variation or patterns of the water balance components
and their effect on the level of the lake.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Hydrologic Cycle of a Watershed

The physical processes that control the distribution and movement of water are
best understood in terms of hydrologic cycle. It is the global mechanism that
transfers water from the oceans to the surface and from the surface to the
subsurface environment, and from plants to the atmosphere that surrounds our
planet. Although there is no real beginning or ending point of the hydrologic
cycle; for understanding purpose, hydrologic cycle starts from evaporation
(Rechard, 1998).

The water cycle consists of four distinct stages: temporary storage, evaporation,
rainfall, and runoff. Water may be stored temporarily in the ground, in oceans,
lakes, and rivers, and in ice caps and glaciers. It evaporates from the earth s
surface, condenses in clouds, falls back to the earth as rainfall (rain or snow),
and eventually either runs into the seas or re -evaporates into the atmosphere.
Almost all the water on the earth has passed through the water cycle countless
times. Those processes are stimulated by solar energy. They take place
simultaneously and, except for rainfall, continuously.

Rainfall plays a key role in renewing our natural water resources, particularly
those used to supply natural ecosystems and rain fed Agriculture. Either rainfall,
in three relatively diverse climatic zones, generally returns by evaporation or
evaptranspiration back into the atmosphere, becomes surface water through
runoff, or recharges groundwater. Evaporation from surface water bodies such as
lakes, rivers, wetlands and reservoirs is also an important component of the
hydrological cycle and integral to basin development and regional water
management.

The path way of hydrologic cycle of a natural environment is static. As the

population of the world has increased, changes to the land have often been
significant and result on disturbing the natural path way of the hydrologic cycle.
Human activities (settlements and urbanization, agricultural developments,
industry, etc) can disturb the pathways and components of the natural cycle
through land use changes, the use, reuse and discharge of wastes into the natural
surface water and groundwater.

2.2

Watershed

Watershed or catchment is an area of land that drains water, sedi ments and
dissolved materials at some common water outlet, i.e., stream, river, or lake. The
required point of analysis, or where the flows, or design criteria might be
required defines downstream lowest point of a watershed. Therefore, lowest most
location at the downstream is referred to as a point of interest for analysis
purpose.

Most of the lakes in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia are located at the bottom end of
large drainage basins to receive maximum water -collecting potential (Halcrow,
1989). Watershed activities can directly af fect reservoir health and stability and
because of this linkage with watershed activities; understanding of complex
interactions between aquatic and terrestrial systems become an important aspect
of lake management. This leads to evaluation of the watershed to develop criteria
for effectively handling the problems associated with watershed -linked, reservoir
water quality and quantity (Nyssen et al., 2003).

2.3

Lake

Lake is a natural large sized depression formed within the surface of the earth,
when gets filled up with water. It is a large, inland body of fresh or salty
standing water. Lakes are distinguished from other bodies of water such as bays
6

and gulfs, and some seas, that have an interchange with the ocean and are subject
to tides. Many geologic processes, such as buckling (fastenering) of stratified
rock into large folds, displacement of large masses of rock by faults, and
blocking of valleys by landslides, form lake basins. Lakes also vary from
glaciations. Glaciers carve out large basins by scooping up bedrock and
redistributing loose material.

The source of lake water is atmospheric rainfall that reaches the lake directly and
by means of springs, brooks, and surface runoff from the watershed area,
contributing to a particular lake. Sometimes, under ground water through some
spring also enters the natural depression and gets collected there, forming a lake
(Garg, 2005). Lakes form and disappear over the course of varying lengths of
geologic time. They may evaporate, as the climate becomes more arid, o r they
may fill up with sediment, leaving a bog or swamp in their place. In arid regions
where rainfall is slight and evaporation great, lake levels rise and fall with the
seasons and sometimes dry up for long periods. In lakes where evaporation
prevents the water from overflowing the watershed rims, substances dissolved in
the water become concentrated. The dissolved matter, brought by tributary
streams, varies in composition with the nature of the rocks in the local drainage
system (Garg, 2005; IAEA et al., 2005).

The quality of water in a lake is generally good and does not need much
purification. Larger and older lakes, however, provides comparatively purer
water than the smaller and newer lakes ( IAEA et al., 2005). Self purification of
water due to sedimentation of suspended materials, bleaching of color, removal
of bacteria etc. makes the lake water purer and better. On the other hand, in still
water of lake and ponds, algae, weed and vegetable growth takes place freely,
importing bad smells, tastes and colors to such water.

Lakes are particularly vulnerable to change in climate parameters. Variation in

air temperature, rainfall, and other meteorological components directly cause
7

change in evaporation, water balance, lake level, ice events, hydro -chemical and
hydro-biological regimes, and the entire lake ecosystems. Under some climatic
conditions, lakes may disappear entirely.

An important distinction is made between closed (endorheic), lakes with no

outflow, and exorheic lakes, which are drained by o ut-flowing rivers. This also
means that they are very important indicators of climatic change and can provide
records of past hydro-climatic variability over large area. Small endorheic lakes
are most vulnerable to a change in climate (Tenalem, 2008); ther e are indicators
even relatively small changes in inputs can produce large fluctuations in water
level and lake chemistry in small closed lakes and exorheic lakes also may be
sensitive to changes in the amount of inflows and the volume of evaporation
(Tenalem, 2002). Climate changes also likely to have an effect on lake water
quality, through change in water temperature and the extent and duration of ice
cover.
Globally, lakes store the largest volume of fresh surface water (90,000 km 3 ) over
forty times more than found in rivers or streams and about seven times more than
is found in wetland areas. Together with reservoirs, they are estimated to cover a
total area of about 2.7 million km 2 , which represents 2 percent of the lands
surface (Lehner and Doll, 2004, cited by IAEA et al., 2005). The Ethiopian Lakes
occupy a total area of 7500 km 2 (Seleshi et al., 2007). Lake Ziway can store
about 1466 Mm 3 fresh water at an average area of 440 km 2 and within average
depth of 2.5 m (Tenalem, 2003). In view of these, this study was conducted to
analyze past and present storage condition of lake Ziway with respective to
stream inflows and rainfall condition of the watershed area.

2.3.1 Ethiopian lakes and their temporal variation

Ethiopia has 11 fresh and 9 saline lakes, 4 crater lakes and over 12 major swamps
or wetlands. Majority of the lakes are found in the Rift Valley Basin. The
8

majority of Ethiopian lakes are rich in fish. Most of the lakes, except Ziway,
Tana, Langano, Abbaya and Chamo, have no surface water outlet s, i.e., they are
endorheic. Lakes Shala and Abijata have high concentrations of chemicals and
Abijata is currently exploited for production of soda ash (MoWR, 2004; Seleshi
et al., 2007).

All the rest major Ethiopian lakes are confined to the Rift floor. Most of the
lakes are fed by perennial rivers originat ed from the highhlands (Tenalem, 2004)
and therefore their levels fluctuate according to the rainfall trends in the flanking
highlands (Street, 1979). Seasonal lake level fluctuations may alone amount up to
1 m (Tesfaye, 1982), with the annual maximum in October or November (Mercier
et al., 2002). The effect of recent tectonic activity on the hydrological regimes of
the lakes is not thoroughly investigated, but some changes in lake level may be
attributed to the opening or reactivation of rift faults (Tenalem, 2004). For
example, changes in the discharge of springs around lake Langano have been
observed after recent seismic activity led to the formation of new faults
(Tenalem, 1998).

The main purposes of large-scale anthropogenic water-withdrawals from Ziway

and Abijata lakes are for irrigation and soda production. Due to lack of records
and controls the abstraction rates can only be estimated (Tenalem, 2004). The
endorheic one (Abijata) of the rift lakes prove to be especially susceptible to
level height alternations. According to the study made by Tenalem (2004) the
terminal lakes showed the most drastic changes. From 1976 to 2000, the water
level of lake Abijata dropped by 4.3 m, the mean depth being only 8 m. He
further proposed in his report that the sharp decrease in lake level can be
attributed to upstream water abstraction for irrigation purposes and water
withdrawal for soda ash production. On the contrary, lake Beseka and lake
Awassa have expanded since the beginnings of measurements in the 1970s . The
non-endorheic lakes (lake Langano) show little or no change for the same period
of time (Tenalem, 2004).
9

According to Schtt et al. (2002), population pressure, deforestation and a

change in cultivation have led to an increased sediment yield in the lake Abayas
tributaries,

thus

influencing

basin

bathymetry

and

volume.

Moreover,

neotectonics seem to have caused an uplift of the sill departing the basins of lake
Abaya and lake Chamo, hence controlling lake Abayas outflow (Schtt et al.,
2002). Due to a combination of those two factors a water level increase d roughly
2 m has been observed since 1987.
Lake Ziway is locally called Hara Danbal and it is one of the important lakes
among the CRV of Ethiopia. Because, this Lake contains fresh water that
originates from the two incoming rivers (Katar and Meki) and rainfall, it has
been used for agriculture, domestic water supply and recreation . Moreover, soil
adjacent to eastern lake shore near Chafe Jilla is full of minerals and it is used
for livestock of the area and adjacent high land community.

Like other exorheic lake, lake Ziway is undergoing all processes, such as
fluctuation of lake level and volume with respect to anthropologic activities and
climatic change. According to Tenalem (2007), if all proposed land area is
irrigated, annual water abstraction from the Lake and major Rivers will be about
150-180 Mm 3 with 30 cm reduction in the level of lake Ziway which ultimately
lead to a drastic decrease in the level of lake Abijata and drying up of the feeder
Bulbula river.

The climatic change may have also significant influences on the level and area of
lake Ziway. Increasing in temperature and other climatic parameters (sunshine
duration, wind speed and relative humidity of the air) and decreasing in length of
rainy season, resulting in a decreasing of inflow of water to the lake. This can
affect the lake level decline that might reach up to 62 cm in the coming 90 years,
consequently, the water surface area of the lake Ziway can also shrink to 25 km 2
(Lijalem, 2006).

10

2.4

Climate

Ethiopias hydrology is a direct reflection of the climate, the terrain and other
physical characteristics. The very high variability exhibited by the climate
components of the country over time and space is the main reason behind the
spatial and temporal variability in the availability of water.

The climate of lake Ziway watershed is dry to sub-humid or humid climate. The
lowland area surrounding the lake is arid or semi -arid and the highlands are sub
dry humid to humid (Tenalem, 2007; Wolter, 2007). The climate with mean
annual rainfall and temperature varying from 700 mm and 25C close to the lake,
to 1200 mm and 15C on the humid plateaus and escarpments (Tenalem, 2002;
Dagnachew et al., 2004, 2007; Wolter, 2007).
The kiremt rain represents 5070% of the mean annual total rainfall (Degafu,
1987; Tenalem, 1998; Dagnachew, 2002 ). The dry period extends between
October to February known as baga when the ITCZ (is line of low pressure of
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) lies south of Ethiopia. The small rainy season
known as belg, representing 2030% of the annual rainfall, occurs du ring
March to May when the ITCZ moves from south to north over the country
(Dagnachew et al., 2004).

In lake Ziway watershed, pattern of increasing rainfall associated with increasing

altitude is modified in the high altitude area by the influence of the high
mountains which may cause either rain shadows or areas of heavy orographic
rainfall (Makin et al., 1976). Highlands flanking the Rift Valley intercept most of
the monsoonal rainfall in the region, resulting in a strong moisture deficit in the
rift floor in general and near the lake in particular (Dagnachew et al., 2004).

11

2.5

Water Balance

A water balance represents an inventory of water for a speci fic water body
(hydrologic regime) during a certain time interval. The study of water balance is
the application of the principle of conservation of mass, often referred as the
continuity equation in hydrology. This states that for any arbitrary volume and
during any period of time, the difference between total input and output will be
balanced by the change of water storage within the volume .

Water balance techniques is one of the main subjects in hydrology and are a
means of solution of important theoretical and practical hydrological problems.
On the basis of the water balance approach , it is possible to make a quantitative
evaluation of water resources and their change under the influence of man 's
activities.

The study of the water balance structure of lakes, river basins , and groundwater
forms a basis for the hydrological substantiation of projects for the rational use,
control and redistribution of water resources in time and space. Knowledge of the
water balance assists the prediction of the consequences of artificial changes in
any hydrologic regime such as streams, lakes, and groundwater. Information on
the current water balance of river and lake watersheds for short time intervals
(season, month and weekly) is used for operational management of reservoirs and
for the compilation of hydrological forecasts for water management (UNESCO,
1974).

An understanding of the water balance is also extremely important for studies of

the hydrological cycle. With water balance data it is possible to compare
individual sources of water in a system, over different periods of time, and to
establish the degree of their effect on variations in the water regime .

12

Further,

the

initial

analysis

used

to

compute

ind ividual

water

balance

components, and the coordination of these components in the balance equation

makes it possible to identify deficiencies in the distribution of observational
stations, and to discover systematic errors of measurements.

2.5.1 Water balance equations

In quantitative terms, the hydrologic cycle can be represented by a closed

equation which represents the principle of the conservation of mass. Many forms
of this expression, called the water balance equation, are possible by subdividing,
consolidating, or eliminating some of the terms, depending on the purpose of
computation.

The annual water budget of any hydrologic regime is estimated from inflow and
outflow components of the hydrologic cycle.

Rainfall, runoff and evaporation

are the major components of natural hydrologic cycle. However, due to the
importance of water for life, water abstraction is incorporated to these natural
processes. The water balance equation can be written, from continuity equation at
any time, which is governed by the conditions that the water volume remains
constant. The continuity equation intern governed by conservation of matter,
which described by equilibrium between added water volume (depth), lost water
volume (depth) and change in volume (depth) and described as (Solkolov et al.,
1974):
Q (t ) - Qo (t )
i

Where,
Q i = the inflow in (mm),
Q o = the outflow in (mm),
S/t = the rate of change in storage over a finite time step in
(mm/month or year) of the considered control volume in the system.

13

There are different methods for estimation of water balance of any hydrologic
regimes. The methods of estimation of water balance are function on the
hydrologic regime, and evaluated either from watershed (soil water balance
model) for land surface or continuity equation for small reservoir or lakes.

Soil water balance model requires having information on the parameters like
rainfall, evapotranspiration and soil water storage capacity on a time manner
(daily, monthly and annual). For a more advances soil water balance model,
groundwater seepage, land use and soil characteristics (soil conductivity and soil
moisture content at different pressure heads) etc. is, necessary to calculate the
water balance (waternet, 2003).

The continuity (storage) equation is more important and can be used for reservoir
and lakes. It involves measuring of all inflow and outflow components of t he
system. Estimation of any losses from a lake could be made by measuring all
inputs, such as rainfall, inflow from streams, and groundwater inflow ; all
outputs, such outflow from the lake as stream, groundwater and evaporation from
the lake; and the change in storage between two time periods, which could be
evaluated using the lake levels measured at the beginning and end of the time
period.

According to WaterNet (2003) several types of water balance equations can be

applied for the following hydrologic regimes,
for the earth surface,
for a drainage basin,
for the world oceans,
for the lake and reservoir,
for the water diversion cycle (human interference) and
for a local area like a city, a forest, or a polder.

14

In the above cases the entire phase abo ve and below the ground surface is
considered in the equation in terms of the flows. In its general form, the equation
may be represented by (waternet 2003):

S P QSi QG i - E o - QSo - QGo

(2)

Where:
E o = Evaporation (mm),
P = Rainfall (mm),
Q si, Q Gi = Surface and ground water inflow respectively, into the
boundary (mm),
Q So , Q Go = Surface and ground water outflow respectively, from the
boundary (mm),
S = Net change of storage volume within the boundary (mm).

2.5.2 Uncertainty in the water balance

A report from a comprehensive analysis made by UNESCO (1974) and Winter et

al. (1981), about uncertainties in estimating the water balance of a lake indi cated
that estimation of rainfall may have a wide range of errors, depending on gauge
placement, gauge spacing, and aerial averaging technique.

Errors in estimating evaporation can also vary widely depending on the

instrumentation and methodology. The ene rgy budget is the most accurate method
of calculating evaporation with errors of the orders of 5% when app lied to
periods less than a month (UNESCO, 1974). If pans are used that are located at a
distance from the lake of interest, errors can be considerabl e. Annual pan-to-lake
coefficient should be used for monthly estimating evaporation (Maidment, 1993).

The same is also true for other components of water budget such as surface
runoff (inflow and outflow recording gauge), quantifying water abstraction fro m
15

the lake for different uses, inflow and outflow estimation techniques and
groundwater etc. are contribute errors on estimation of water balance.

2.6

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process by which the phase of water is changed from a liquid
state to a vapor. Evapotranspiration represent a significant portion of the water
movement through the hydrologic cycle. Approximately 70% of the rainfall in a
temperate climate returns to the atmosphere directly by way of evaporation and
transpiration losses (Rechard, 1989).

Evaporation losses are considered in the design of large water storage reservoirs.
Where heat storage within the water body is significant, evaporation may be
much greater. Even in humid eastern part of the United States, more than 0.609 m
of evaporation losses annually can be expected from a free-water surface. Free
water evaporation can be as much as 2.54 m per year in the more arid parts of the
United States (Rechard, 1989).

In areas where annual rainfall is low, evaporation losses can repre sent a
significant part of the water budget for a lake, and evaporation losses may
contribute significantly to the lowering of the water surface elevation. This may
have consequences in terms of water quality, recreational use of the lake,
allocation of water for irrigation demand, and power generation. Monthly,
seasonal, or annual evaporation losses may have to be considered in the design of
the reservoir and the retarding structure and it is therefore; its accurate
determination is crucial for a reasonabl e estimation of the water budget of the
reservoir.

16

2.6.1 Measurements of evaporation

The rate of evaporation (E o ) is a function of climatic variables, such as incoming

solar radiation, air and water temperature, wind speed, soil moisture content,
surface area of water exposed, barometric pressure, water quality, vegetation
cover and saturation vapor pressure deficit. Knowledge of evaporation is a major
importance in water resources assessment among others to determine the amount
of water lost through the process of evaporation in the water balance
computations of land, rivers, lakes and reservoirs.

