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I
ow deep is the ocean? How much of Earth is covered by the global sea? What does the
J" seaoor look like? Humans have long been interested in finding answers to these questions,
but it was not until rather recently that these seemingly simple questions could be answered.
Suppose, for example, that all of the water were drained from the ocean. I/Vhat would we see? Plains?
Mountains? Canyons? Plateaus? Indeed, the ocean conceals all of these features, and more. And what
about the carpet of sediment that covers much of the seaoor? Vtfhere did it come from, and what can
be learned by examining it? This chapter provides answers to these questions.
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FOCUS om CONCEPTS
To assist you in learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions:
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What is oceanography?
What is the extent and distribution of the worlds oceans?
Q; What techniques are used to map the ocean oor?
How does a passive continental margin differ from an active continental margin?
What are the major features of the deep-ocean basin?
How are mid-ocean ridges and deep-ocean trenches related to plate tectonics boundaries?
What are the various types of seaoor sediments? How can these sediments be used to study worldwide
climate change?
19 percent is land. It is no wonder then that the Northern Hemisphere is called the land hernispliere and the Southern Hemi-
(P "
. -). Although the ocean comprises a much greater percentage of Earths surface than the continents, it has only been
in the relatively recent past that the ocean became an impor-
Northern and Southern hemispheres. Between latitudes 45 degrees north and 70 degrees north, there is actually more land than
ocean.
[Figure l3.2B):
seas around the oceans margin, like the Mediterranean Sea and
Caribbean Sea). Continents and islands comprise the remaining 29 percent, or 150 million square kilometers (58 million
square miles).
Clearly, oceans dominate Earths surface. But is the distribution ofland and water similar in the Northern and Southern hemispheres? By studying a world map or globe (Figure 13.1), it is
readily apparent that the continents and oceans are not evenly
divided between the two hemispheres. In the Northern Hemi-
Pacific Ocean and not quite as deep. It is a relatively narrow ocean as compared to the Pacific and is bounded by
almost parallel continental margins.
3. The Indian Ocean, which is slightly smaller than the
Atlantic Ocean but has about the same average depth.
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FIGURE: 33.1 These views of Earth show the uneven distribution of land and water between the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. Almost 81 percent of the Southern Hemisphere is covered by the oceans20 percent more than the Northern
Hemisphere.
that ifEarths solid mass were perfectly smooth (level) and spherical, the oceans would cover Earths entire surface to a uniform
depth of more than 2,000 meters (1.2 miles)!
FIGURE 13.2 Distribution of land and water. A. The graph shows the amount of land and water in each 5-degree latitude belt.
B. The world map provides a more familiar view.
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384
An Emerging Picture
of the Ocean Floor
sonar to look for explosive devices that had been deployed in shipping lanes. These torpedo-shaped instruments, can be towed
behind a ship where they send out a fan of sound extending to
either side of the ships track. By combining swaths of sidescan
sonar data, researchers produced the first photograph-like images
of the seaoor. Although sidescan sonar provides valuable views
ofthe seaoor, it does not provide bathymetric (water depth) data.
This drawback was resolved in the 1990s with the development of high-resolution multibeam sonar instruments. These systems use hull-motmted sound sources that send out a fan of sound,
then record reections from the seaoor through a set ofnarrowly
focused receivers aimed at different angles (Figure 13.4B). Rather
than obtaining the depth of a single point every few seconds, this
technique makes it possible for a survey ship to map the features
ofthe ocean oor along a strip tens of kilometers wide. These systems can collect bathymetric data of such high resolution that they
can distinguish depths that differ by less than a meter
1? it 1%).
When multibeam sonar is used to make a map of a section of
seaoor, the ship travels through the area in a regularly spaced
back-and-forth pattern known as mowing the lawn.
age, the ship and its crew of scientists traveled to every ocean
except the Arctic. Throughout the voyage, they sampled a multitude of ocean properties, including water depth, which was
accomplished by laboriously lowering long weighted lines over-
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" '. 1' Types of sonar. A. An echo sounder determines the
water depth by measuring the time interval required for an acoustic
wave to travel from a ship to the seaoor and back. The speed of
sound in water is 1,500 m/sec. Therefore, depth = 1/2 (1,500 m/sec ><
echo travel time). B. Modern multibeam sonar and sidescan sonar
obtain an "image" of a narrow swath of seaoor every few seconds.