The rate of evaporation from large water surfaces such as rivers ponds,
reservoirs, lakes etc is estimated from different methods, such as , Daltons law,
Water budget, Pan evaporation (adjusting with Pan coefficient) , Penman-Monteith
aerodynamic and Energy budget etc. potential evapotranspiration or reference
evapotranspiration, are estimated from Penman and its modification-based type
equation like; Penman-Monteith, temperature-based equations: Blanely-Criddle,
Thornthwaite, Daltons law of evaporation, Meyers formula, Water budget methods
(Rechard, 1989; Maidment, 1993).

The water loss from a standard surface is measured with evaporimeters, which
may be classified as atmo-meters and pan or tank evaporimeters, which can be
used with adjustment to arrive at reliable estimating of lake evaporation or of
actual and potential evapotranspiration (ET o ) from natural surfaces (WMO,
1966). Evaporation and evapotranspiration can also be estimated by using some
models as Penman method, the simple Pan method, etc. The models are complex
and require many meteorological measured and estimated input parameters which
incur high monitoring cost. The adaptability of simpler metho ds, especially in
geographical areas where there is limited resource for monitoring is worth
investigation.

17

The traditional methods (Penman, pan evaporimator, Pitche, CropWat, etc) have
been found that they are costly, time consuming, and require elabor ate and
sensitive measurement equipment (Yemane , 2004; Assafa et al., 2009). For land
surfaces, a root zone soil water balance approach based on water budget is also a
technique used to estimate E o as a residual variable. Quantifying each component
of the soil water balance is less appealing in terms of time, labor and money
requirements. The lysimeter instrumentations are relatively simpler but are
usually limited to research applications. While these traditional methods of
estimating E o or ET o at a point, recent methods have found success using
remotely-sensed imagery for estimates at various spatial scales.

Unlike the above point measurements, remote sensing has the capacity to
instantaneously acquire spectral signatures f or large areas of the watershed and
inter land-cover, vegetation cover, emissivity, albedo, surface temperature and
energy flux information. Remote sensing approach has also proven to have
regional applications and allows for greater spatial coverage than possible with
in-situ methods (Tom, 2008; Assefa et al., 2009)

Different research reports used different method to estimate evaporation from

Ethiopian Lakes. Vallet-Coulomb et al., 2001 estimated annual evaporation rate
from lake Ziway 1870 mm using Penman method and Melkamu (2005), estimated
mean annual evaporation from lake Tana as 1654.64 mm using the same method.

2.6.2

Hydro-meteorological factors affecting evaporation

A number of studies have been made to evaluate the sensitivity of evaporation

rates and its causative factors. The factors believed to be most important are
temperature, humidity or vapor pressure deficit, radiation rates , and wind speed.
Although other variables may be used in equations for predicting evaporation
rates, however; these four factors are the most common.
18

2.6.2.1 Radiation and temperature

Radiation is the transmission of thermal energy by electromagnetic waves;

radiant energy is not heat itself. Radiant energy can be reflected, absorbed, or
transmitted. While radiation is a determinant of evaporation, it is more c ostly to
measure than temperature, and since temperature and radiation are highly
correlated, most methods for estimating evaporation rates use temperature as an
input variable rather than radiation.

Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy that a b ody possesses; it is a

measure of the combined potential and kinetic energy of the atoms in the body.
Temperature is distinguished from heat, which is a measure of th e thermal energy
that is transferred from one medium to another. Water in a lake and wate r in a
pail may be at the same temperature, but the lake has a greater capacity to store
and transfer heat than the water in the pail. Heat storage can affect the rate and
time distribution of evaporation.

2.6.2.2 Relative humidity

The relative humidity for an air mass is the percent ratio of the grams of water
per cubic meter of air to the capacity of air to hold maximum amount of air, for
the temperature of air mass. Relative humidity (RH) is expresses the degree of
saturation of the air as a ratio of the actua l (e a ) to the saturation (e s ) vapour
pressure at the same temperature. If the humidity of the atmosphere is more, the
evaporation will be less. Because during the process of evaporation, water vapour
move from the point of the higher moisture content to th e point of lower moisture
content, and the rate of this movement is governed by the different or the
moisture gradient existing in the air (Garg, 2005). If the temperature of air rises
and no change occurs in its vapour content, then the absolute humidity remains
the same but the relative humidity is lowered. A fall in temperature increases the

19

relative humidity. Relative humidity expressed from the fo llowing equation

(Richard, 1989; Garg 2005, 2008)

RH=100e a /e s

(3)

Where,
RH = Relative humidity
e a = Actual vapour pressure
e s = Saturation vapoure pressure.

2.6.2.3 Wind Speed

The process of evaporation also depends upon the prevailing turbulence of the
air. Presence of atmospheric turbulence can greatly increase the ra te of
evaporation by removing vapor from evaporating surfaces and giving space for
fresh air capable of holding additional vapor in the atmosphere.

2.7

Rainfall

Rainfall is the driving force of most hydrologic desig ns. Design needs arise when
and where rainfall occurs at extreme volumes or rates. High rates of rai nfall on
small urban watersheds often cause flooding of streets and parking lots as
drainage facilities are not usually designed to drain all of the water generated by
high rainfall intensities. High rainfall rates can also severely damage crops. The
absence of rain over long periods of time reduces the rate of flow in streams and
rivers, as well as causing lake levels to decline sharply. Low stream flow rates
due to the lack of rain can damage stream habitat as well as reduce the capacity
of the stream to assimilate wastes discharged into the stream. The decline of lake
levels can reduce the recreational capacity of a lake, as well as reduce the water
available for power generation and irrigation. Rain and moisture from lowintensity, short-duration rains can create plant stress, thus limiting the growth of

20

crops. It should be evident that problems can occur from extremes in rainfall,
with the extremes in the rate, the duration, or the time interval between storms.

Some hydrologic planning and design problems only require a certain volume of
rainfall. However, for purposes of hydrologic analysis and design, the
distribution of rain with respect to time is usually required.

2.7.1 Estimating missing rainfall data

Measured rainfall data are important for hydrologic analysis and hydrologic
design. Because of the cost associated with data collection, it is very important to
have complete records at every station. Obviously, conditions sometimes prevent
this.

The accuracy and continuity of data for rain gauging stations may be affected by
two common factors. A gauge station may have a short break in the record
because of instrument failure or absence of the observer. It is often necessary to
estimate the missing records. Another problem is that the recording conditions at
a gauging site may have changed significantly during the period of the record due
to relocation or upgrading of the station in the same vicinity, difference in
observational procedure, or any other reasons. The problems are resolved in both
cases by making comparisons with the neighboring gaug e sites and infilling the
missed data.

A number of methods have been proposed for estimating missing rai nfall data.
The station-average, the normal-ratio, quadrant and the isohyetal methods are
the most common adopted around the globe (Richard, 1989).

Station-average method for estimating missing data uses n gauges from a region
to estimate the missing point rainfall, P, at another gauges and can be given by
the following expression (Richard, 1989);
21

1 n
Pi
n n1

(4)

Where P is mean average Pi is the catch at gauge i and n is the number of

gauging stations. Equation 4 is conceptually simple, but may not be accurate
when the total annual catch at any of the n regional gauges differ from the annual
catch at the point of interest by more than 10%.

Normal Ratio Method which is recommended to estimate missing data in

watershed where annual rainfall among stations differ by more than 10% and.
This method can be adopted by using the following expression (Richard, 1989).

PX =

NX
3

PA PB PC
+
+
N A N B NC

(5)

Where:
N x = the mean monthly rainfall for the station with missing data (mm),
N A , N B and N C = the mean monthly rainfall data for base stations and
P A , P B and P C = the normal monthly rainfall values of the base stations.
Yeman (2004) adopted this method to fill missed rainfall data of Hawassa lake,
Melkamu (2005) was applied this method to fill missed data of Lake Tana
meteorological stations and Alamu (2006) was used this method to estimate
missed data of rainfall stations of lake Ziway watershed.

Isohyetal method is another alternative for estimating missing rainfall data. The
procedure is essentially the same as that used for the isohyetal method when it i s
applied to the problem of estimating mean areal rainfall. The location and catch
for each gauge are located on a map and used to draw lines of equal catch (that
is, isohyets) for the storm duration of interest. The location of the gau ging
station for which data are missing is then plotted on the map and the catch
estimated by interpolation within the isohyets. Of course, the accuracy of the
estimate will depend on the number of gauges used to draw the isohyets, the
22

homogeneity of the meteorological condit ions that generated the storm, and, if
they exist, orographic effects .

2.7.2 Gauge consistency

Estimating missing data is one problem that hydrologists need to address. A

second problem occurs when the catch at rain gauges is inconsistent over a
period of time and adjustment of the measured data is necessary to provide a
consistent record. A consistent record is one where the characteristics of the
record have not changed with time. An inconsistent record may result from any
one of a number of events: due to ch anges in observation procedures, changes in
exposure of the gauge, changes in land use that make it impractical to maintain
the gauge at the old location, and where vandalism frequently occurs.

Double mass-curve analysis is the method that is used to chec k for an

inconsistency in a gauged record. The method is used to analyze whether the data
at the stations have been subjected to a significant change in magnitude due to
the external factors.

2.7.3 Estimation of areal rainfall

The representative rainfall over a defined area is required in any water resource
development and management applications, where as the gauged observation
pertains to the point rainfall. The areal rainfall is computed from the record of
rain gauges within the area by the following methods (Richard, 1989; Garg,
2005).

1. Simple arithmetic or station average method

2. Weighted average method.
Thiessen polygon method and
Isohyetal method
23

2.7.3.1 Simple arithmetic station average method

This simple method consists of computing the arithmetic average of th e values of

the rainfall for all stations within and in proximity to the area. It assigns equal
weight to all stations irrespective of their relative spacing and other factors. If
the stations are uniform over the area, and the rainfall rate does not diffe r much
at various stations, then this method is quite satisfactory. Melaku (2005), and
Yeman (2006), were used this method to estimate areal rainfall distribution over
lake Tana and lake Hawassa from surrounding gauging stations respectively.

2.7.3.2 Weighted average method

If the station-average method may not provide an area average rainfall that
reflects the actual spatial distribution of rainfall of the area, a method that can
account for the non homogeneity of the rain gauge locations would provide a
more accurate estimate of the actual rainfall depth. Two such methods will be
demonstrated. The Theissen Polygon Method assigns weights to the rain gages
according to the proportions of the total watershed area that are geographically
closest to each of the rain gages. The isohyetal method, which should be more
accurate than the Theissen Polygon Method, weights the catch at each of the rain
gages according to the watershed area that is physically associated with the catch
of the rain gage, and however, Theissen Method is easier to apply and is more
reproducible (that is, different individuals would be more likely to provide the
same estimates) than the isohyetal method, the isohyetal method permits the
hydrologist to incorporate orographic effects and storm morphol ogy into the
calculation of the weights and expressed by equation below:
n

P
i 1

Ai Pi
A

(6)

Where,
_

P = is the average areal rainfall (mm),

24

P i = is the rainfall measured at station i (mm),

n = the number of rain gauges,

A i = is area representing gauging station i (km 2 ) and
A = total area of the watershed (km 2 ).

2.8

Hydraulic Residence Time

Hydraulic residence time is important feature that affects lake or reservoirs.

Hydraulic residence time is sometimes called exchange rate of water regimes. It
is a time that takes for the volume of water in storage to replace itself within an
equal volume of water. This factor affects the storage and exchange of nutrients
and other pollutants. A lake with a short exchange rate would have a better
chance of flushing itself and should have lesser pollution event to occur. The
methodology used to identify lakes hydrau lic residence time is to first determine
the systems water budget or inflow and outflow. The actual inflow and outflow
data reflects the accuracy of hydraulic residence time of the lake in better way
(Paul, 2004).

25

3.1

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Description of the Study Area

3.1.1 Location and accessibility

The study area, lake Ziway and its watershed, is located in the CRV of Ethiopia.
Lake Ziway is the shallowest lake in the country and drains to lake Abijata
(Dagnachew et al., 2005). The watershed of the lake is situated between latitude
of 7 0 18 to 8 0 25 N and longitude of 38 0 15 to 38 0 22E in the northern part of
Ethiopian CRV watershed partly in Oromia and partly in South People Nations
and Nationalities (SPNN) regional states. It extends from Gu rage Mountain in
the west via main Ethiopian rift valley to Mountains Chilalo, Galema and Kakka
of Arsi on its eastern side and the total area of the lake watershed is about
7488km 2 .

Figure 1 Location map of the study area

26

3.1.2

Population

3.1.2.1 Human

According to Central Statistical Agency (CSA , 2008), the total population in lake
Ziway watershed was estimated about 1,323,321 with 2.4% growth rate.

3.1.2.2 Livestock

Total livestock population of the study area was about 857,333TLU (Tropical
Livestock Unit) (CSA, 2008).

3.1.3 Topography and drainage and geology

The Rift floor in the eastern and southeastern of the lake Ziway watershed is
mainly covered by steep slopes characterized by abrupt faults. Its watershed is
divided into three physiographic areas: the high plateaux on either side of the rift,

the transitional escarpment and the rift floor (Makin, 1976). There is a
topographic difference of about 2600 m between the rift floor and the highland
areas (mountains). The watershed is bounded in the east by Chilalo (4056 masl),
Galama (4153 masl) Kakka (4256 masl), Mountains and from the west by
Guraghe Mountains (3609 masl).

Lake Ziway is fed principally by Katar and Meki rivers from its eastern and
western sides, respectively (Figure 1). Most parts of the plateau area are
perennial sources of these rivers while the tributaries in the escarpments and rift
floor are almost intermittent sources. In addition, the highland areas are
characterized by higher drainage density than the escarpment due to differences
in rock permeability, climate and slope (Danachew et al., 2004) .

27

Figure 2 Topography of lake Ziway watershed

3.1.4 Soils

According to Makin (1976), soil of the study area is closely related to parent
materials, degree of weathering and the relief that has significant influence on
the development of soil types. The main parent materials are basalt, ignimbrite,
acidic lava, volcanic ash and pumice, and riverine and lacustrine alluvium.
Weathering varies from deeply weathered basalt in humid highland areas to un weathered recent alluvial deposits in the lower area of the central part of the rift
valley areas.

Generally, there are four soil types in the area (Makin et al., 1976; Halcrow,
1989):
Type I: covers predominantly the rift floor and western escarpment on flat to
undulating plains with some hills formed on pyroclastic deposits (F igure 3).
28

Generally, the soils are dark grayish free draining friable silty loam to sandy
loam with moderate structure and good moisture storing properties.

Type II: is found on steep faulted undulating and rolling low plateau escarpments
of the rift zone. The soil is well drained, moderately deep to deep dark gray or
brown, friable silty loam to sandy loam with moderate st ructure and good
moisture storing properties.

Type III: is well drained deep reddish brown to red friable clays to clay loams
with strong structure. This soil type is found on flat to undulating plateau of
western margin and dominantly in eastern plain.
Type IV: is very thin and shallow soil covering the eastern margin of the study
area. The soil is well drained and limited moisture storing property, stony and
has no diagnostic horizon.

29

Figure 3 Distribution of major soil types in the watershed

3.1.5 Land use and land cover

The difference in topographic, climate and edaphic conditions determine the

distributions and coverage of ecological niches in the watershed and each of them
is characterized by particular association of v egetations (Figure 4).

Agriculture has long history in the Ziway watershed. The watershed as a whole is
a zone of intensive agricultural activity and different crops are grown in the
region using both the kiremt (main rainy season consists June, July an d August
months) and belg (March, April and May) rains. In the rift floor, the main
30

cultivated crops are maize, the staple food in many parts of the region, teff
(Eragrostis teff), wheat and haricot beans with little while at escarpment and
highland areas are principal producers of cereals in the country (Dagnachew et
al., 2004).

Figure 4 Land use map of lake Ziway watershed

The vegetation in the Rift Valley is mainly c haracterized by Acacia species open
woodland, now extensively overgrazed (Woldu and Friis, 1986), whereas
deciduous woodlands (Olea europaea, Celtis, Dodonaea viscosa and Euclea)
occupy the escarpments (Mohammed and Bonnefille, 1991). The montane forest
exists between 2000 and 3000 m on the eastern plateaus bord ering the rift and is
31

dominated by Podocarpus gracilior (Friis, 1986; Woldu and Feoli, 2000).

Especially since the 1970s, increasing and progressive settlement has replaced
the rangelands around the lake and the montane forest on the escarpments and
plateaus with small to medium-scale farming, some of which are mechanized
(Makin et al., 1976; Friis, 1986; Woldu and Feoli, 2000).

On irrigated plots, onion, tomato, cabbage, maize, green pepper and other crops
are cultivated. Most irrigation is found along t he western shore of the lake and in
the lower parts of the Meki and Katar rivers. Irrigated agriculture generally uses
furrow method for applying water from available surface water sources. Field
efficiencies are estimated to be about 45% -50%. The total land area under
irrigation using water from lake Ziway was estimated to be about 6000 ha
3

resulting abstraction of approximately 150 Mm year -1 of water (Hengsdijk &

Herco, 2006; Vuik, 2008).

3.1.6 Water resources of lake Ziway watershed

Lake Ziway, Katar, Meki and Bulbula rivers are major water resources in the
watershed. There are also seasonal intermittent s that originated from highland
areas either feeding these major rivers or directly drain to the lake.

Katar river is the biggest perennial river starti ng from Arsi high lands (Kakka
mountain) and flowing towards the northwest and finally joins the lake. The river
has watershed area of 3350 km 2 at Habura gauging station and 1750 km 2 at Fite.
The watersheds of Katar river ascend to over 4256 masl on the summits (picks)
of Chilalo and Kakka mountains. Consequently, the gradient of this river is
generally steep throughout its course to lake Ziway, and it is often deeply incised
up to 50 m below the ground surface.
Meki river drains an area of 2433 km 2 from the Gurage mountains to the west and
northwest of lake Ziway. Although the head water of Meki riv er is at an altitude
32

of about 3500 masl, the river rapidly descends the ri ft valley escarpment to below
2000 m before being joined by several major tributarie s, Meki river is incised in
a steep-sided valley until it reaches Meki town at the head of its delta.