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meters (6-12 miles) per hour. It would take at least 100 vessels outfitted with this equipment hundreds of years to map the entire
seaoor. This explains why only about 5 percent of the seaoor
has been mapped in detail-and why large portions ofthe seaoor
have not yet been mapped with sonar at all.
Viewing the Ocean Floor from Space Another technological breakthrough that has led to an enhanced understanding
of the seaoor involves measuring the shape of the ocean surface
from space. After compensating for waves, tides, currents, and
atmospheric effects, it was discovered that the ocean surface is
not perfectly at because gravity attracts water toward regions
where massive seaoor features occur. Therefore, mountains
and ridges produce elevated areas on the ocean surface, and,
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Q What is bathymetry?
Q Describe how satellites can be used to map the seaoor without
being able to directly observe it.
Q Vllhat are the three major provinces of the ocean oor?
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Geologist: Sketch
Continental Margins
Rm ->E3n1 l'|'|
between rock layers and fault zones. Figure 13.7 shows a seismic
profile of a portion of the Madeira abyssal plain in the eastern
Atlantic. Although the seaoor is at, notice the irregular ocean
crust buried by a thick accumulation of sediments.
FLGURE 13.8 Map view (above) and corresponding profile view (below) showing the major topographic divisions of the North Atlantic
Ocean. On the profile, the vertical scale has been expanded (exaggerated) by 40 times to make topographic features more conspicuous.
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Continental Margins
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Continental Slope Marking the seaward edge of the continental shelf is the continental slope, a relatively steep zone (as
compared with the shelf) that marks the boundary between continental crust and oceanic crust (Figure 13.9). Although the inclination of the continental slope varies greatly from place to place,
it averages about 5 degrees and in places may exceed 25 degrees.
Furthermore, the continental slope is a relatively narrow feature,
averaging only about 20 kilometers (12 miles) in width.
Continental Rise In regions where trenches do not exist, the
steep continental slope merges into a more gradual incline known
as the continental rise where the slope drops to about one-third
Features of a passive continental margin, including the continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise. The Atlantic
coast of North America is a good example of a passive margin. Note that the steepness of the slopes shown for the continental shelf and
continental slope are greatly exaggerated. The continental shelf has an average slope of one-tenth of 1 degree, whereas the continental slope
has an average slope of about 5 degrees.
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Submarine Canyons and Turbidity Currents Deep, steepsided valleys known as submarine canyons are cut into the continental slope and may extend across the entire continental rise
to the deep-ocean basin
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Although some of these
canyons appear to be the seaward extensions of river valleys many
others do not line up in this manner. Furthermore, submarine
canyons extend far below the maximum lowering of sea level during the Ice Age, so we cannot attribute their formation to stream
erosion.
These submarine canyons have probably been excavated by
turbidity currents (Figure 13.10). Turbidity currents are downslope movements of dense, sediment-laden water. They are created when sand and mud on the continental shelf and slope are
dislodged and thrown into suspension. Because such mud-choked
water is denser than normal seawater, it ows downslope, eroding
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Turbidity currents are downslope movements of dense, sediment-laden water. They are created when sand and mud on the
continental shelf and slope are dislodged and thrown into suspension. Because such mud-choked water is denser than normal seawater, it hugs
the seaoor as it ows downslope, eroding and accumulating more sediment. Beds deposited by these currents are called turbidites. Each event
produces a single bed characterized by a decrease in sediment size from bottom to top, a feature known as a graded bed. (Photo by Marli Miller)
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co1\1cr:1=-'1' cnrzcx 1 3. 3
Q List the three major features that comprise a passive continental margin. Which one is considered a ooded extension
of the continent? Which has the steepest slope?
Q Contrast active and passive continental margins. Provide a
specic geographic example of each.
Q What is a turbidity current? What is a tarbidite? What is meant
by the term graded bedding?
mt I1!
Between the continental margin and the oceanic ridge lies the
deep-ocean basin (see Figure 13.8). The size of this region
almost 30 percent of Earths surfaceis roughly comparable to
the percentage of land that presently projects above sea level.
This region includes remarkably at areas known as abyssal
Deep-ocean trenches are long, relatively narrowtroughs that are the deepest parts of the ocean. Most trenches
' 'i
are located along the margins of the
Pacific Ocean
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many exceed 10,000 meters (33,000 feet) in depth. A portion of
onethe Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trenchhas been measured at a record 1 1,022 meters (36, 163 feet) below sea level, making it the deepest known part ofthe world ocean. Only two trenches
are located in the Atlantic: the Puerto Rico Trench and the South
Sandwich Trench.
Although deep-ocean trenches represent only a very small
portion of the area of the ocean oor, they are nevertheless signicant geologic features. Trenches are sites of plate convergence
where slabs of oceanic lithosphere subduct and plunge back into
the mantle. In addition to earthquakes being created as one plate
scrapes beneath another, volcanic activity is also associated
with these regions. Thus, trenches are often paralleled by an
arc-shaped row of active volcanoes called a volcanic island arc.
Furthermore, continental volcanic arcs, such as those making up portions of the Andes and Cascades, are located parallel to trenches that lie adjacent to continental margins (see
Figure 13.1 1). The volcanic activity associated with the trenches
that surround the Pacic Ocean explains why the region is called
the Ring ofFire.
Abyssal Plains
Abyssal (a = without, byssus = bottom) plains are deep,
incredibly at features; in fact, these regions are likely the most
level places on Earth. The abyssal plain found off the coast of
Argentina, for example, has less than 3 meters (10 feet) of relief
over a distance exceeding 1,300 kilometers (800 miles). The
monotonous topography of abyssal plains is occasionally interrupted by the protruding summit of a partially buried volcanic
peak.
Using seismic profilers, instruments that generate signals
designed to penetrate far below the ocean oor, researchers
have determined that abyssal plains owe their relatively featureless topography to thick accumulations of sediment that
have buried an otherwise rugged ocean oor (see Figure 13.7).
The nature of the sediment indicates that these plains consist
primarily of sediments transported far out to sea by turbidity
currents.
Abyssal plains occur in all of the oceans. However, the Atlantic
Ocean has the most extensive abyssal plains because it has few
trenches to act as traps for sediment carried down the continental slope.
390
CHAPTER '13
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below the water surface as the moving plate slowly carries them
away from the elevated oceanic ridge or hot-spot where they originated (Box 13.1). Submerged, at topped seamounts that formed
in this manner are called guyots.28
The ocean oor also contains several massive oceanic
plateaus, which resemble ood basalt provinces on the continents. Oceanic plateaus, which in some cases are more than
30 kilometers thick, were generated from vast outpourings of uid
basaltic lavas. Some oceanic plateaus appear to have formed
23"The term guyot is named after Princeton University's rst geology professor. It is pronounced "GEE-oh" with a hard g as in "give."
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391.
Explaining Coral
At0llsDarwins
Hypothesis
Coral atolls are ring-shaped structures
that often extend from slightly above sea
level to depths of several thousand
meters (Figure 'l3.A). What causes atolls
to form, and how do they attain such
thicknesses?
Corals are tiny animals that generally
appear in large numbers, that link together
to form colonies. Most corals create a hard
external skeleton made of calcium carbonate. Some build large calcium carbonate
structures, called reefs, where new colonies
grow atop the strong skeletons of previous
colonies. Sponges and algae also attach to
the reef, enlarging it further.
Reef-building corals grow best in waters
with an average annual temperature of
about 24 C (75 F). They cannot survive prolonged exposure to temperatures below 18 C
(64 F) or above 30 C (86 F). In addition,
reef-builders require clear, sunlit water.
Consequently, the depth of most active reef
growth is limited to no more than about
45 meters (150 feet).