The entire outflow from lake Ziway is through Bulbula river, which flows in
south direction to lake Abijata. Bulbula descends some 58 m over a distance of
30 km between lake Ziway and Abijata. Except during the wet season, the flow in
the river usually derives from lake Ziway.

During the past three decades, the mean annual discharge of Katar and Meki
rivers contributed by about twice the direct rainfall inputs to the lake Ziway or
about 15% of annual rainfall of the watershed (Herco et al., 2007).

3.2

Materials and Data used

3.2.1 Data and their sources

The following time series of hydro -meteorological data and land use types have
been collected and used for the assessment of lake level and water balance of
lake Ziway using water balance model:

3.2.1.1 Hydro-meteorological data

Mean daily and monthly discharge data of Katar, Meki and Bulbula rivers
and daily and monthly lake level data of gauging stations for the la st 30-33
years (1975/80-2004/7) were collected from Hydrology department of
Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR),
Monthly and annual meteorological data ( rainfall for 13meteorological
stations, temperature for 7 stations, pitche evaporation for 2 stations, R H,
sunshine duration and wind speed for 4 stations) for last 7 -22 years were
33

collected from national meteorological service agency (NMSA) (for

stations name see Appendix Tables),
Data on land cover and crop types grown under irrigation were collected
from Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA), East Showa Arsi
Zone Irrigation development offices, Ziway Dugda, Adami Tullu Jedo
Kombolcha and Dugda districts

of Rural and Agricultural Development

(RAD) offices and other organizations and

Information about sources of water for irrigation, domestic water supply
and livestock were collected from relevant RAD district offices and Batu
town water supply office,
Reviewing different literatures:

Software used
1. Excel spreadsheet was used for analyzing row data
2. Cropwat Software was used for estimating evapotranspiration from
agricultural lands.

3.3

Methodology

In this study, attempt was made to analyze the meteorological (mean monthly and
annual rainfalls, evaporation, minimum and maximum temperature, RH, wind
speed, sunshine duration), hydrological (runoff, lake level) and other hydro meteorological processes in lake Ziway and its watershed for the last 2 -3
decades.

3.3.1 Data quality

In general, meteorological and hydrologic data collected from the stations vary i n
their qualities. There are about thirteen rainfall recording stations, five runoff
gauging stations, one lake level recording station, seven temperature measuring
station, four other data recording stations (wind speed, sunshine duration and
34

relative humidity) and two evaporation measuring stations in the study area. All
measuring stations have some miss ed data value during certain days of a months
or a years. At some stations, even there is a discontinuity of data (e.g. rainfall
for Bokkoji) and a short time recording duration.

Data collected from the MoWR and NMSA was not updated. Data from MoWR
discontinues about 3-8 years while that of NMSA were 2-3 years back from my
reference year (2009). Generally, the missing data collected from bot h MoWR
and NMSA were estimated on the basis of statistical norms for each parameter
during the time under question.

3.3.2 Filling of missing data

3.3.2.1 Hydrological data

As the recorded discharge data at the four stations for Katar river (Habura and
Fite), Meki river (at Meki town) and Bulbula (at Karkarsitu) were incomplete,
and missing river discharge data were estimated using: (i) the statistical relation
(correlation) between the downstream and the upstream gauge data for Katar
river, and (ii) Meki and Katar downstream discharge relation. Katar and Meki
were gauged since 1975 (at Habura and Fite and Meki) while Bulbula river was
gauged at Karkarsitu since 1980. The missed data for Bulbula were filled from
the stage-discharge function relating lake level to its outflow. This correlation
equation was adopted infilling missed data.

Y = aX + b

(7)

Where, Y is seasonal rainfall (mm) or lake level (m) and X seasonal runoff depth
from watershed or lake (Mm) Katar, Meki and Bulbula or un-gauged runoff, a
and b are correlation constant.

35

3.3.2.2 Meteorological data

Among meteorological data collected from NMSA, data of rainfall is the most
important and it had missing value at most meteorological stations of lake
watershed. The Normal Ratio Method was used to fill in missing data on rainfall
stations. This method was adopted to this watershed s ince the differences in
annual rainfall between most of the stations exceed 10% (Apendidex A. Table 1)
and the existence of large elevation difference among the stations. This approach
enabled to estimate missing data by weighing the observation at n gau ges by
their respective annual average rainfall values and can be adopted by using the
following expression (Richard, 1989; Garg, 2005):
PX =

NX
3

P
PA
P
+ B + C
N A N B NC

(8)

Where:
N x = the mean monthly rainfall for the station with missing data (mm),
N A , N B and N C = the mean monthly rainfall data for base stations and
P A , P B and P C = the normal monthly rainfall values of the base stations .

Figure 5 Meteorological stations around Lake Ziway

36

3.3.2.3 Checking data inconsistency

To check the change in magnitude of rainfall stations data, double mass -curve
analysis was used to check whether the existence of an inconsistency in rain gauge stations of the stations in lake Ziway watershed. A group of certain
numbers of neighboring stations is chosen as base station s from the vicinity of a
doubtful station, all stations said as doubt stations unless they are checked out .
The cumulative values of the doubtful stations are plotted against the cumulative
values of the average group on a graph paper. If the data are consistent, the plot
of cumulative value of the doubt ful data against cumulative value of average
group will be a straight line. On the other hand, inconsistent data will exhibit a
change in slope or break at the point where the inconsistency occurred. If a

change in slope is evident, then the record needs t o be adjusted.

3.3.2.4 Homogeneity test

The objective of homogeneity treatment is to preliminary classify the watershed

in to sub-watersheds which helps for an assortment of studies such as filling
missing values, rainfall elevation and runoff correlation, as well as categorizing
streams in to this regions. In order to find similar regions , monthly rainfall
values are non-dimensionalzed and plotted to compare the stations with each
other. The non-dimensionailized monthly values can be estimated by using the
following equation.

Pi ( Pvi / P)100

(9)

Where,
P i = non-dimensional value of rainfall for month i
Pv i = over years averaged monthly rainfall of the station i
P= the over years average yearly rainfall of the station

37

3.3.2.5 Estimation of areal rainfall over lake Ziway

For this study, the areal rainfall over lake surface was estimated from four
stations (Ziway, Meki, Adami-Tullu, and Ogelcho) surrounding lake Ziway using
Simple Arithmetic Average method was employed for estimation of seasonal
rainfall distribution over lake surface and given by the following equation
Richard, 1989; Garg, 2005):
1 n
=
P n Pi
i
_

Where

(10)

is the average rainfall (mm), Pi is the rainfall measured at station i

(mm), n the number of rain gauges in the watershed

These stations were selected by virtue of their close proximity to the lake ,
sufficient length of records, consistency of records and similarity of topography
and rainfall patterns. The arithmetic mean method was used to estimate the areal
rainfall distribution over a given area if the stations are uniformly distributed
over the area; the rainfall rate as there was less than 10% variation among the
rainfall observation at different rain gauge stations.

After depth of rainfall over surface area was computed with this method, the
volume of direct rainfall over the lake surface was estimated by multiplying
seasonal depth of rainfall with average area of the lake.

3.3.2.6

Estimation of evaporation and evapotranspiration

Penman method was adopted to estimate evaporation from lake Ziway using
Ziway meteorological station data while FAO Cropwat software and Pitche
evaporimeter

along

with

Penman

method

were

used

for

estimation

of

evapotranspiration from crop land. The aforesaid three methods were used for
comparison purpose. The Penman equation states (Garg, 2005) as:
38


Hn + Ea

Eo =

(11)

Where,
E o = daily potential Evaporation
= Slope of saturation vapor pressure carve at air temperature
mm of Hg/ 0 C
= psychrmatetric constant = 0.49mmof Hg/ 0 c
H n = net incoming solar radiation or energy expressed in mm of
evaporable water per day
E a = a parameter including wind velocity and saturation deficit and
given
E a =0.35(1+

V2
) (e s -e a) mm/day
160

(12)

E a = mean wind speed at 2m above ground in km/day

e s = Saturation vapour pressure at mean air temperature in mm of Hg,
e a = actual vapour pressure of air in mm of Hg.
The net radiation (H n ) is the difference between the net incoming shortwave
radiation (S n ) and net outgoing long wave radiation

(L s )and from the above

equation, it can estimated from the Energy Budget equation given by

S n = H c (1-r)(a+b*

n
)
N

(13)

L s = *T 4 (0.56-0.092 ea )*(0.10+0.90

n
)
N

(14)

and net radiation is expressed

H n = H c (1-r)(a+b*

n
n
)-*T 4 (0.56-0.092 ea )*(0.10+0.90 )
N
N

Where
S n = net incoming shortwave radiation (MJ.m-2.day-1)
L s = net outgoing long wave radiation (MJ.m-2.day-1)

39

(15)

H c = mean incident solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere on the

horizontal surface, expressed in mm of evaporable water per day.
This value is a function of l atitude () of the place and the season of
the year and obtained from table.
r = reflection coefficient (albedo) of the area and obtained from
meteorological table and for the water body r = 0.05
a = a constant depending upon the latitude ( ) and given as
a = 0.29 cos and lake Ziway is located at 8 0 00 and a = 0.287
b = constant having average value = 0.52
n = actual duration of bright sunshine in hours
N = maximum possible hours of bright sunshine (mean value). This value
is also a function of latitude () and value is obtained from meteorological
tables.
= Stefan-Bolzman constant,
= 2.01 * 10 -9 mm/day
T a 4 = mean air temperature in 0 K and equal to 273 + 0 C
e s = actual mean vapor pressure in the air in mm of Hg.

3.3.3 Estimation of surface inflows and outflows

Katar and Meki rivers are the major sources of inflows to the lake which are
gauged and Bulbula river is one of the source of outflow from this lake and is
also gauged since 1980. Long-term records of discharges of these rivers were
collected from MoWR. Discharge data of Katar river were recorded at two
gauging stations, one at Fite (middle Katar) and at Habura (near mouth of Katar
river about 8 km upstream of the lake) for the last 30 years (1975 -2004),
discharge data of Meki river were taken at one stream gauging station (Meki
town) for the last 29 years (1975 -2003) and for Bulbula river recorded data were
taken at Karkarsitu gauging station (1980-2007).

40

Apart from Katar and Meki sub -watersheds, lake Ziway receives inflow from
ungauged

parts

watershed covering about 1265 km 2 (16.89% of the total

watershed area). This ungauged part of the watershed covers a sub-watershed

adjoining lake Ziway almost in all direction of the lake except a very small part
to the north which is treated as sub-watershed of Meki river.

Figure 6 Rivers and Lake level Gauging Stations

Runoff from these sub-watersheds was assessed using Area Ratio method. This
method was used to establish a relationship between the gauged and un -gauged
parts of the watershed based on the area ratios. This was based on the assumption
that the major un-gauged sub-watersheds (west, northwest, southwest and south
east) had relatively homogeneity in topographic feature.

The geologic formation in both sub -watersheds (gauged and un-gauged) was
reported to be similar with basaltic origin (Makin, 1976; Tenalem , 1998). Land
use and drainage patterns of this sub-watershed were observed from 1:50,000
41

scale topographic map of the area. This situation had been given due
consideration while applying area-ratio method in estimating runoff from un gauged sub-watersheds of the Lake.

Spatial variability of rainfall was also taken into account by computing area
rainfall for the gauged and un-gauged watersheds within the watershed of gauged
rivers. The areas for gauged and un -gauged sub-watersheds were computed
separately. The rainfall in the un-gauged watershed was converted into runoff
applying the area ratio developed between the two sub -watersheds located in
similar rainfall regimes using the following equation (Daniel et al., 1981).
Qg
Qu n

Ag

(16)

Au n

Where,
Q g and Q un = Seasonal discharge from gauged and un -gauged subwatershed (Mm 3 ) respectively and
A g and A un = Area of gauged and un-gauged of sub-watersheds (km 2 )
respectively.

Based on this equation, Habura and Meki gauging stations of Katar and Meki
rivers were used to estimate runoff which comes out from these un-gauged parts
of the watershed.

3.3.4 Lake level and storage

The dead storage of lake Ziway was fixed at 1635.10 masl at Bochessa village
around outflow of the lake to Bulbula river where zero gauging height of the
Lake was taken for measuring lake level since 197 5. The height of the river bed
at confluence of Bulbula river with the lake is 0.46 m (1635.1 m (is 0 depth is the
lake level reference datum and 0.46 m is height of Bulbula river bed above this
reference datum) is 1635.56 masl). From this reference elevation or assumed
datum (1635.10 masl), seasonal lake fluctuation and lake level has been
42

estimated from this reference datum (1635.10 masl) . Lake level data for the last
33 years (1975-2007) were collected from the hydrology department of MoWR.

3.3.5 Water abstractions

Domestic water supply (human and livestock) and agricultural (open and closed
irrigation) activities are two major purposes of water abstraction from lake Ziway
and major inflowing rivers. Estimation of water abstraction from the Lake and
rivers was based on land under irrigation data obtained from OIDA, Arsi, East
Shoa

Irrigation

Development

Offices,

District

Rural

and

Agricultural

development RAD Offices (Adami Tullu Jiddo Kombolcha (ATJK), Dugda and
Ziway Dugda), and Ziway town water supply. Assessing of water abstraction
from rivers is used to identify the trend of rivers discharge. Total area of lands
under irrigation, types of irrigation systems and efficiency and major crop types
cultivated and growing frequency per year were used for assessm ent of water
abstraction. Seasonal crop water consumption was computed with average crop
water requirement presented by FAO, (1998). Further, estimation of livestock
water consumption was based on the type and number of livestock, daily water
consumption rate of the livestock and time duration the animals depend on the
lake for water consumption.

3.4 Estimation of water balance for lake Ziway

Water balance was developed for lake Ziway on monthly and annual basis for a
duration of 21 years (1987-2007). The water balance model equations written
below are using various water balance components , can be used to compute the
water volume, area, depth. The intention of the water balance in here is to assess
Lake Ziway water level, compute volume, area and their tempo ral variability on
monthly or yearly time spans. In order to estimate the water level, volume based
or depth-based equations, which have equal applicability, can be employed. The
lake level based estimation procedure has been employed for result of this study.
43

Monthly inflows, outflows and lake level data were used for the assessment of
water balance. The recursive continuity equation was formulated and described as
(Tenalem 2007):

St St 1 Pt Et Qit Qot Abt G

(17)

Where,
S t = Storage at the current month (mm),
S t-1 = Storage at the end of the preceding month (mm),
Q it = inflow to the lake at the current month (mm),
P t = is the mean areal rainfall on the lake at the current month (mm),
Q ot = outflow discharge at the current month (mm),
A bt = is the abstraction of water at the current month (mm),
E t = evaporation loss from lake at the current month (mm) ,
G= net groundwater flux (mm).

The water balance equation could be rearranged to solve for the net groundwater
flux ( Gt ):

Gt = Pt + Qit - Et - Qot - Abt - S

(18)

Where, S= S t -S t-1

Gt = Git - Got
G it = groundwater contribution to the lake in current month (mm)
G ot = groundwater outflow from the lake in current month (mm)
The three basic conditions in the operation of the above recursive formula could
be if:

G t 0 indicates that the inflow and outflow in the groundwater flow system of
the reservoir is balanced;

G t < 0 the groundwater inflow is substantial which could be the possible

contribution to the reservoir system;

44

G > 0 groundwater outflow from the lake is in excess of groundwater inflow to

the lake, which has a negative impact on the storage of the reservoir system

Using this equation and knowing the initial storage (at some reference time say
January 1987) and treating groundwater flow as net groundwater flux, the
recursive continuity equation is formulated. But solution for the above equation
(17) is not straight forward; because at any given time there are two unknowns:
the lake storage (S t ) at time (t) and the outflow (Q ot ) that corresponds to this lake
storage (S t ). The simplest approach is approximating the lake storage for that
particular time to be the previous month outflow (Q o(t-1) ) from the lake (ValletCoulomb et al., 2001).
3.5

Estimation of Hydraulic Residence Time of the Lake

Hydraulic residence time was estimated from storage capacity ( average lake
volume) and water budget components (total annual inflows or outflows) of the
lake and estimated by using Equation (Paul, 2004):
HR t = V s /V (I/ O) per unit of time
Where,
HR t = hydraulic residence time of the lake (year),
Vs

= storage (volume) capacity of the lake (m 3 ),

V (I/ O) = volume of inflow or outflow to/from the lake (m 3 ).

45

(19)

4.1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Processing of Rainfall Data

The distribution of rainfall of lake Ziway watershed is major sources of lakes

water budget and processing rainfall data is one parameter to know the nature of
rainfall of the area for any water developments. Rainfall character s, nature and
seasonal distribution were identified among rainfall stations in the watershed.
During the analysis of rainfall data, consideration was given to fill missed data of
rainfall using Normal Ratio Method and mean monthly and annual rainfall
distribution of the watershed stations is presented in table 1 and Appendix A.
Table 1 and 2.

Identify inconsistency of rainfall data and homogeneity of rainfall of the gauging

stations were carried out and described as below.

To investigate whether there were problems of inconsistency for gauging stations

in the watershed, a group of 4 neighboring stations were chosen from the vicinity
of a doubtful station. The analysis was conducted for thos e meteorological
stations (Adami Tullu, Ziway, Meki and Ogolcho) nearest to lake Ziway. The
cumulative values of the doubtful station (let say Adami Tullu as doubtful station
among them) were plotted against the cumulative values of the average group ( let
say Ziway, Meki and Ogolcho) using Microsoft Excel spread sheet. The records
of these stations did not show inconsistency since the graph was found to follow
nearly straight line (Figure 7) and therefore, these stations had no need to replace
or recording problems or subjected to any external factors during period of time s
of this study.

46

Figure 7 Inconsistency test for stations bordering the lake

4.2

Identification of Homogeneity of Rainfall Stations

After inconsistency of rainfall was analyzed, identification of the homogeneity of

the rainfall was undertaken to group meteorological stations (areas) into with
similar annual or seasonal rainfall distribution and to recognize if there is any
variability of rainfall in space and time . Accordingly to this study, rainfall in the
watershed varied with altitude and presented as Table 1.