The environmental conditions required
for coral growth create an interesting
paradox: How can coralswhich require
warm, shallow, sunlit water no deeper
than a few dozen meterscreate thick
structures such as coral atolls that extend
to great depths?
Naturalist Charles Darwin was one of the
first to formulate a hypothesis on the origin
of ringed-shaped atolls. From 1831 to 1836
he sailed aboard the British ship HMS Beagle during its famous global circumnavigation. In various places Darwin noticed a
progression of stages in coral reef development from (1) a fringing reef along the margins of a volcano to (2) a barrier reef with a
volcano in the middle to (3) an atoll, consisting of a continuous or broken ring of coral
reef surrounding a central lagoon
(Figure 13.B). The essence of Darwin's
hypothesis, illustrated in Figure l3.B, was
that as a volcanic island slowly sinks, corals
continue to build the reef complex upward.
FIGURE 13.A An aerial view of Tetiaroa Atoll in the Pacific. The light blue waters of
the relatively shallow lagoon contrast with the dark blue color of the ocean surrounding
the 62011. (Photo by Douglas Peebles Photography/Alamy)
FIGURE 'l3.B Formation of a coral atoll due to the gradual sinking of oceanic crust and upward
growth of the coral reef. A fringing coral reef forms around an active volcanic island. As the
volcanic island moves away from the region of hot-spot activity it sinks, and the fringing reef
gradually becomes a barrier reef farther from shore. Eventually, the volcano is completely
submerged and an atoll remains.
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weighs 16 tons, has a cruising speed of 1 knot, and can reach depths
as great as 4,000 meters (2.5 miles). A pilot and two scientific
observers are along during a normal 6- to 10-hour dive. (Courtesy of
Rod Catanach/Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)
CONCEPT cnscx 1 3 .4
Q Briey describe the size and extent of the oceanic ridge
system. With which type of plate boundary is it associated?
Q How do oceanic ridges differ from most mountain ranges on
the continents?
Q Why are oceanic ridges elevated?
5;.1; ..'>.1->). The crest of the ridge typically stands 2-3 kilo-
meters above the adjacent deep-ocean basins and marks the plate
boundary where new oceanic crust is created.
Notice in Figure 13.15 that large sections of the oceanic ridge
system have been named based on their locations within the
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la ,
Oceanic ridges are as high as some mountains on the continents; but the similarities end there. Whereas most mountain
ranges on land form when the compressional forces associated
with continental collisions fold and metamorphose thick sequences
of sedimentary rocks, oceanic ridges form where upwelling from
the mantle generates new oceanic crust. Oceanic ridges consist of
layers and piles of newly formed basaltic rocks that are buoyantly
uplifted by the hot mantle rocks from which they formed.
Along the axis of some segments of the oceanic ridge system
are deep, down-faulted structures called rift valleys because of
their striking similarity to the continental rift valleys found ir1 East
Africa (Figure 13.16). Some rift valleys, including those along the
rugged Mid-Atlantic Ridge, are typically 30-50 kilometers wide
and have walls that tower 500-2,500 meters above the valley oor.
This makes them comparable to the deepest and widest part of
Arizonas Grand Canyon.
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Susan DeBari:
A Career in Geology
I discovered geology the summer I worked
doing trail maintenance in the North Cascade mountains of Washington State. I had
just finished my freshman year in college
and had never before studied Earth science.
But a coworker (now my best friend) began
to describe the geological features of the
mountains that we were hiking inthe classic cone shape of Mount Baker volcano, the
U-shaped glacial valleys, the advance of
active glaciers, and other wonders. I was
hooked and went back to college that fall
with a passion for geology that hasnt
abated. As an undergraduate, I worked as a
field assistant to a graduate student and did
a senior thesis project on rocks from the
Aleutian island arc.
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Seafloor Sediments
395
Seafloor Sediments
Most of the ocean oor is covered with a blanket of sediment. Part
of this material has been deposited by turbidity currents, and the
rest has slowly settled onto the seaoor from above. The thickness
of this carpet of debris varies greatly. In some trenches, which act
as traps for sediment originating on the continental margin, accumulations may approach l0 kilometers (6 miles) in thickness.