47

Table 1 Rainfall distribution and altitude in the lake watershed

Station

Altitude Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Ziway

1646

1987-2009

18.2 31.1

52.2

79.2

65.1

95.5

163.9

122.1

79.0

44.3

9.4

6.2

766.2

Butajara

2088

1987-2007

37.5 67.2

146.4

144.3

114.5

146.8

191.0

170.9

123.4

53.0

12.2

20.0

1227.2

Assalla

2396

1987-2007

17.9 38.8

92.9

120.7

90.4

120.4

163.2

171.4

118.8

62.2

13.8

19.7 1030.2

Sagure

2516

1987-2007

10.8 25.7

57.3

80.7

79.8

90.4

143.2

142.4

79.0

40.4

6.8

7.7

764.0

A/Tullu

1628

1988-2009

15.7 36.2

46.8

79.8

60.9

83.5

142.7

133.7

84.1

38.0

2.5

9.6

707.4

Meki

1663

1987-2008

9.4

34.3

59.2

74.3

57.2

73.8

169.6

143.6

75.3

35.3

11.9

6.6

740.1

Meraro

2975

1987-2007

21.3 38.2

63.0

76.9

57.95

74.9

142. 8

163.4

80.9

40.3

17.2

16.7

793.5

K/ Genet

2149

1987-2007

9.2

49.9

69.2

92.2

91.7

136.8

120.4

97.0

41.4

3.9

4.1

735.8

Koshe

1873

1987-2007

23.7 44.6

78.32

100.8

71. 9

88.1

161.8

128.2

96.4

41.9

4.7

9.3

849.8

Arata

1760

1987-2007

13.1 31.7

65.9

81.1

74.1

97.6

127.7

115.2

106.5

38.5

10.3

6.5

768.3

Kulumsa

2153

1987-2007

21.0 38.9

78.9

91.6

82.0

94.8

119.9

133.5

96.0

48.6

15.1

10.6

830.1

Ogolcho

1690

1987-2009

13.7 39.3

62.0

85.5

57.4

83.0

170.6

107.4

102.1

27.4

7.7

6.0

761.8

Bokojji

2793

1988-1996

30.0 68.9

82.86

127.7

84.8

103.8

188.4

221.2

94.9

53.8

15.2

19.8

1091.2

18.6 39.6

72.0

93.2

95.7

155.5

144.1

94.9

43.5

10.1

10.9

830.20

Average

20.0

76.0

48

From Table 1 above, high altitude areas like Assalla, Bokojji and Butajara
mountains received mean annual rainfall of over 1000 to 1200 mm while the Rift
floors areas like Ogolcho, Meki, Ziway and Adami Tullu received about 750 mm .
However, the correlation coefficient (0.35) between altitude and rainfall was not
found very strong. Two sub-watersheds (Katar and Meki) were separately
analyzed again and the amount of their annual rainfall with their respective
elevation; Katar sub- watershed has a correlation coefficient of about 0.455 while
that of Meki was about 0.93 with their respective altitude.

Figure 8 Mean monthly rainfall distribution of Katar sub -watershed

Therefore, there was a significant orographic effect on the spatial distribution of

rainfall over Katar sub-watershed (Figure 8). Areas close to mountains of western
highland (Meki sub-watershed) received higher mean annual rainfall than areas
found far away from the mountainous region at eastern regio n (Figure 8). One
good example of this effect is the difference between Assella and Sagure (Katar
sub-watershed) situated at almost equal altitude (2396 masl and 2516 masl
respectively) received different amount in mean annual rainfall. Assalla nearest
49

to Chilalo Mountain received more mean annual rainfall than Segure far away
from Galama ridge. While, the western half of the area (Meki sub-watershed) got
higher Belg (March to May) rainfall than the eastern half because, the Guraghe
mountains act as windward direction to the northward movement of moist air
while the eastern mountains areas were rain shadow at that time.

Figure 9 Mean monthly rainfall distribution of Meki sub -watershed

Based on stations rainfall distribution ( homogeneity) and altitude (topographic

influences), meteorological stations in the lake watershed were categorized into
three rainfall regimes. Meteorological stations located at Rift floor (Ziway, Meki,
Adami Tullu, Ogolcho and Arata) were treated as one group; stations at
escarpment

(Kulumsa,

K/Genet,

Bui,

Sagure)

were

considered

as

one

homogeneous group and the rest stations in the highlands area such as Assalla,
Mararo, Butajara and Bokkoji were considered as one homogeneous group and
presented in Figures 10, 11 and 12.
50

Figure 10 Stations with similar rainfall distribution in the watershed

Figure 11 Stations with similar rainfall distribution in the Watershed

51

Figure 12 Stations with similar rainfall distribution in the Watershed

4.3

Components of Water Balance

The study of water balance is the application of the principle of conservat ion of
mass in hydrology and the equilibrium can attain between inflow and outflow
components and the change in storage for each interface of time of any
hydrologic regimes. The water balance model for the lake was established after
estimating the components as described in section 3.4 and Equation 17.

The major components of water balance of lake Ziway are inflows, outflows and
lake storage. The lake inflow consists of direct surface rainfall, inflow from
Katar and Meki rivers, and direct surface inflow from un-gauged sub-watershed.
The outflow components include flow of Bulbula river, evapor ation loss from
lake surface and water abstraction from the lake for different purposes. From the
available information and data collected, estimation of groundwater in/outflow
to/from the lake was difficult and treated as the residual of the net groundwat er

52

flux. Based on this, results for each component of lake Ziway water balance are
presented and described in the following sections.

4.3.1 Reservoir storage

Mean monthly change in storage of the lake was estimated from lake level
records of 1976 to 2007. Mean monthly lake level was computed from daily lake
values and mean annual lake level was estimated from computed monthly lake
level. The estimated mean monthly or yearly lake depth was converted into
monthly or yearly lake storage.

Long term mean monthly lake level (storage)

values are presented in Figure 13 and monthly and yearly depths of the lake are
depicted in Appendix A. Table 12.

Figure 13 Mean monthly Ziway lake level

The hydrodynamic behavior of lake Ziway is highly cyc lic. A uni-modal had a
prolonged drawdown from October to June and filling phase commenced in July
to September. This annual cycle could be evident from daily records of reservoir
level except for extreme shifting of rainy seasons from normal rain y time of the
watershed. For the last 33 years (1975-2007) duration, minimum daily lake level
53

(0.13 m) was recorded on June 25 of 1975 while maximum daily Lake level (2.28
m) was recorded during 1-3 November 2007. Mean seasonal lake level (the range
between mean maximum and mean minimum of the Lake level) fluctuation was
estimated to be about 0.803 m and this figure in line with Hengsdijk and Herco
(2006a) as they reported as 0.8 m.
As shown in Figure 13, long term mean peak lake level (1.55 m or 681 Mm 3 ) had
been attained in the month of October after all inflow rivers lose their maximum
daily discharge (1.5 months lag time after main rainy season) while long term
mean minimum lake level (0.74 m or 327.7 Mm 3 ) was achieved in June at late of
minor (belg) rainy season or during starting of the main rainy (Kiremt) season.
Lake Ziway water level had been below average for about 6 months of mean
annual lake depth and above mean annual lake level for about 5 months. Only for
one month (at January) the lake attained about the mean depth of the lake.

Maximum inflows (direct surface runoff to the lake and rainfall over Lake
Surface) attained in August and therefore; the lag time of Ziway lake was about
1.5-2 months after peak discharge of all inflows. But the lake attained maximum
annual depth in month of October. Minimum annual lake depth in month of June
is due to the facts that, lake passed during the past months (December to May)
over dry period. During these months inflow from the major rivers was reduced,
more evaporation was taking place and more water was abstracted from the lake
for all water uses.

4.3.2 Estimation of areal rainfall over Ziway lake surface

The depth (volume) of rainfall over Lake surface was calculated with simple
arithmetic mean method. The mean monthly and annual rainfall depth was
estimated to be 742.6 mm. Seasonal rainfall distributions over Lake surface is
presented in Table 2.

54

Rainfall of the watershed is the main source for generation of surface runoff and
enumerating the nature and distribution of rainfall helps to estimate about the
portion of its as runoff to feed reservoirs. The long term mean yearly volume of
water produced from 833.20 mm rainfall depth was about 6.217 billion m 3 in the
Lake Watershed.

Table 2 Mean monthly rainfall distribution over surface of lake Ziway (1987-2007)

Mean monthly Rainfall distribution over lake surface (mm)

Station

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Ziway

17.5

30.4

51.5

78.5

64.4

94.8

163.2

121.4

78.3

43.6

8.7

5.5

757.8

Habura

12.2

37.7

60.5

83.9

55.9

81.4

169.0

105.8

101

25.8

6.1

4.5

743.5

Meki

10.3

35.1

60.2

75.3

58.1

74.1

170.6

144.6

76.2

36.1

12.9

7.5

761.7

A/Tullu

13.7

34.1

44.6

77.6

58.8

81.3

140.5

131.5

81.8

35.8

0.3

7.5

707.4

Lake

13.4

34.3

54.2

78.9

59.3

83.1

160.9

125.8

84.2

35.3

7.0

6.2

742.6

From Table 2 above, lake Ziway and adjacent areas received a maximum rainfall
depth (369.80 mm) during main rainy season (kiremt i.e. June, July and August )
which represents about 50% of annual rainfall depth (7 42.6 mm) and the Belg
(March, April and may) rainfall represents about 26% of the annual rainfall. The
rest seasons (Tsedey: September, October and November and Baga: December,
January and February) received 17.03% and 7.27 % respectively.

4.3.3

Rivers inflows and surface runoff

Surface inflow components of the lake consist of three sources: inflows from
Katar and Meki rivers and surface runoff from un -gauged sub-watershed
surrounding the lake. Long term mean annual discharges of these rivers were
estimated to be about 671.84 Mm 3 (Katar 401.6 Mm 3 and Meki 270.24 Mm 3 ).
This is in line with previous studies of Tenalem (2004) and Herco et al. (2007) as
they had reported an annual inflow from these rivers were about 675 Mm 3 year -1
55

for duration of 10 year (1970 1996) and (1995-2006) respectively by these two
authors. However, annual discharge of these rivers shows large temporal
variability. This magnitude of annual inflow volume was about 116 mm (14%) of
the annual volume of the rainfall in sub -watersheds above gauging stations of
Katar and Meki rivers.

Flow hydrographs of Katar at Habura and Fite are shown in Figure 14 below. As
it could be noticed from Figure 14, the discharge of Katar measured at Fite is
greater than its discharge measured at Habura during most of the months and the
gap increases during the high rainfall months of the year i.e. August. Th is
probably is due to base flow as to the channel and the losses from seepage and
evaporation or water abstraction in the river course in between the two
observations. Equal discharge measurements were observed at these two stations
in the months of June and November. Katar attained maximum discharge (138.1
Mm 3 ) in the month of August and minimum discharge (about 6 Mm 3 ) in month of
January.

Figure 14 Mean annual Katar hydrograph at Fite and Habura

56

Meki is the second components of lake Ziway water budget equation of runoff.
Measuring gauge was installed for Meki river at Meki town near the mouth of the
river. Flow hydrograph of this station is shown in Figure 15 below. On average
monthly basis, maximum flow occurred in August (77.76 Mm 3 ) with a minor
secondary peak in April (16.46 Mm 3 ) and minimum flow was in December (22.2
Mm 3 ). As it could be noticed from Figure 15, during months of DecemberJanuary, the river bed flow got dry and it could be said that the base flow of
Meki river is almost nil during the severe dry years and it is impossible to
depend on runoff from this river throughout the year for any water development
activities such as irrigation and domestic water supply.

Figure 15 Long term mean monthly hydrograph of Meki river

Direct surface runoff from the un -gauged sub-watersheds had been produced
during the rainy seasons and it was estimated using Area Ratio method. The
contribution of un-gauged sub-watersheds to the annual water budget of the lake
was thus found to be 98.33 Mm 3 . The contribution of direct surface runoff
originated from un-gauged sub-watersheds was estimated as about 12.76% of
total mean annual surface runoff. The mean monthly and annual inflows of direct
57

surface runoff from un-gauged sub-watersheds and from the major rivers are
presented in Table 3.
Table 3 Long term mean monthly Rivers inflows and direct runoff to lake ziway
(1975-2004/7)
Mean monthly runoff to lake Ziway (Mm3)

Surface
runoff

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

Katar

5.9

6.5

10.5

19.7

14.5

20.1

44.7

138.1

82.3

40.1

12.3

6.9

401.6

Meki

2.4

3.9

10.7

16.5

15.8

14.3

48.6

77.8

48.1

22.5

7.6

2.2

270.24

U/gauged

1.0

1.5

2.7

5.3

4.1

5.0

16.3

31.1

19.5

8.6

2.4

0.8

98.30

Total

9.3

11.9

23.9

41.5

34.4

39.4

109.6

247.0

149.91

71.2

22.3

9.9

770.30

Jul

Aug

Sep

From close scrutiny of Table 3, it could be seen that the maximum discharge of
surface runoff was occurred during the month of August (247 Mm 3 ) and during
main rainy season (Kiremt), lake Ziway received about 51.43% (396.0 Mm 3 ) of
the annual surface inflows while 31.57%, 4.04% and 12.96% during Tsedey, Baga
and belg) respectively. During dry season (Baga: i.e. December, January and
February) runoff, both from main rivers and direct runoff from un -gauged
watershed were reduced. But during the remaining seasons (Tsedey and Belg),
31.56% and 12.94% of runoff were observed which may become to the effect of
residual rainfall from Kiremt season and runoff for Belg season was produced
from rainfall occurred during this season in the watershed.

It is difficult to estimate groundwater inflow or outflow to the lake from the

available data; and therefore, they were treated as net groundwater flux (Gi -Go)
and were estimated as residual from other water balance components .

4.3.4 Lake surface evaporation

Rate of evaporation from the lake was estimated from Penman method using
Ziway meteorological station data. Mean annual water lost only due to
58

evaporation from lake Ziway was found to be 1845.70 mm which consumed

nearly about 2.5 times the yearly contribution of rainfall to the lake water budget
and about 74.03% of mean annual inflow components of Lake water budget. As it
can be noted from this Figure 16, annual evaporation from the lake shows
increasing pattern with time of this study. This increment in evaporation rate
ultimately results in the declining of the lake level and might be results in
increasing of concentration of soluble salts that washed to the lake from the
watershed.

Annual water loss from the lake due to evaporation was estimated to be 812.09
Mm 3 . This figure is equivalent with water lost due to evaporation from lakes of
ERV (Makin et al., 1976; Dagnachew et al,. 2004). Mean annual evaporation
estimated using CropWat was less than Penmans while pitche evaporation record
was greater than either of the two methods. The estimated mean annual values of
evaporation loss were 1658.6 mm, 1845.7 mm and 2018.2 mm using Cropwat,
Penman and Pitch methods respectively. Long term mean monthly evaporation
rate for the lake and its physiographic area are presented in Table 4 and the
annual evaporation and evapotranspiration depth are presented on Appendix
Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6.

59

Figure 16 Annual rate of evaporatin from lake ziway with Penman (1987 -2009)
From Table 4 below, maximum rate of evaporation occurred during the month of
May (175.0 mm) while minimum evaporation rate was in the month of September
(127.9 mm). Seasonally, rate of evaporation was more or less the same and have
the values 23.47%, 23.74%, 25.37% and 27.42% for Kiremt, Tsedey, Baga and
belg respectively of annual share.

60

Table 4 Mean monthly rate of evaporation (mm) from lake Ziway and physiographic areas with different methods

Months/Methods Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

Penman

163.0 150.4 166.7 163.5 175.0 163.2 138.6 130.7 127.9 152.3 157.3 157.1 1845.7

CropWat

135.8 132.6 149.7 145.1 156.0 147.6 124.5 124.2 125.0 144.3 137.6 136.4 1658.6

Pitch

170.2 208.5 185.1 181.4 180.1 164.3 123.2 112.4 118.3 183.3 198.2 193.3 2018.2

61

4.3.5 River outflow

The only outflow from lake Ziway as nat ural spillway is Bulbula river and it
gauged at Karkarsitu since 1980. Long term mean annual outflow of this river
was estimated to be about 173.71 Mm 3 (Table 5), equivalent to 15.84% of total
annual inflows to the lake.

Table 5 Long term mean monthly discharge of Bulbula river (1980 -2007)

Mean monthly flow (Mm 3 )

Surface
runoff
Bulbula

Jan
11.5

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

6.8

4.4

3.3

2.9

2.9

4.7

14.6

32.9

40

29.9

19.7

173.7

Similar to lake level, Bulbula river attained mean pick flow in the month of
October (40.0 Mm 3 ) and mean minimum flow depth during months of May and
June (2.9Mm 3 ). But during medium to dry years, the river bed was almost dry
after the month of April and extended to the month of June.

4.3.6 Abstraction losses

According to data gathered from different sources during the field work, there
were more than 200 pumps installed around lake Ziway to irrigate only about
2118.1 ha of land by individual farmers and small association groups around
lake. There are also large commercial farms that produces different horticultures,
floriculture and other industrial crops (grapes) abstracting water from lake Ziway
and Katar, Meki and Bulbula rivers. ELFO RA from north east of the lake, Share
Ethiopia and BGI from south west of the lake are the major users of water from
the lake. The total land under irrigation, at present time, was estimated to be
8263.77 ha (Table 6) and annual water abstraction from lake Ziway and major
rivers for agriculture and domestic supply was about 186.65 Mm 3 (Table 7 and
11).
62

Table 6 Land area under irrigation using water from lake Ziway and major rivers

Land area under irrigation and their water Source (ha)

Total Area

District

Lake

Katar

Meki

Bulbula

Groundwater

Irrigated

Z/Dugda

1769.05

1127.47

0.00

0.00

0.00

2896.52

A.J.K

3135.20

0.00

0.00

119.00

0.00

3254.20

Dugda

936.55

0.00

838.95

0.00

337.55

2113.05

1127.47

838.95

119.0

337.55

8263.77

Total (ha) 5840.8

Source: District RAD and Zonal irrigation development office and OIDA

From land occupied under irrigation and Batu town water supply, annual water
abstraction from lake Ziway was about 128.5 Mm 3 (Table 7 and 11). From this
total annual water abstracted, the share of domestic supply (human and liv estock)
was only of about 0.60 Mm 3 (0.47%). With the present situations of the water
abstraction (agriculture and domestic water supply), Ziway lake level drop ped by
about 30 cm depth from the water surface, keeping other outflows to be constant.

63

Table 7 Mean monthly water abstraction from lake Ziway for different uses
Mean monthly water abstraction from lake (Mm3) and (mm)
Irrigation System

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

15.90 0.00 13.00 9.89

13.30

9.80

0.00 0.00 6.76

14.40 17.00 16.90 116.90

(20,000m3/ha/year)

0.92

0.92 0.92

0.92

0.92

0.92

0.92 0.92 0.92

0.92

0.92

0.92

11.00

Domestic supply

0.05

0.05 0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05 0.04 0.05

0.05

0.05

0.05

0.59

Total water abstraction

16.89 0.97 13.97 10.85 14.25

10.77 0.96 0.96 7.73

15.37 17.92 17.86 128.50

Total abstraction (mm)

38.38 2.20 31.75 24.66 32.38

24.48 2.18 2.19 17.56

34.94 40.74 40.60 292.05

open irrigation
(5290.80ha)
closed on 550ha

Source of data: OIDA, Arsi and East Shoa Zone, ATJK, Ziway Dugda and Dugda districts RAD offices and Batu town water supply service

64

4.4

Estimation of Lake Ziway Water Budget

After all components of water budget were estimated, lake Ziway water balance
was modeled from Continuity Equation using Excel spread sheet and the results
are presented in Table 8 below.

Table 8 Long term mean monthly water balance of lake Ziway (1987-2007)

Monthly Inflows (mm)

Monthly Outflow (mm) Balance

Months

PPT

Ketar

Meki

Ungua Evapo

Bulbu

Abstr

(mm)

January

13.42

13.42

5.52

2.25

163.00

26.11

38.38

-192.88

February

34.32

14.85

8.85

3.41

150.36

15.54

2.20

-106.68

March

54.18

23.92

24.37

6.16

166.68

10.11

31.75

-99.91

April

78.85

44.73

37.41

12.00

163.51

7.50

24.66

-22.69

May

59.30

33.02

35.88

9.39

175.14

6.63

32.38

-76.56

June

83.06

45.63

32.45

11.30

163.15

6.55

24.48

-21.74

July

160.9

101.7

110.41 37.11

138.62

10.69

2.18

258.56

August

125.8

313.8

176.73 70.70

130.66

33.20

2.19

521.06

September

84.22

187.1

109.26 44.41

127.94

74.77

17.56

204.70

October

35.34

91.01

51.02

19.50

152.26

90.90

34.94

-81.23

November

6.98

27.89

17.20

5.36

157.28

68.04

40.74

-208.62

December

6.23

15.63

4.96

1.89

157.05

44.77

40.60

-213.72

Yearly ( mm)

742.6

912.7

614.07 223.5

1845.6

394.8

292.1

-39.71

Yearly (Mm 3 ) 326.7

401.6

270.19 98.33

812.09

173.7

128.5

-17.47

PPT, Ungaug, Evapo and Abstr stands for mean monthly

areal rainfall, un-gauged inflow,

evaporation and water abstraction from the lake respectively .

The result of this lake water balance (Table 8) revealed that the contribution of
direct rainfall, Katar and Meki rivers and runoff from un -gauged sub-watershed
to the annual inflow components to the lake were about 29.79%, 36.61%, 24.63%
and 8.96%, respectively whereas, evaporation loss , outflow to Bulbula river and
65

water abstraction constituted about 74.04%, 15.84% and 11.72%, respectively, of

the total annual inflows to the lake.

If the influence of ground water is seen from recursive fo rmula of water balance
of lake Ziway equation 18 above, monthly net groundwater flux was computed as
the residual of other water balance components and lake storage . Long term mean
monthly water balance of lake Ziway and the influence of groundwater is
summarized as shown on Table 9 and groundwater might be contributed to the
Lake water budget about 17.47 Mm 3 (1.6%) of total annual outflow components.
Table 9 Mean monthly water balance of lake ziway and net groundwater flux
Inflows (Mm3)
Month

Outflows (Mm3)

Net Flux

(Mm3)

(Mm3)

PPT

Katar

Meki

Ungag

Evapo

January

5.91

5.91

2.43

0.99

71.72

11.49

16.89

-57.86

27.00

February

15.10

6.53

3.89

1.50

66.16

6.84

0.97

-62.08

-15.14

March

23.84

10.52

10.72

2.71

73.34

4.45

13.97

-45.91

-1.95

April

34.69

19.68

16.46

5.28

71.95

3.30

10.85

-26.96

-16.98

May

26.09

14.53

15.79

4.13

77.06

2.92

14.25

-10.44

23.25

June

36.55

20.08

14.28

4.97

71.79

2.88

10.77

-12.46

-2.90

July

70.77

44.73

48.58

16.33

60.99

4.70

0.96

36.87

-76.90

August

55.37

138.09

77.76

31.11

57.49

14.61

0.96

150.17

-79.10

September

37.06

82.31

48.08

19.54

56.29

32.90

7.73

145.64

55.58

October

15.55

40.04

22.45

8.58

66.99

40.00

15.37

20.56

56.31

November

3.07

12.27

7.57

2.36

69.20

29.94

17.92

-62.67

29.13

December

2.74

6.88

2.18

0.83

69.10

19.70

17.86

-74.86

19.18

98.33

812.09

173.71

128.50

0.00

17.47

Annual

326.74 401.57 270.19

PPT, Ungag, Evapo and Abstra stands for mean monthly

Bulbula Abstra

Storage

areal rainfall, un-gauged inflow, evaporation

and water abstraction from the lake respectively.

From equation 18 of section 3.4 above, When the result of the left hand side
equation is positive, it shows that there are more groundwater inflows than
66

outflow and vice versa. In lake Ziway case, from Equation 18 section 3.4 and
Table 9 above, the value of right hand side is about +17.47 Mm 3 (positive value)
which is exactly equal to net groundwater flux (G), and indicating the
groundwater inflow was substantial which could be the possible contribution to
the lake and it has a positive impact to the storage of the reservoir system.

From Table 9, if one observes monthly water balance of lake Ziway, the lake
contributes water to groundwater duri ng months of February to March, June to
August and receive water from groundwater during months of SeptemberJanuary and May. From the rainfall distribution of lake Ziway watershed, the
rainfall of the area is bimodal which has maximum pick during months of August
and minor pick in the month of April and lake Ziway receives water fro m ground
water immediately after picks rainfall of the area.

In addition to these annual water budget components of the lake is presented in

Figure 17 below.

Figure 17 Long term mean annual water balance components of lake Ziway
without groundwater flux
67

If lake Ziway water balance is only estimated from inflow and outflow
components, the estimated water balance of the lake from above Table s may have
error because of uncertainty of water balance discussed in section 2.5.2 and the
actual water budget components of this lake may vary from what were estimated
from this research report.

4.5

Hydraulic Residence Time of Lake Ziway

The estimated annual inflows and outflow to/from lake Ziway were 1096.83 Mm 3
and 1114.30 Mm 3 , respectively. The storage capacity of lake Ziway with 440 km 2
area and 2.5 m average depth was reported to be about 1446 Mm 3 (Tenalem,
2003; Dagnachew et al., 2005). The hydraulic residence time was evaluated from
equation 19 and therefore, lake Ziway has about 1.3 years of hydraulic residence
time. This short hydraulic residence time provides opportunity for the lake to
flush itself and to have less pollution events. This situation makes lake Ziway to
be considered as the main sources of fresh water among CRV lakes.

4.6

Temporal Variation of Ziway Lake Level

As described in section 2.3.1, the seasonal lake level fluctuation of CRV is

associated with rainfall distribution of adjacent high lands, water abstraction , and
climatic change (street, 1979; Dilnesaw et al., 2007; Tenalem, 2007).

In view of the fact that the water budget and lake level are subjected to these
factors, and it needs to identify to what magnitude these parameters affect the
lake level. If these factors increased or decreased to certain level, how far does
the lake level will fluctuated from mean seasonal or annual level? Since, lake
Ziway did not regulated or controlled through its natural outflow (Bulbula river),
seasonal or annual outflow of this river has no any effects on seasonal or annual
level of this lake, since Bulbula outflow itself is the function of seasonal lake
level.
68

But the changing of other water budget component s (either inflows or outflows)

10%

has a significant influence on seasonal lake level fluctuations. Change in

6.9

of rainfall over surface of the lake may have about

% ( 74.26mm)

increasing or decreasing from mean lake level. The sensitivity of lake level to
water budget components is present ed in Table 10 below and therefore the trend
in functioning of the level is described in the following section.

Table 10 Sensitivity of lake Ziway and water budget component s

Ungauged

in

Rainfall

%
varia

Katar River

LL

in

Meki river

LL

area

Evaporation

LL

in

LL

in %

(mm)

(mm)

in %

Abstraction

LL

(mm)

in

LL

bles

in %

(mm)

-15%

-10.38

-111.4

-13.58

-136.9

-9.14

-92.11

-3.33

-33.52

27.47

276.85

4.35

43.81

-10%

-6.92

-74.24

-9.05

-91.27

-6.09

-61.41

-2.22

-22.35

18.31

184.57

2.90

29.21

-5%

-3.46

-37.13

-4.53

-45.63

-3.05

-30.70

-1.11

-11.17

9.16

92.28

1.45

14.61

5%

3.46

37.13

4.53

45.63

3.05

30.70

1.11

11.17

-9.16

-92.28

-1.45

-14.61

10%

6.92

74.24

9.05

91.27

6.09

61.41

2.22

22.35

-18.31

-184.57

-2.90

-29.21

15%

10.38

111.4

13.58

136.9

9.14

92.11

3.33

33.52

-27.47

-276.84

-4.35

-43.81

(mm)

(mm)

LL is change in Lake Level and % change in percent in lake level

4.6.1 Pattern of rainfall and other climatic factors on the lake level

4.6.1.1 Rainfall

Rainfall is the main source for the variability in the water balance over space and
time, and change in rainfall have very important implication for hydrology and
water resources. Hydrological variability over time in a watershed is influenced
by variations in rainfall over daily, seasonal, annual and decade time scale.

The level of lake Ziway is fluctuated with the trend of rainfall in adjacent high
lands. Accordingly, in this study monthly rainfall record (1987-2006) of Kulumsa
and Koshe (middle

altitude) and weighted

69

average

of the lake

Ziway

watershed were used to analyze the effect of rainfall on the trend of the
fluctuation in the water level of lake Ziway. From Figure 18 below, it could be
recruited that time was about 5 to 7 years for occurrence of recurrence period of
drought in the watershed. The consequence of this shortest occurrence of the
drought period causes exhaustion of the existing surface water for domestic
supply and agricultural water uses. From the analysis , the distribution of rainfall
in both sub-watersheds (Katar and Meki) show decreasing pattern for the duration
of analyzed period.

Figure 18 Mean annual rainfall of Kulumsa, Koshe and weighted average of

Ziway watershed
From Figure 18, time series rainfall of these two stations (Kulumsa and Koshe)
and the weighted rainfall of watershed is negative trend which shows that rainfall
was apparently decreasing patterns. From meteorological stations in a watershed,
only high land stations (Butajara, Assella, Sagure and Meraro) have positive
correlation with time series (0.225, 0.276 0.123 and 0.093) while the escarpment
and low land stations (Kulumsa, Habura, Ziway, meki, Koshe and Arata)
correlated negatively (-0.422, -0.712, -0.150, -0.238, -0.177 and -0.143) with
time pattern. Rainfall distribution pattern in the watershed generally shows
negative (-0.30) correlation with time for the last 21 years and on average it
70

decreased by about 8% from base year (1987). The period of 21 years may be
assumed as average time to draw decisive conclusion about long term trends of
rainfall of the watershed and that gave a negative trend of rainfall over the years.

4.6.1.2 Temperature

Temperature is one of the main climatic factors that affect water budget of any
system. It is the main components of evaporation and that takes place from water
bodies and evapo-transpiration from living things. Mean annual temperature in
the lake Ziway watershed was analyzed and had correlation of -0.973 with
altitude. In most stations temperature shows significant trend. In low land ar eas
like Ziway, Arata and Langano showed more significant than high land area s.
This increasing in temperature affects considerably evaporation from lake water
surface and evapotranspiration from watershed. Increasing in evaporation from
water bodies and land surfaces resulted in declining of annual water budget of
this lake. This phenomenon also affects surface runoff (Katar and Meki rivers
and their tributaries). As it is observed in Kater river, channel losses w ere
occurred between Fite and Habura gauging stations.

Figure 19 Annual mean temperature of Ziway Meteorological Station

71

From Figure 19 above, the trend of temperature is increasing continually and it

may amplify the rate of evaporation from the lake and evapotranspration in the
watershed and therefore, negatively affects water budget of the lake. As
temperature increases the rate of evaporation increases and consequently lake
level decreases. This increasing of temperature could be an indication of climatic
change in the region. It is difficult however to explain the cause of climatic
change in terms of local or regional land use change at this level.

4.6.1.3 Relative humidity

Figure 20 shows relative humidity of lake Ziway watershed meteorological

stations.

RH was observed to be highest in the wet season, and least in

November to May. RH at Ziway was greater than at other stations during dry
season except for Mararo, this could be due to the fact that this meteorological
station (Ziway station) is located near the lake where evaporation takes place
from the lake resulting to rise in moisture content of the air. Annual RH of the
watershed was showed a decreasing trend from high altitude to low altitude
especially in the rift valley area.

Figure 20 Mean monthly RH of Ziway watershed Meteorological Stations

72

4.6.1.4 Wind

Figure 21 shows wind speed of lake Ziway watershed meteorological stations.

From this Figure, wind speed was observed to be highest in the dry season for all
stations in watershed except for only Ziway when highest recorded of wind speed
was achieved during rainy season. Maximum wind speed of the stations was
recorded in month of November and while minimum was at August. Wind speed
increased from low altitude to high altitude. Wind speed in the watershed shoed
increasing pattern for the last 20 years in the watershed .

Figure 21 Mean monthly wind speed of Ziway watershed Meteorological Stations

4.6.1.5 Sunshine duration

Figure 22 shows Sunshine duration of lake Ziway watershed meteorological

stations. Sunshine duration was observed to be highest in the dry season, and
least in all stations during main rainy season (June to September).

Sunshine

duration was greater than other stations during all throughout year. The mean
73

annual sunshine duration of the watershed was observed and showed an

increasing trend.

Figure 22 Mean monthly sunshine (hours) duration of Ziway lake watershed

Meteorological Stations
4.6.2 Pattern of surface runoff (Rivers inflows to the lake)

Katar and Meki are the main surface in flows to lake Ziway. Annual inflow of
these rivers and showed variability with time se ries and inconsistency between
them were analyzed for duration of this study.

The river discharge largely determined by rainfall patterns for analyzed period
and it showed declining trend (Figures 23 and 24). Annual discharge of Katar
river decreased approximately by above 24% from the base year (1975) while
that of Meki was found about 14% decline. The standard deviation of annual
74

discharge of Katar river for the last 3 decades was about 1 14 Mm 3 while that of
Meki was about 95.72 Mm 3 .

Figure 23 Annual depths of Katar sub-watershed of rainfall and Katar flow depth

Figure 24 Annual discharge of Katar river (1975 -2004)

75

The declining trends of Katar discharge may also be associated with expansion of
water abstraction from the upper stream of this river for irrigation purposes. As
per the estimate, about 1127.47 ha (Table 6) of land had been put under irrigation
for this river up to the year 2009. The annual water abstraction from Katar river
for agricultural uses only in-between Fite and Habura was estimated about 27.06
Mm 3 (Table 11). Also other factors such as land use and globa l climatic change
might be contributing factors for the reduction of annual inflow depth of this
river. The effect of land degradation affects the sustainability of base flow of the
river and consequently affects water balance and results in lowering of the level
of lake. The declining of annual discharge of Katar river (Figure 2 4) was more
pronounced at recent years (during 2002). However, base flow of this river never
dried up even during severe drought years.

As to Katar river, annual discharge of Meki river did not show decreasing trend
for the last 29 (1975-2003) years but high runoff occurred during main rainy
seasons and diminished during dry season and even dry up during severe drought
(Figure 25). But as it can be noticed from Figure 2 5, significant decline of this
river was observed recently during 2000 year similar years with that of Katar.
The annual discharge of Meki river is also found to be directly related with
rainfall of sub-watershed. During drought period annual discharge of this river
showed declining trend, however during rainy season more runoff was produced
than that of Katar in terms of their watershed area.

76

Figure 25 Annual discharge of Meki river (1975 -2003)

About 838.95 ha lands had been covered under irrigation only at lower river
courses of Oromia Region. This value is eve n more when irrigation land uses in
Guraghe Zone is incorporated. Using only agricultural land under irrigation, the
minimum annual water abstraction from this river was estimated to be about
20.14 Mm 3 year -1 .

Bulbula river is a natural spillway of lake Ziway and drains to south west
direction and it feeds lake Abijata. The outflow (discharge) of Bulbula river from
lake Ziway is controlled by the height of the rock sill in Bulbula river channel
near Adami-Tullu. Bulbula river outflow has direct correlatio n with Ziway lake
level and it ceases when the lake falls near about 1635.56 masl. The coefficient
of correlation between Bulbula river flow and Ziway lake level was estimated as
about 0.98.

77

Figure 26 Mean monthly hydrograph of Bulbula river at Karkarsitu (1980 -2007)

It could be observed from Figure 26, Bulbula usually gets dry downstream before
main dry season. Low flow rates were recorded over the river during the years
1980-1981 and 2003- 2005. Drying out of Bulbula river has significant effects on
downstream community and terminal lake Abijata. There are a number of
irrigation fields (119 ha) that pump water from the river Bulbula using
gravitational canals or motor pumps below the gauging station at Karkarsitu.
Annual water abstraction from this river for irrigation was estimated about 3.0
Mm 3 . Reduction of annual outflow of Bulbula river will result in rising of salt
content of Ziway lake and leading this lake towards endohric lake in near future
against the increment of annual evaporation rate from this lake.