In general, however, sediment accumulations are considerably
less. In the Pacic Ocean, for example, sediment thickness is about
600 meters (2,000 feet) or less, whereas on the oor ofthe Atlantic, the
thickness varies from about 500 to 1,000 meters (l,5003,000 feet).
of tiealloor Sedirrients
Seaoor sediments can be classified according to their origin
.@.12=;t.'i.;igar ;=~.or:1.:-; r :ietiiri..t.e1r.i. Terrigenous sediment consists primarily of mineral grains that were weathered from continental
rocks and transported to the ocean. Larger particles (gravel and
sand) usually settle rapidly near shore, whereas finer particles
(microscopic clay-size particles) can take years to settle to the
ocean oor and may be carried thousands of kilometers by
ocean currents or transported far out to sea by the wind. As a
consequence, virtually every part of the ocean receives some
terrigenous sediment. The rate at which this sediment accumulates on the deep-ocean oor, however, is very slow. To form
it i{I:lr.i..1l'.lt;%[ll
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Image from a scamnng electron microscope of a shell
(test) of foraminifera, an example of biogenous sediment. These tiny,
single-celled organisms are sensitive to even small uctuations in
temperature. Seaoor sediments containing fossils such as this are useful
recorders of climate change. (Photo by Andrew Syred/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
of diatoms (single-celled algae) and radiolarians (single-celled animals) that prefer cooler surface waters, whereas the latter is derived
from the bones, teeth, and scales ofsh and other marine organisms.
Hydrogenous Sediment Hydrogenous sediment consists of
minerals that crystallize directly from seawater through various
chemical reactions. Hydrogenous sediments represent a relatively
small portion of the overall sediment in the ocean. They do, however, have many different compositions and are distributed in
diverse environments of deposition.
This
debris is produced mostly by microscopic organisms living in sunlit waters near the ocean surface. Once these organisms die, their
hard tests (testa = shell) constantly rain down and accumulate
on the seaoor.
396
ti
Manganese nodules, including some that are cut in
half, revealing their central nucleation object and layered internal
SlIU.Cl311I6. (Left photo by Charles A. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc. Right photo by
J. and L. Weber/Peter Arnold, Inc.)
CONCEPT cuscx 1 3. 5
Q Distinguish among the three basic types of seaoor sediments.
Give an example of each.
Q Why are seaoor sediments useful in studying past climates?
29Richard F. Flint, Glacial and Qua reumy Geology (New York: John Wiley 8: Sons, I971), p. 718.
For more information on this topic, see "Causes of Glaciation" in Chapter 6, page 174.
_ _
397
Energy Resources
Among the nonliving resources extracted from the oceans, more
than 95 percent of the economic value comes from energy products. The main energy products are oil and natural gas, which are
currently being extracted, and gas hydrates, which are not yet utilized but have vast potential.
398
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'.i3;.Ii'll. Gas hydrates. A. A sample retrieved from the ocean oor shows layers of white icelike gas hydrate mixed with mud.
B. Gas hydrates evaporate when exposed to surface conditions and release natural gas, which can be ignited. (Photos courtesy of
GEOMAR Research Center, Kiel, Germany)
Other Resources
Other major resources from the seaoor include sand and gravel,
evaporative salts, and manganese nodules.
Sand and Gravel The offshore sand-and-gravel industry is second in economic value only to the petroleum industry. Sand and
gravel, which includes rock fragments that are washed out to sea
and shells of marine organisms, are mined by offshore barges
using suction dredges. Sand and gravel are primarily used as an
aggregate in concrete, as a fill material in grading projects, and
on recreational beaches.
In some cases, materials ofhigh economic value are associated
with offshore sand and gravel deposits. Gem-quality diamonds, for
example, are recovered from gravels on the continental shelf offshore of South Africa and Australia. Sediments rich in tin have been
mined from some offshore areas of Southeast Asia. Platinum and
gold have been found in deposits in gold-mining areas throughout the world, and some Florida beach sands are rich in titanium.