According to data gathered up to January 2010, the overall annual water

abstraction from lake Ziway and major rivers was estimated about 186.5 Mm 3
(Table 11). This figure is agreed with most literatures results cited in this report
(Heleco et al., 2007; Tenalem, 2007; Francisco, 2008; Vuik, 2008). They
reported that annual water abstraction from lake Ziway and major rivers was
between 150-200Mm 3 year -1 .
78

Table 11 Annual water abstraction from lake Ziway and major rivers

Source of water

Mean annual
water

Lake

Katar

Meki

Bulbula Ground

abstraction

Ziway

river

river

river

(Mm 3 )

128.50

27.06

20.13

2.86

water
8.10

Total
186.65

4.6.3 Relation between lake level fluctuation and inflow compone nts

4.6.3.1 Inflow components

The seasonal fluctuation of lake Ziway i s not much affected with the amount of
seasonal rainfall distribution ov er lake surface. But it more it more affected by
rainfall distribution in the watershed that produces surface runoff.

The seasonal fluctuation of lake Ziway mainly depends on Katar river than other
inflow components of water budget. The relationship between flow of this river
and the amount of rain falling in its sub -watershed is presented in Figure 23 and
its annual runoff for this river is associated to the annual depth of rainfall
distribution of this sub-watershed. From Figure 27 below seasonal lake level and
flow depth of Katar river is related by equation,

L 1.0369K 0.9984
where, K is seasonal Katar flow depth (m) and L is seasonal lake level (m).

79

Figure 27 Monthly Scatter plot between lake level and katar flow depth

Meki is another component of lake Ziway water budget. The effect of this river
was less pronounced than Katar river on establishing sustainability of this lake.
The seasonal variation of lake depth and discharge of this river is given by

L 0.871M 1.0327
Where, L is seasonal lake depth (m) and M is flow of Meki river.

Figure 28 Scatter plot between lake level and Meki river flow depth
80

From section 4.2, the major inflow components of lake Ziway are rainfall over
lake surface, Katar and Meki rivers and runoff from un -gauged sub-watersheds
and each correlated with lake level -0.36, 0.32, 0.16 and 0.23 respectively. The
seasonal fluctuation of lake depth and total inflow components are described on
Figure 29. From this figure, the peak lake level do not conceded with peak
discharges of inflow components. Pea k discharge of inflows occurred during
main rainy season (August) while the lake lagged about 1.5 months to attained
maximum level after peak inflow components were achieved.

Figure 29 Long term mean monthly total inflows and lake l evel

4.6.3.2 Outflow components and lake level fluctuation

Ziway lake level is not only the function of inflow components but it is also,
negatively affected by outflow components. Evaporation was the major consumer
of lake Ziway water budget among other outflow components. Evaporation and
81

lake level are negatively correlated (cc = -0.48). Maximum evaporation (176.35
mm) occurred during spring (May) when lake level dropped to about a minimum
level (0.773 m) and minimum evaporation was during rainy season (August)
while lake level stepped forward to peak level.

Figure 30 Annual Lake level and Bulbula flow depth (1975 -2007)

Bulbula river is another outflow component. Bulbula outflow directly related

with seasonal lake level fluctuation (Figure 30). During 2003, 2004 and 2005
annual outflow of Bulbula river dropped to about 50 Mm 2 per annual. Such
decreased discharge in this river was very likely due to decrease in Ziway lake
level. This decreased discharge of Bulbula river corresponds wi th development of
new irrigation schemes around shore of lake Ziway. However, as it is observed
from Figure 31, the outflow to Bulbula river ceases if the lake level drops below
0.7622 m from the present gauging height.

82

Figure 31 Scatter plot between lake level and Bulbula river

4.6.4 Ziway lake level trend

However, Figure 32 revealed that there was no indication of declining trend in

the lake level for the last 33 years (1975 -2007) period except annual fluctuation
with the occurrences of drought. But this does not give the true impression from
the components of water budget trends of the lake that show decaling trend of
inflows and going up of outflow components. It necessarily may be due to
increased accumulation of sediment yield and thus influencing Lake Basin
bathymetry and volume. But this graph (figure 32) is start from extreme lower
lake level recorded (0.78 m) year (1975) and end with extreme higher record of
lake level (1.54 m) year (2007) and it mislea d to draw conclusion from this
Figure. But figure 32 and 33 shows different trend for duration of different
period of lake level recorded. Figure 33 is likely indicating the trend of Ziway
level in which it omitted the minimum and maximum lake level for drought and
good rainy year respectively.
83

Figure 32 Lake level for the last 33 years (1975- 2007)

Figure 33 Annual lake level for the last 29 years (1977 -205)

84

But to perceive the fluctuation o f lake level against pattern of rainfall

distribution of the watershed, the last 20 years (1987 -2006) rainfall and lake
level was analyzed and depicted on Figure 31 and it concealed that, annual
fluctuation of lake level was not only connected with annual rainfall distribution
of the watershed.

After newly expansion of irrigation schemes around the lake since 2002, the lake
level dropped below average depth (0.70 m to 0.87 m during the year 2003 and
2005 respectively). The maximum, minimum and average levels of lake ziway
decreased since this year. The year 2002 was relatively dry year (Appendix Table
1), but the following year 2003 was an average year both in terms of rainfall and
annual river discharge (lake inflow components). Year 2004 was also a fairly
average in terms of inflow components.

It is not conceivable that the lower of lake levels from 2002 -2005 were the result
of 2002 dry year. From rivers inflow, not resulted from long term (more than one
year) lowering lake level. This dramatic drawdown of the lake level indicates th e
more water has been abstracted from the lake.

Figure 34 Annual lake level fluctuation against rainfall distribution in watershed

85

The lake level dropped on an average about 0.33 m (0.69 m, 0.73 m and 0.83 m
during year 2003, 2004 and 2005 respectively), from long term mean lake level
(1.08 m). This value (0.33 m) is exactly equal to the quantity of water abstracted
from lake Ziway for irrigation water use and domestic water supply investigated
by this study which is equivalent with 128.5 Mm 3 .

86

5.1

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Summary and Conclusion

Lake Ziway watershed is divided into three physiographic areas: the high
plateaux, the transitional escarpment and the Rift floor. There is a topographic
difference of about 2600 m between the Rift floor and highland areas. Most parts
of plateau area are perennial sources for this lake while the tributaries in the
escarpments and Rift floor are almost intermittent.

The climate of the lake Ziway watershed varies from arid to humid. The
surrounding of lake Ziway, a mid -altitude region varies in temperatures, from 10
C to 31 C as annual minimum and maximum with mean annual rainfall ranges
from 700-830 mm. The mean annual evaporation rate from the lake Ziway as
estimated by Penman method, was about 1846 mm.

Rainfall distribution in the watershed varies with altitude. Highlands adjoining

the lake in both directions intercept most of the rainfall in the watershed and the
escarpment region receives up to 1100 mm while mean annual rainfall of the Rift
floor and lake areas was about 742.62 mm. However, the correlation between
rainfall and altitude was not very strong.

Double mass curve was worked out for station located at corners of lake Ziway
for investigation of consistency of gauging stations. Normal Ratio Method was
employed for estimation of missed rainfall data of the station s. For estimation of
mean seasonal lake surface area rainfall distribution , simple arithmetic average
method was used. Long term mean annual rainfall over lake Ziway was estimated
to be about 742.62 mm.

Katar river is the biggest perennial river starting from Arsi high lands. The river
has a watershed area of 3350 km 2 at Habura town. The mean annual discharge of
87

this river was estimated to be about 401.6o Mm 3 . This river had maximum flow
(138.09 Mm 3 ) in the month of August while minimum flow (5.90 Mm 3 ) in
January. The annual flow of Katar river showed insignificant trend, however, the
base flow of this river was more clearly defined and it showed most unlikely that
the Katar would never dry up during long dry period.
Meki is the second perennial river in the watershed and drains about 2,433 km 2
from the western side of lake Ziway. On an average, maximum flow (77.76 Mm 3 )
had been occurred in the month of August with a minor secondary peak in April
and minimum flow (2.43 Mm 3 ) in December. It can be said that the base flow of
this river dried out during the severe dry years which makes impossible to
depend on runoff from this river throughout the year for irrigation and domestic
water supply. The mean annual contribution of the Meki river to the lake Ziway
was estimated to be about 270.24 Mm 3 .

The entire outflow from lake Ziway is through Bulbula river, which flows to
south direction and it is the main feeder for lake Abijata. The river attained pick
flow (40.0 Mm 3 ) in the month of October and minimum flow (2.9Mm 3 ) during
months of May and June. But during medium to dry years, the river bed was
almost dry after the month of April and extended to the month of June. Low flow
rates were recorded through the river during the years 1980-1981 and 2003-2005.
Long term mean annual flow of Bulbula river measured at Karkarsitu was 173.7
Mm 3 .

Direct surface runoff from un -gauged sub-watershed was computed from gauged
and un-gauged area of entire sub-watersheds of the lake using area ratio method
for each month from adjacent gauged rivers and its annual contribution of water
budget for lake Ziway was about 98.33 Mm 3 .

Water from the lake Ziway and feeder rivers are being abstracted for two major
purposes: for domestic water supply and agricultural activities. Finally,
88

estimation of water abstraction from the lake was computed from annual water
consumption for agriculture and domestic suppl ies. According to this study,
annual water abstraction from lake Ziway was estimated to the amount of 292.05
mm (128.5 Mm 3 ) while from major rivers was about 58.65 Mm 3 . Abstracting only
this amount of water from the lake with present situations; Ziway lake level was
dropped by about 30 cm. The total water abstracted from lake Ziway alone for
different purposes was estimated about 40% of annual rainfall of lake surface.

The main objective of the thesis was to develop monthly and annual water
balance for lake Ziway. In order to develop water balance of the lake,
understanding the basic hydrological process is much of importance. The
computation of water balance of lake Ziway was made using continuity equation
with excel spreadsheet model.

Accordingly the components of the water b alance for Lake Ziway are:

Reservoir storage, inflows (Katar and Meki rivers, runoff from un-gauged part of
the watershed and direct rainfall over lake surface) and outflows (lake
evaporation, flow in Bulbula river and water abstraction) and the influence s of
groundwater inflow or outflow to/from on water balance of the lake for this
study; were treated as net groundwater flux (Gi -Go) and estimated as residual of
other water balance components.

After analysis of all components of water budget for the lake , a water balance
model was developed using continuity equation. Summing up, the contribution of
inflow components were rainfall 29.79%, runoff 70.21% (Katar 36.62% Meki
24.63% and un-gauged part of the watershed 8.96% respectively) for the lake
water budget.

Evaporation shared 74.04 %, Bulbula river 15.84%, and water

abstraction 11.72% of annual inflow components. Lake Ziway received about

1.60% of outflow components from groundwater as net flux.

89

Finally, all inflow components except annual discharge of Meki river showed
declining trends (rainfall, Katar and direct surface runoff) and outflow
components (evaporation and water abstraction) showed incre asing trends.
However, Ziway lake level didnt show significant changes for the last 33 years
(1975-2007) with these water budget components. But remarkable lake level
dropped since 2002 associated with expansion of land development around the
lake and main feeder rivers. Rainfall, humidity, and base flow of major rivers in
the watershed showed decreasing pattern where as temperature, evaporation,
sunshine duration wind speed, runoff (during rainy season only), abstractions of
water from main rivers and lake, had increasing trend in watershed, therefore,
lake Ziway may be said to be under threat for the storage.

Seasonal fluctuation (temporal variation) of lake Ziway is associated with

distribution and trend of adjacent lake rainfall in the watershed. But water
abstraction from the lake also had significant influen ce in addition to natural
hydrologic cycle in controlling the lake level. Annual lake level fluctuation was
estimated as 0.803 m.

Generally, lake Ziway to be subjected to climatic factors, such as seasonal

rainfall fluctuation, which might change on a regional or global scale and
anthropological activities that modifies hydrologic circulation processes.

5.2

Recommendations

As the result of unsustainable water resources utilization from lakes, the

degradation of natural resources (land resources), and population pressure and
land development around the lake, the natural feature of lake Ziway seems to lay
under threat and the following recommendations are needed to restore or to
sustain present condition.

90

 More detailed water resource assessment should be required, including

sustainable water abstractions from the lake and the special variability of
water quality and quantity. Particularly, special emphasis is required on
the potential impact of large-scale water abstraction for floriculture; grape
(BGI and ELFORA) production near the eastern and wester n shore of lake
Ziway and the regional hydrology of the lake should be assessed in detail,
with special attention to the impacts of domestic water supply, small scale
irrigation, fishery production and other aquatic life and sustainability of
this Lake.
High population pressure within the watershed of lake Ziway has been
associated with a series of detrimental trends. Environmental degradation
is taking in an increasing rate in the entire watershed. Deforestation of
natural forest, land cover change and cultivation of marginal land and
sloppy areas were common practices. The effects of these factors reduce
soil moisture storage and increases evapotranspiration in the watershed.
And therefore detailed land use planning, implementation of soil and water
conservation measures and integrated land husbandry will be required.
Aside from the problems related to water abstraction from lake Ziway,
investors producing industrial crops and floriculture have been discharging
agrochemicals and fertilizers directly to the lake through drainage ditch
and this may have direct or indirect affects on biology as well as chemistry
of this lake. One example for this is Share Ethiopia floriculture plant is
directly drain water from production field to the lake through drainage
ditches. Short and long term consequence of this effect may need serious
attention before things reach to stage of irreversible situations.
According to this study, lake level does not show declining or to some
extent it indicates significant increment o f lake level against variability of
rainfall

and

increment

of

evaporation
91

from

Lake

Surface

and

evapotranspiration in the watershed. This might be volume of dead storage

is occupied by silts. Bathymetry survey of the lake and investigation of
rate of siltation should be major concern of MoWR and other researchers.
Establishment of buffer zone along shore of the lake and major feeder
rivers for silt trap from un-gauged sub-watershed and serve as wind break
is also suggested to reduce rate of eva poration from the lake, since
evaporation is a major consumer of water budget.
Generation of other job opportunities that reduce stress both on water
resources and environment. Especially for those communities along main
rivers and shore of the lake, promotion of non e water consuming economic
activities are essential. And therefore, irrigation activities should be
combined with an integrated approach to sustain future development
activities based on the lake water resources.
Training and awareness creation to the community, others stakeholders and
legislative bodies on environmental degradation and its consequences may
also give rise to mitigate the present problem.

92

REFERENCES

Alemu Diressa, 2006. Groundwater Surface Water Interaction and Analysis of

Recent Changes in Hydrologic Environment of Lake Ziway Watershed. An MSc
Thesis presented to School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University .

Anna, G., 2005. Non-climatic Lake Level Change in Ethiopia. TU Bergakademie

Freiberg, Faculty of Geosciences, Geo-technology and Mining.

Assefa Melesse, Wossenu Abtew

and Tibebe Dessalegne, 2009. Evaporation

Estimation of Rift Valley Lakes -Comparison Model.

www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Balzs, V., 2009. Water Balance Analysis of Lake Balaton, With Special Regard
to the Metodological and Regional Questions of Evaporation. Theses of Doctoral
(PHD) Essay. Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Keszthely.

Black, P., 1996. Watershed Hydrology. Ann Arbor Press, Inc . Chelsea. MI: 278 321.

Caroline, L.T, T. Jean-Jacques, G. Elisabeth, Y. Travi,. L. Kirima-Eddine, R.J.