Evaporative Salts When seawater evaporates, the salts increase
in concentration until they can no longer remain dissolved, so they
precipitate out of solution and form salt deposits, which can then be
harvested. The most economically important salt is halite (common
table salt). Halite is widely used for seasoning, curing, and preserving
foods. It is also used in water conditioners, in agriculture, in the clothing industry for dying fabric, and to de-ice roads. Ever since ancient
times, the ocean has been an important source ofsalt for human consumption, and the sea remains a significant supplier (i5i~;.;iii=e
Nodules are widely distributed, but not all regions have the
same potential for mining. Good locations have abundant nodules
that contain the economically optimum mix of copper, nickel,
and cobalt. Sites meeting these criteria, however, are relatively
limited. Additionally, there are political problems of establishing
mining rights far from land and environmental concerns about
disturbing large portions of the deep-ocean oor.
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In Review
399
GIVE IT SOME
1. Refer to Figure 13.2 to answer the following questions:
a. Water dominates Earths surface, but not everywhere. In what Northern Hemisphere latitude
belt is there more land than water?
b. In what latitude belt is there no land at all?
2. Assuming the average speed of sound waves in water is 1,500 meters per second, determine the
water depth if a signal sent out by an echo sounder on a research vessel
requires 6 seconds to strike bottom and return to the recorder aboard the ship.
3. Refer to the accompanying map showing the Eastern Seaboard of the United
States to complete the following:
a. Vllhich letter is associated with each of the following? Continental shelf;
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continental slope; and shelf-break.
America
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b. How does the size of the continental shelf surrounding Florida compare to
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the size of the Florida peninsula?
c. Why are there no deep-ocean trenches on this map?
4. Are the continental margins surrounding the Atlantic Ocean primarily active
,
or passive? How about the margins surrounding the Pacific Ocean? Based on
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your response to the foregoing questions, indicate whether each ocean basin is
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getting larger, shrinking, or staying the same size. Explain your answer.
5. Examine the accompanying sketch showing three sediment layers on the
ocean oor. What term is applied to such layers? What process was responsible
for creating these layers? Are these layers more likely part of a deep-sea fan or
an accretionary wedge?
6. Imagine that while you and a passenger are in a deep-diving submersible in
the North Pacific near Alaskas Aleutian Islands you encounter a long, narrow
depression on the ocean oor. Your passenger asks whether you think it is a
submarine canyon, a rift valley, or a deep-ocean trench. How would you
respond? Explain your choice.
7. Reef-building corals are responsible for creating atollsring-shaped structures
that extend from the surface of the ocean to depths of thousands of meters.
These corals, however, can only live in warm, sunlit water no more than about
45 meters deep. This presents a paradox: How can corals, which require warm,
sunlit water, create structures that extend to great depths? Explain the apparent
contradiction.
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400
of sediments that have moved downslope from the continental shelf to the deep-ocean oor).
Submarine canyons are deep, steep-sided valleys that originate on the continental slope and may extend to the deepocean basin. Many submarine canyons have been excavated
by turbidity currents, which are downslope movements of
dense, sediment-laden water.
Active continental margins are located primarily around the
Pacific Rim in areas where the leading edge of a continent is
overrunning oceanic lithosphere. Here sediment scraped
from the descending oceanic plate is plastered against the
continent to form a collection of sediments called an
There are three broad categories ofseaoor sediments. Terrigenous sediment consists primarily of mineral grains that were
weathered from continental rocks and transported to the
Energy resources from the seaoor include oil and natural gas
and large untapped deposits of gas hydrates. Other seaoor
resources include sand and gravel, evaporative salts, and
metals within manganese nodules.
Mastering Geology
401
Mastering Geology
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Looking for additional review and test prep materials? Visit the
Self Study area in wwmirtn :1st;21*i11ggeology.com to find practice
quizzes, study tools, and multimedia that will aid in your understanding of this chapter's content. In MasteringGeology" you
will find:
0 GEODe: Earth Science: An interactive visual wallcthrough of
key concepts