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7
7.1

APPENDICES

Appendix A. Tables

Appendix Table 1 Yearly rainfall distribution of Lake Ziway watershed Stations (mm)
Year
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Mean

Ziway
700.60
1052.9
689.40
801.60
794.20
958.90
587.30
564.00
912.10
848.60
756.20
645.50
704.30
749.63
543.45
850.80
773.60
805.10
794.60
764.88

Butajara
1247.90
1124.50
1311.50
1469.30
1046.33
1015.89
1029.96
1031.20
1168.80
1483.80
1240.30
1459.90
1054.40
865.60
1313.98
1159.90
1187.80
913.40
1846.70
1572.30
1227.17

Koshe
907.70
659.50
1193.5
831.97
782.40
790.83
1311.5
675.61
869.70
891.20
859.10
867.00
693.10
765.00
915.70
578.70
809.75
601.10
1011.7
953.60
849.84

Meki
804.00
728.80
870.20
921.30
674.87
923.29
749.80
638.80
353.29
835.08
893.48
754.75
698.93
751.50
758.90
511.60
820.65
601.10
723.17
788.42
740.10

Assala
878.89
908.00
1162.6
967.70
784.00
825.35
1056.8
1101.4
1080.3
1241.4
1154.9
1142.1
857.20
1061.8
1438.8
779.50
978.70
1077.2
1082.8
1088.4
1030.2

Sagure
691.00
898.20
616.10
812.60
710.40
827.90
836.90
701.60
773.30
695.80
692.70
756.50
733.55
748.34
898.80
678.00
699.83
743.60
727.10
957.90
764.04

105

K/Genet

764.53
909.40
797.50
910.10
795.20
743.90
705.60
668.80
703.80
728.90
660.20
909.25
759.15
933.10
788.40
545.90
610.50
632.85
362.42
787.11
735.83

Meraro

764.51
923.10
858.38
828.51
693.80
909.58
705.68
666.90
737.00
681.71
925.30
710.26
696.10
742.55
809.70
793.10
791.39
886.30
952.80
793.51

Arata
659.78
717.00
679.11
747.00
796.73
843.80
841.70
638.00
921.90
922.40
882.60
928.30
688.22
805.20
837.00
575.20
771.20
602.20
785.40
723.90
768.33

Adami
Tulu

Kulumsa

Ogolcho

Bokkojji

775.50
874.40
916.30
984.00
796.30
809.50
930.60
727.00
866.90
877.00
911.60
900.67
746.60
797.50
938.90
708.40
758.60
728.00
743.30
805.70
830.13

1487.3
970.10
939.40
704.70
739.80
928.70
589.20
720.00
816.00
747.20
824.50
626.50
719.70
703.70
583.30
775.50
571.00
496.09
530.93
761.77

1161.4
1078.0
1056.3
1039.7
1153.8
1186.2
1051.4
1030.9
1063.5

611.73
738.97
783.58
693.70
750.02
841.20
616.40
510.02
658.60
523.80
962.42
634.95
670.00
808.70
524.10
742.70
721.50
940.70

1091.2

707.39

Appendix Table 2 Monthly rainfall distribution of Lake Ziway watershed Stations (mm)
Station

Altitude Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Ziway

1646

1987-2009

18.2 31.1

52.2

79.2

65.1

95.5

163.9

122.1

79.0

44.3

9.4

6.2

766.2

Butajara

2088

1987-2007

37.5 67.2

146.4

144.3

114.5

146.8

191.0

170.9

123.4

53.0

12.2

20.0

1227.2

Assalla

2396

1987-2007

17.9 38.8

92.9

120.7

90.4

120.4

163.2

171.4

118.8

62.2

13.8

19.7 1030.2

Sagure

2516

1987-2007

10.8 25.7

57.3

80.7

79.8

90.4

143.2

142.4

79.0

40.4

6.8

7.7

764.0

A/Tullu

1628

1988-2009

15.7 36.2

46.8

79.8

60.9

83.5

142.7

133.7

84.1

38.0

2.5

9.6

707.4

Meki

1663

1987-2008

9.4

34.3

59.2

74.3

57.2

73.8

169.6

143.6

75.3

35.3

11.9

6.6

740.1

Meraro

2975

1987-2007

21.3 38.2

63.0

76.9

57.95

74.9

142. 8

163.4

80.9

40.3

17.2

16.7

793.5

K/ Genet

2149

1987-2007

9.2

49.9

69.2

92.2

91.7

136.8

120.4

97.0

41.4

3.9

4.1

735.8

Koshe

1873

1987-2007

23.7 44.6

78.32

100.8

71. 9

88.1

161.8

128.2

96.4

41.9

4.7

9.3

849.8

Arata

1760

1987-2007

13.1 31.7

65.9

81.1

74.1

97.6

127.7

115.2

106.5

38.5

10.3

6.5

768.3

Kulumsa

2153

1987-2007

21.0 38.9

78.9

91.6

82.0

94.8

119.9

133.5

96.0

48.6

15.1

10.6

830.1

Ogolcho

1690

1987-2009

13.7 39.3

62.0

85.5

57.4

83.0

170.6

107.4

102.1

27.4

7.7

6.0

761.8

Bokojji

2793

1988-1996

30.0 68.9

82.86

127.7

84.8

103.8

188.4

221.2

94.9

53.8

15.2

19.8

1091.2

18.6 39.6

72.0

93.2

95.7

155.5

144.1

94.9

43.5

10.1

10.9

830.20

Average

20.0

76.0

106

Appendix Table 3 Mean monthly Pitch evaporation for Ziway Meteorological S tation
Average Monthly pitche Evaporation(mm)
Year
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009

Jan
148.5
147.5
144.9
143.5
211.1
200.1
163.0
169.1
203.0
160.3
181.0

136.3

Feb
171.6
229.0
229.2
152.2
255.7
243.1
136.0
194.0
237.
217.2
227.6

171.30

Mar
167.9
174.9
203.8
180.8
68.40
269.2
128.5
164.0
245.7
242.9
189.8

216.20

Apr
124.6
153.6
139.3
207.7
198.7
189.8
207.5
221.3
196.9
142.7
213.3

176.30

May
172.0
122.5
174.5
167.9
210.6
162.0
165.7
190.0
241.2
249.9
124.8

202.40

Jun
148.3
84.80
126.7
167.6
187.1
190.6
164.9
204.8
182.9
187.5
162.2

198.10

107

Jul
104.1
92.90
100.4
102.5
116.5
120.5
142.0
179.4
120.1
136.9
139.7

Aug
96.90
77.00
103.1
73.40
115.9
107.6
117.0
161.3
125.6
120.0
138.3

Sep
102.9
81.70
136.7
83.50
126.3
107.8
117.0
161.3
125.6
120.0
138.0

Oct
234.2
195..2
159.8
116.4
93.10
131.5
190.4
264.3
234.3
195.5
213.3

Nov
219.7
179.1
141.5
215.2
182.4
137.1
239.6
218.8
215.4
209.0
222.6

Dec
181.6
197.0
181,1
212.1
184.0
143.2
213.2
183.7
195.6
193.4
229.5

Year
1723.8
1540.0
1659.9
1822.8
1949.8
2002.5
1984.8
2312.0
2324.2
2175.3
2180.1

123.60

81.30
112.30

86.60
130.70

156.8
140.40

121.1
183.50

145.0
131.30

590.80
1786.10

Appendix Table 4 Mean monthly Pitch evaporation for Kulumsa Meteorological S tation

Average Monthly pitche Evaporation(mm)

Year
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Mean

Jan
117.7
136.3
95.8
197.7
216.60
171.1
136.60
166.00
134.8
164.30
2000.5

Feb
218.7
249.6
110.5
249.6
273.2
188.7
193.6
204.9
205.1
217.3
153.7

Mar
130.3
169.4
141.9
138.4
287.2
107.8
146.1
206.7
236.0
156.8
211.1

Apr
141.9
130.5
168.1
233.7
208.3
190.5
195.7
153.9
116.3
182,6
172.1

May
124.6
184.9
161,1
185.4
139.7
106.7
169.3
258.2
240.2
113.3
171.0

Jun
85.30
107.2
125.2
125.7
125.4
90.3
133.3
104.7
119.5
107.3
169.1

108

Jul
85.0
81.00
91.8
88.2
84.3
81.2
133.8
78.10
90.10
85.80
112.4

Aug
61.3
66.8
60.5
69.6
75.0
71.1
82.8
65.0
76.9
75.0
89.9

Sep
66.5
102.6
56.2
69.6
52.4
89.8
92.8
59.3
74.9
65.1
70.4

Oct
217.8
125.4
125.2
94.6
120.8
190.6
248.8
224.1
173.3
202.6
72.9

Nov
190.1
88.90
204.6
215.8
137.5
207.9
252.0
192.2
200.3
223.3
172.3

Dec
214.6
167.9
234.8
188.9
177.5
188.5
127.5
166.4
167.9
240.7
191.3

Year
1653.8
1610.5
1414.6
1857.2
1897.9
1684.2
1912.3
1879.5
1835.3
1651.5
187.47

Appendix Table 5 Mean monthly penman method evaporation for Ziway Station

Year
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Mean

Jan
168.5
167.2
156.7
169.4
169.5
129.7
133.0
165.5
165.3
147.5
136.0
145.6
153.6
146.3
145.6
141.3
155.6
142.4
209.5
211.0
203.7
193.9
192.1
163.0

Feb
136.5
153.8
143.9
131.8
143.1
121.9
122.0
154.5
150.8
155.5
158.9
138.7
168.5
166.9
155.5
153.8
166.4
158.7
162.3
155.2
144.6
156.9
158.1
150.3

Mar
138.7
203.9
158.7
143.6
149.5
166.1
147.2
166.2
165.4
164.2
181.7
143.1
164.8
182.5
140.2
148.9
179.7
173.3
176.1
178.8
187.9
191.4
181.9
166.6

Apr
130.4
168.3
135.2
160.6
165.6
184.4
171.4
158.0
157.3
164.0
160.0
166.1
173.8
160.4
176.9
176.5
153.9
147.1
171.8
168.3
170.9
174.8
165.1
163.5

Average Monthly Evaporation (mm)

May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
146.7
139.3
160.9
155.4
140.7
176.9
186.2
143.1
97.23
122.2
165.3
152.6
138.6
127.9
122.2
191.1
184.4
154.4
120.4
127.3
189.0
169.7
151.5
119.9
115.1
176.7
168.6
141.8
116.7
105.5
171.6
167.3
141.9
117.2
106.5
2177
164.6
145.8
120.7
128.7
179.6
175. 6 143.1
117.6
124.6
156.1
148.3
130.5
118.2
115.3
169.2
164.4
147.4
134.1
1472
173.9
175.6
158.9
118.1
123.7
165.7
156.4
111.2
119.3
137.1
163.9
153.4
144.7
153.2
115.3
163.9
148. 7 143.7
151.7
143.8
171.3
162.6
157.6
141.7
137.6
199.5
164.0
114.6
123.3
129.4
198.8
164.8
132.4
144.9
129.7
152.9
157.9
123.2
155.8
142.0
158.1
148.7
123.2
140.4
137.4
185.1
148.2
121.0
122.7
129.1
171.7
176.9
120.9
149.5
114.3
183.5
173.9
137.6
139.3
147.8
175.1
163.1
138.6
130.6
127.9
109

Oct
157.5
131.7
140.2
153.0
160.6
138.9
136.9
157.1
158.3
146.9
149.9
131.4
128.9
138.9
161.4
175.5
178.5
158.5
173.7
172.5
159.1
139.9
152.6
152.2

Nov
175.8
162.
170.9
178.5
162.6
155.2
161.9
161.2
163.6
159.0
137.6
148.2
154.9
147.8
155.2
164.0
158.5
161.1
149.4
154.6
143.9
135.7
155.7
157.2

Dec
172.2
166.0
155.3
176.4
154.5
159.5
164.3
164.2
153.8
160.1
153.1
171.7
146.6
1459
156.2
141.9
146.5
156.4
164.8
177.3
165.2
141.4
118.7
157.0

Year
1822.6
1878.6
1767.6
1891.1
1850.6
1765.4
1741.4
1904.3
1854.9
1765.6
1839.5
1794.8
1780.8
1819.2
1842.6
1872.9
1870.2
1868.2
1939.5
1925.4
1881.3
1867.4
1906.4
1845.6

Appendix Table 6 Mean monthly evaporation with CROPWAT method of for

Lake Ziway
Monthly Evaporation (mm)
Year

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Annual

1987

140.1

131.7

137.9

146.9

133.1

139.4

148.1

136.6

137.0

138.7

143.9

145.9

1679.4

1988

143.9

138.4

180.5

145.9

177.8

151.6

107.2

122.2

117.9

138.6

139.7

135.6

1698.3

1989

140.7

108.5

137.3

137.5

162.4

149.7

117.7

117.3

117.4

145.2

138.5

141.8

1613.9

1990

140.7

108.5

137.3

137.5

162.4

149.7

117.7

117.3

117.4

145.2

138.5

141.8

1613.9

1991

150.8

125.8

142.9

152.2

158.4

153.5

119.4

113.5

124.9

151.6

144.2

134.1

1671.2

1992

121.2

120.5

163.6

158.1

156.9

147.4

119.2

110.6

119.8

136.3

134.2

132.3

1620.2

1993

130.5

117.5

163.2

136.7

150.4

159.9

124.1

125.4

120.2

135.5

131.1

136.9

1631.1

1994

141.9

137.7

149.8

142.9

166.0

145.1

115.6

121.9

120.2

158.4

141.0

139.8

1680.5

1995

145.5

136.3

145.8

134.1

162.6

160.9

125.0

123.5

122.5

164.4

144.7

144.2

1709.5

1996

129.8

148.7

148.7

139.8

139.8

122.4

118.4

116.7

118.8

151.1

134.7

136.4

1604.3

1997

125.6

153.1

148.9

133.3

152.0

140.1

127.2

131.1

138.2

135.1

124.4

135.2

1644.3

1998

131.3

125.6

141.4

149.8

149.5

155.1

123.6

119.1

122.8

126.6

140.0

138.2

1622.9

1999

140.4

147.4

147.1

156.1

157.4

151.2

115.6

119.3

130.5

122.5

136.2

131.3

1655.5

2000

132.3

148.5

160.0

144.3

145.0

150.1

134.4

133.2

116.7

123.3

130.1

126.2

1644.1

2001

137.9

130.8

129.9

153.2

149.4

135.6

136.4

134.8

134.2

148.9

138.9

136.4

1666.2

2002

128.1

130.7

134.4

150.9

148.8

149.8

145.2

126.7

129.3

158.6

141.9

133.3

1677.7

2003

137.9

142.2

156.5

139.3

173.2

151.4

124.6

118.1

124.1

155.2

140.8

126.7

1690.0

2004

126.6

139.8

156.9

135.7

175.9

154.8

128.8

132.6

126.4

144.0

142.6

134.3

1698.3

2005

133.6

139.8

149.5

153.2

142.7

147.7

122.2

140.9

132.8

156.3

137.4

132.8

1688.7

2006

135.8

130.6

155.9

150.4

145.3

144.8

123.2

129.0

130.4

155.0

139.6

149.2

1689.0

2007

136.7

121.7

156.8

149.3

167.4

138.5

121.3

118.5

123.6

140.0

126.4

131.9

1632.0

mean

135.8

132.6

149.7

145.1

156.0

147.6

124.5

124.2

125.0

144.3

137.5

136.4

1658.6

110

Appendix Table 7 Mean monthly sunshine duration of

Lake watershed

Meteorological Stations
Stations
Ziway
Mararo
Kulumsa
Bui
Mean

Years
1987-2007
1987-2008
1987-2009
1986-2010

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
9.7 9.3 8.6 8.3 9.3 8.2 6.4 6.6 7.1 9.2 10.2 10.2
8.9 8.4 8.1 6.9 7.5 6.5 4.7 5.5 5.8 6.8 8.6 9.0
8.2 7.9 7.7 7.0 7.9 7.1 5.2 5.3 6.2 7.6 8.7 8.6
8.8 8.5 8.5 8.1 7.9 6.7 5.0 5.3 6.6 8.6 9.8 9.3
8.9 8.5 8.2 7.6 8.1 7.1 5.3 5.7 6.4 8.1 9.3 9.3

Appendix Table 8 Mean monthly wind speed of Lake watershed Meteorological

Stations
Stations
Ziway
Kulumsa
Mararo
Bui
mean

Jan
1.35
2.57
2.46
2.30
2.17

Feb
1.37
2.46
2.64
2.00
2.12

Mar
1.28
2.19
2.93
2.00
2.10

Apr
1.23
2.13
3.03
2.90
2.32

May
1.41
2.15
2.81
3.00
2.34

Jun
1.90
1.94
1.86
1.70
1.85

111

Jul
1.79
2.14
1.58
1.90
1.85

Aug Sep
1.52 1.10
1.72 1.32
1.48 1.94
1.60 1.70
1.58 1.51

Oct
1.25
2.71
2.78
2.10
2.21

Nov
1.41
2.98
2.80
2.10
2.32

Dec
1.46
2.84
2.56
2.20
2.26

Jan
1.42
2.26
2.40
2.13
2.05

Appendix Table 9 Mean monthly discharge of Katar at Habura gauging Station

Katar river flow (MCM) at Habura
Year

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

1975

5.15

4.15

3.53

5.27

5.30

11.90

65.75

241.98

174.45

38.39

8.42

6.75

571.04

1976

5.78

4.89

5.14

6.58

10.76

7.04

36.06

124.33

68.71

12.46

11.76

6.29

299.79

1977

8.79

7.78

6.95

14.74

13.55

12.76

55.06

134.49

111.63

88.11

64.13

10.98

528.97

1978

7.31

7.22

15.29

7.21

9.60

9.43

92.92

155.22

55.70

46.01

11.61

8.54

426.05

1979

5.79

5.28

7.44

15.25

10.36

7.77

43.92

115.03

72.08

43.1

17.37

6.63

350.02

1980

6.89

6.48

6.23

6.15

6.60

10.09

45.42

104.11

48.38

21.2

7.41

6.59

275.55

1981

5.99

5.32

11.01

56.83

21.65

7.33

34.05

172.05

148.05

90.8

9.33

7.37

569.77

1982

7.3

6.28

6.58

14.03

14.66

10.28

33.42

135.33

52.33

41.22

11.78

11.86

345.06

1983

6.28

7.49

11.8

25.06

44.28

61.58

31.91

267.79

108.11

63.25

14.39

7.58

649.52

1984

6.25

7.45

8.16

14.81

8.43

16.28

46.52

68.36

58.74

9.54

6.13

6.10

256.76

1985

4.96

12.44

44.86

143.8

39.44

152.5

13.35

45.18

57.75

10.87

4.54

7.42

421.6

1986

4.96

6.74

9.12

13.22

15.37

25.66

75.46

138.05

89.46

35.17

8.79

6.72

428.73

1987

4.93

4.38

13.05

46.96

26.23

38.30

26.85

51.80

44.22

19.75

6.15

5.38

287.98

1988

4.95

5.31

5.40

5.97

6.74

7.07

61.57

266.32

89.48

54.43

13.39

7.20

527.83

1989

6.43

5.69

6.24

16.55

15.53

10.18

34.39

67.11

75.57

32.41

8.88

10.73

289.73

1990

7.11

26.48

53.62

55.25

14.20

11.17

35.63

137.97

95.77

32.70

9.15

6.39

485.44

1991

5.77

5.41

10.06

13.97

7.42

8.91

37.62

122.62

93.48

16.45

6.63

6.20

334.55

1992

5.41

6.17

4.70

7.88

8.21

8.38

21.92

176.73

139.93

67.18

11.81

7.58

465.90

1993

7.27

15.86

5.88

13.23

30.82

29.98

43.95

141.50

92.55

53.9

18.58

7.23

460.74

1994

5.74

4.64

4.40

4.04

6.66

11.06

61.43

184.46

127.24

18.81

7.27

5.48

441.23

1995

4.18

3.83

21.27

18.73

14.58

6.57

33.75

129.66

153.77

12.3

6.09

5.65

410.38

1996

6.64

4.24

7.65

10.20

18.04

46.50

57.58

171.74

63.18

22.87

6.33

5.79

420.77

1997

7.8

4.04

4.19

15.55

6.97

7.09

36.35

56.20

28.65

14.94

18.05

7.88

207.69

1998

5.85

8.35

13.41

6.17

16.04

9.49

35.88

185.31

128.56

75.30

17.52

6.33

508.22

1999

5.34

1.05

4.58

4.27

4.52

8.26

45.54

90.68

54.98

119.1

19.32

6.26

363.89

2000

4.24

3.95

4.18

3.86

12.51

7.12

26.07

132.07

74.36

67.68

22.56

6.71

365.29

2001

4.71

3.75

5.82

6.66

20.28

35.81

91.92

214.42

98.13

27.98

6.34

4.79

520.61

2002

4.94

4.60

7.41

5.40

7.49

8.90

19.53

71.17

34.85

8.93

3.83

5.15

182.18

2003

6.53

3.36

4.16

10.19

10.17

6.32

44.51

139.12

75.15

20.07

4.77

4.96

329.30

2004

3.94

3.36

3.61

22.59

9.44

8.60

53.66

101.87

69.54

36.34

5.76

3.78

322.47

Mean

5.91

6.53

10.52

19.68

14.53

20.08

44.73

138.09

82.31

40.04

12.27

6.88

401.57

112

Appendix Table 10 Monthly discharge of Meki

Meki river flow at Meki(mcm)
Year

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

1975

0.3.0

0.58

0.02

1.56

1.17

11.58

72.84

75.29

116.35

32.33

5.09

1.32

318.41

1976

0.71

0.22

6.40

5.29

15.71

5.39

39.72

50.51

36.14

5.47

14.08

1.99

181.61

1977

6.69

9.53

1.77

9.13

26.66

16.71

84.43

77.00

48.69

47.99

63.44

7.6

399.62

1978

1.22

3.15

14.10

3.12

1.99

9.99

35.39

78.58

41.49

38.22

7.26

1.86

236.37

1979

7.95

14.19

21.19

54.14

35.32

7.72

62.57

81.87

36.19

34.42

9.15

3.1

367.82

1980

2.16

2.41

3.40

5.67

4.12

12.84

44.61

56.44

24.71

11.66

2.12

1.41

171.54

1981

1.07

1.18

36.67

51.92

15.82

4.00

68.55

80.71

57.61

13.69

1.61

3.05

335.87

1982

2.46

4.29

3.99

18.21

19.06

6.56

22.11

80.54

24.97

44.51

6.69

4.65

238.03

1983

1.42

6.67

12.37

30.77

48.11

36.2

26.57

89.51

55.43

20.17

4.18

2.38

333.78

1984

1.67

1.21

1.21

0.82

6.96

11.88

26.27

26.30

33.62

2.90

0.92

0.78

114.53

1985

0.59

0.45

0.34

3.87

17.81

3.19

23.41

73.23

40.68

8.38

0.90

0.46

173.31

1986

0.09

0.52

0.87

4.89

2.56

14.08

37.47

59.34

38.72

1.90

0.20

0.04

160.69

1987

0.02

0.68

20.62

47.30

46.24

37.91

20.14

16.76

18.95

5.08

1.05

0.11

214.85

1988

0.10

1.03

0.40

7.95

5.94

7.39

42.33

62.30

58.26

33.81

7.55

2.46

229.50

1989

0.38

5.88

8.84

25.01

7.86

10.12

40.63

42.23

45.66

26.04

4.27

2.38

219.28

1990

0.84

27.45

54.11

56.22

14.15

15.08

45.74

53.05

39.33

17.20

4.81

2.34

330.31

1991

1.35

6.28

19.20

7.36

2.39

9.75

65.59

93.48

52.2

9.33

2.26

1.78

270.96

1992

1.97

3.89

12.70

22.57

16.63

14.6

48.16

81.15

47.62

25.40

6.43

1.67

282.81

1993

13.18

2.36

2.62

34.83

46.92

31.90

67.46

154.07

51.57

31.10

11.54

2.38

449.92

1994

2.14

2.42

1.62

5.86

16.62

16.11

66.68

160.78

122.17

11.75

2.54

1.66

410.34

1995

2.49

4.41

14.12

16.65

15.25

14.90

54.84

97.68

51.96

26.44

7.26

1.81

307.80

1996

2.66

2.11

10.12

12.69

15.36

14.88

55.75

102.15

63.53

14.86

5.15

3.24

302.50

1997

0.84

0.65

2.65

25.78

7.75

11.31

44.45

44.45

13.99

17.17

16.03

2.47

187.54

1998

4.28

1.79

32.46

8.48

31.52

13.55

73.98

187.79

75.78

61.92

6.62

1.12

499.28

1999

0.24

0.18

7.61

0.30

1.36

7.35

55.29

60.05

26.32

63.09

12.27

0.74

234.79

2000

0.04

0.01

0.00

0.12

2.23

1.67

16.9

37.55

28.53

22.08

7.67

2.51

119.30

2001

0.03

0.43

8.20

4.95

12.36

28.23

64.2

104.48

64.13

6.84

2.43

1.38

297.65

2002

10.92

7.54

4.23

5.12

14.09

26.41

43.84

51.35

32.3

6.59

5.05

4.37

211.82

2003

2.67

1.41

9.21

6.82

5.88

12.76

58.92

76.47

47.33

10.7

0.95

2.17

235.29

Mean

2.43

3.89

10.72

16.46

15.79

14.28

48.58

77.76

48.08

22.45

7.57

2.18

270.19

113

Appendix Table 11 Monthly flow of Bulbula

Bulbula River flow at Karkasitu(Mm3)
Year

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

1980

10.7

5.50

1.00

0.95

0.60

0.46

0.51

2.26

5.28

5.43

2.38

1.03

37.52

1981

0.56

0.45

0.57

0.52

0.52

0.51

0.59

6.39

33.2

48.12

33.95

20.93

146.13

1982

8.59

4.27

2.67

1.62

1.44

0.79

0.71

5.63

17.85

21.41

15.36

9.93

90.26

1983

5.29

3.18

2.21

2.37

3.85

11.46

4.61

11.3

30.69

109.01

85.77

51.52

321.26

1984

29.52

15.65

8.5

3.68

1.81

1.45

1.79

7.86

14.61

11.99

5.63

2.48

104.96

1985

1.05

0.76

0.66

0.5

0.48

0.47

0.47

0.85

5.24

6.92

2.58

1.28

21.26

1986

0.67

0.59

0.58

0.56

0.58

0.50

0.62

3.40

26.03

37.81

25.54

9.66

106.53

1987

1.77

0.65

0.62

1.52

2.17

6.31

4.38

6.51

10.9

15.16

8.64

5.23

63.85

1988

3.2

2.17

1.75

1.76

1.71

1.72

1.78

4.02

13.45

38.08

27.94

16.5

114.06

1989

9.01

4.8

3.03

3.79

2.06

2.12

2.75

7.49

16.97

18.77

8.56

3.90

83.24

1990

1.43

1.11

3.72

8.67

7.29

2.04

3.25

27.17

67.29

63.10

37.48

20.01

242.54

1991

9.28

3.29

1.81

0.70

0.82

0.34

1.09

12.3

50.25

45.6

29.45

18.16

173.09

1992

9.24

3.91

1.75

1.03

0.37

0.20

0.56

15.17

61.08

68.4

52.94

35.27

249.93

1993

22.72

16.44

8.98

5.15

12.98

19.23

27.7

56.9

72.41

66.25

48.31

34.34

391.40

1994

21.28

12.13

8.88

3.09

0.14

0.10

0.08

10.55

38.84

48.56

36.29

27.41

207.32

1995

13.95

5.59

4.01

1.21

4.8

2.60

2.87

10.17

24.22

30.79

20.65

8.37

129.23

1996

4.93

1.52

0.76

0.84

2.31

7.00

19.26

55.86

92.77

77.10

48.55

33.49

344.38

1997

23.01

16.39

10.07

18.83

15.39

8.19

14.44

24.13

26.07

22.74

19.17

12.62

211.04

1998

7.22

3.58

3.18

0.92

1.17

1.47

2.03

24.48

63.33

85.41

72.03

55.54

320.37

1999

39.46

24.51

20.75

11.37

3.21

0.90

1.98

9.33

19.00

46.05

58.43

42.01

277.01

2000

28.78

14.52

4.45

1.73

1.37

0.60

1.68

4.57

16.07

37.58

39.13

30.93

181.38

2001

22.57

17.18

9.73

7.44

3.17

1.36

10.70

20.01

65.17

63.76

37.59

32.59

291.28

2002

25.8

16.29

10.73

5.86

2.86

2.89

4.10

4.98

7.00

3.84

2.85

2.62

89.82

2003

1.69

0.68

0.49

0.49

0.71

0.88

0.72

1.96

5.00

4.73

2.92

1.59

21.84

2004

0.36

0.01

0.00

0.000

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.82

5.08

4.82

1.83

1.13

14.05

2005

1.03

0.30

0.16

0.01

0.24

0.20

0.44

6.71

13.66

13.05

9.33

6.45

51.57

2006

3.16

0.99

1.05

3.34

6.01

2.88

5.81

17.78

35.17

39.64

46.1

28.28

190.21

2007

15.48

14.97

11.02

4.44

3.60

4.06

16.74

50.40

84.71

85.8

58.84

38.28

388.33

Mean

11.5

6.8

4.4

3.3

2.9

2.9

4.7

14.6

32.9

40.0

29.9

19.7

173.71

114

Appendix Table 12 Long term mean monthly lake level (m) at Bochessa

year
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Mean

Jan
0.73
1.07
0.83
1.53
1.24
1.18
0.54
1.11
1.02
1.44
0.72
0.52
0.85
0.66
1.02
0.92
1.12
1.07
1.30
1.30
1.21
0.97
1.53
1.06
1.57
1.41
1.57
1.57
0.68
0.84
0.74
1.02
1.61
1.09

Feb
0.62
0.92
0.77
1.37
1.2
1.05
0.43
0.98
0.91
1.31
0.6
0.48
0.72
0.53
0.92
0.88
1.00
0.98
1.21
1.15
1.09
0.83
1.4
0.97
1.37
1.22
1.41
1.41
0.58
0.76
0.6
0.89
1.06
0.96

Mar
0.46
0.81
0.63
1.36
1.13
0.91
0.4
0.86
0.81
1.09
0.46
0.41
0.69
0.39
0.81
1.10
0.98
0.88
1.07
0.96
0.95
0.72
1.24
0.93
1.23
1.03
1.30
1.30
0.45
0.57
0.53
0.79
0.90
0.85

Apr
0.32
0.72
0.55
1.19
1.16
0.76
0.60
0.79
0.89
0.9
0.36
0.39
0.69
0.25
0.82
1.22
0.93
0.74
0.95
0.84
0.9
0.76
1.24
0.87
1.09
0.82
1.20
1.20
0.38
0.55
0.41
0.92
0.84
0.80

May
0.22
0.68
0.55
1.01
1.09
0.61
0.64
0.77
0.97
0.8
0.35
0.36
0.78
0.2
0.78
1.19
0.82
0.67
1.05
0.72
1.01
0.89
1.22
0.83
0.96
0.79
1.08
1.08
0.36
0.52
0.56
1.06
0.84
0.77

Jun
0.13
0.6
0.51
0.86
1.06
0.52
0.50
0.68
1.21
0.77
0.26
0.63
1.06
0.19
0.70
1.08
0.69
0.66
1.13
0.71
0.93
1.07
1.11
0.79
0.82
0.74
0.99
0.99
0.24
0.40
0.62
1.00
1.11
0.75

115

Jul
0.28
0.65
0.73
1.00
1.18
0.56
0.49
0.67
1.24
0.81
0.27
0.89
1.08
0.28
0.77
1.12
0.79
0.89
1.25
0.82
0.91
1.35
1.20
0.90
0.94
0.8
0.93
0.93
0.37
0.37
0.63
1.17
1.49
0.84

Aug
0.78
0.95
1.12
1.4
1.49
0.8
0.99
0.99
1.65
1.14
0.68
1.40
1.16
0.67
0.99
1.46
1.25
1.28
1.6
1.33
1.2
1.84
1.36
1.44
1.23
1.03
1.03
1.03
0.86
0.74
0.99
1.80
1.91
1.24

Sep
1.46
1.23
1.48
1.68
1.72
1.00
1.45
1.29
2.17
1.31
1.04
1.37
1.21
1.13
1.26
1.74
1.65
1.71
1.81
1.71
1.47
2.24
1.42
1.97
1.43
1.4
1.22
1.22
1.17
0.95
1.38
2.19
2.32
1.51

Oct
1.65
1.16
1.56
1.74
1.66
1.01
1.64
1.38
2.18
1.24
1.07
1.1
1.15
1.4
1.36
1.68
1.57
1.74
1.8
1.76
1.41
2.16
1.34
2.13
1.65
1.59
1.15
1.15
1.19
1.11
1.47
2.24
2.41
1.54

Nov
1.45
1.04
1.77
1.55
1.53
0.83
1.42
1.31
1.96
1.04
0.91
0.99
1.00
1.33
1.22
1.48
1.35
1.57
1.65
1.46
1.2
1.89
1.31
2.05
1.81
1.55
0.97
0.97
1.03
1.01
1.33
2.01
2.14
1.40

Dec
1.23
0.92
1.68
1.37
1.37
0.65
1.24
1.17
1.69
0.87
0.78
0.99
0.85
1.19
1.05
1.27
1.18
1.41
1.47
1.34
1.06
1.68
1.18
1.78
1.6
1.41
0.81
0.81
0.92
0.90
1.16
1.79
1.87
1.23

year
0.78
0.89
1.01
1.34
1.32
0.82
0.86
1.0
1.39
1.06
0.62
0.79
0.94
0.68
0.97
1.26
1.11
1.13
1.36
1.17
1.11
1.37
1.3
1.31
1.31
1.15
1.14
1.14
0.69
0.73
0.87
1.41
1.54
1.08

Appendix Table 13 Mean monthly Temperature of lake Ziway watershed (0C)

Stations

Years

Altitude

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

year

Ziway

1987-2007

1646

19.9

20.9

22.0

21.9

22.3

21.9

20.1

20.2

20.7

20.2

19.5

19.1

20.7

Butajara

1987-2008

2088

18.9

19.1

19.6

19.7

19.5

19.2

18.4

18.6

19.1

19.0

18.9

18.7

19.1

Assalla

1987-2009

2396

15.5

16.5

17.2

17.5

17.3

16.7

15.75

15.7

15.6

15.8

15.1

14.7

16.2

Sagure

1987-2010

2516

15.9

16.8

17.3

17.1

16.9

16.0

15.14

15.1

15.4

16.0

15.6

15.3

16.0

Mararo

1987-2011

2975

11.6

12.3

12.7

12.7

12.6

12.2

11.53

11.5

11.4

11.1

11.1

11.2

11.8

Arata

1987-2012

1760

18.8

19.9

20.9

21.2

21.4

20.6

19.92

19.6

19.4

19.5

18.9

18.2

19.9

Kulumsa

1987-2013

2153

15.8

16.9

17.7

18.2

18.1

17.2

16.14

15.9

16.0

16.7

15.8

15.5

16.7

Langano

1987-2014

20.84

21.7

22.5

22.6

22.6

22.1

20.9

21.0

21.3

21.2

20.4

20.2

21.4

21.4

Appendix Table 14 Mean monthly RH of lake Ziway watershed (%)

Monthly RH %
Altitude(m)

year

Statins

Jan

feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Average

1646

1987-209

Ziway

67

73

68

68

68

69

75

77

75

66

65

66

69.7

2975

1990-2004

Mararo

62

58

61

68

64

73

81

81

78

75

65

61

68.7

2153

1984-2004

Kulumsa

54

53

55

57

58

63

74

78

74

61

54

58

61.6

2020

1989-2005

Bui

63

62

63

61

54

71

79

79

72

63

65

64

66.3

Appendix Table 15 Mean monthly Sunshine duration of lake Ziway watershed (hours)
Stations

Years

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Average

Ziway

1987-2007

9.67

9.32

8.63

8.30

9.27

8.24

6.45

6.64

7.13

9.17

10.17

10.16

8.60

Mararo

1987-2008

8.87

8.38

8.13

6.86

7.46

6.53

4.71

5.51

5.75

6.81

8.61

9.01

7.19

Kulumsa

1987-2009

8.22

7.92

7.72

7.04

7.94

7.08

5.24

5.28

6.18

7.63

8.73

8.62

7.30

Bui

1986-2010

8.78

8.51

8.46

8.11

7.91

6.73

4.96

5.27

6.56

8.64

9.75

9.32

7.75

8.89

8.53

8.23

7.58

8.15

7.14

5.34

5.68

6.41

8.06

9.32

9.28

7.71

Stations Average

116

Appendix Table 16 Total Population in adjacent districts of lake Ziway

No.

Arsi

Area

Population

District

PA

Male

Female

Total

Km2

density/km2

Dugda District

54

66233

63031

129264

1468

88

PA adjacent to lake

12

14718

14006

28724

326

88

ATJ K District

38

71686

55432

128123

1403

91

PA adjacent to lake

13250

10211

23416

258

90

Ziway Dugda District

35

51383

57403

108786

1001

108

PA adjacent to lake

13

21046

24288

45334

372

121

Zone

East Shoa

Population

Appendix Table 17 Livestock population in adjacent district of lake Ziway

Grazing
Equines land km2
16820
367

Livestock
density
(cattle/km2)
708

Zone
East
Shoa

Woreda
Dugda
ATJK

163625

106216

3087

236

616

139

693

Arsi

Z/Dugda 158942

81981

19464

268.7

306.9

18

593

Sources Ziway Dugda, ATJK and Dugda Districts RAD offic

117

Plot land
km2
635

Forest
land
km2
34

Goat &
Cattle
sheep
259906 202271

7.2

Appendix B. Figures

Appendix Figure 1 Drainage disposal of Share Ethiopia to lake Ziway

Appendix Figure 2 Small irrigation of farmers from lake water

118

Appendix Figure 3 Treatment plant of Batu town water supply from lake Ziway.

119

Appendix Figure 4 Katar Fall at Fite (at middle stage of the river)

a. Automatic measuring

b. Lake level measuring stuff

Appendix Figure 5 Lake Ziway gauging Station (1635.10 Masl at Bochessa)

120

Appendix Figure 6 Katar gauging Station at Habura

a. Pitche evaporimeter

b. Pan evaporator (Type A)

Appendix Figure 7 Ziway Meteorological Station view

121