3 Channel

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY
Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow
3 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

3.1 Classification & Definition
Open channel flows are flows in rivers, streams, artificial channels,
irrigation ditches, partially filled pipe etc.
Basically, it is a flow with free surface, i.e. the liquid surface is exposed to
the atmosphere.
Open Channel Flow
Steady flow
Uniform
Unsteady flow
Varied
Gradually
varied
flow
Varied
Rapidly
varied
flow
Gradually
varied
flow
Uniform
Rapidly
varied
flow
Classifications of Open Channel Flow
3.1.1
1.
Open Channel Geometry
Depth of flow, y: vertical distance from the bottom to surface.

Free surface
B
flow
Bottom
(cross-section)
Top width, B:
the width of the channel at the free surface
Flow area, A:
cross-sectional area of the flow
Wetted perimeter, P:
the length of the channel cross-section in contact with the fluid
P.3-1
Hydraulic radius (hydraulic mean depth), R:

R
Flow area
A
Wetted perimeter P
Average depth (hydraulic average depth), yave:

yave
3.1.2
Flow area A
Top width B
Rectangular channel
=b
y
= b*y
= b+2*y
yave
=y
3.1.3
b*y
b 2* y
Trapezoidal channel
= b + 2*m*y
y
= y*(b+m*y)
= b+2*y* 1 m 2
yave
y * (b m * y)
b 2 * y * 1 m2
y * ( b m * y)
b 2*m* y
P.3-2
3.1.4
Triangular channel
= 2*m*y
2
= m*y
= 2*y* 1 m 2
yave
3.1.5
y
m
m*y
2 * 1 m2
y
2
Circular channel
= 2 * y * ( D y)
D 2 * sin
=
8
*D
=
2
D sin
1
yave
D * sin
8 * sin
2
(in radian)
P.3-3
3.1.6
Energy Equation for Steady Uniform Flow

energy line
Slope S
hf
v22/2g
2
1
v /2g
Slope Sw
fluid surface
E1
y1
E2
y2
Slope So
channel bed
z1
horizontal datum
x
z2
In open channel flow, we refer to the channel bed slope, So, the water
surface slope (hydraulic grade line, HGL), Sw, and the slope of the energy
line (energy line, EL or total energy line, TEL), S.
z1 z 2
z
x
x
( y z ) ( y2 z2 )
( y z )
Hydraulic Grade Line, S W 1 1

x
x
2
2
v1
v2
hL ( y1 z1 2 g ) ( y 2 z 2 2 g )
S
Energy Grade Line,

L
L
Channel bed slope, So
where L is the inclined length of x measured along the channel bed.

For most practical cases, the channel bed angle is small; so L x.
Applying Bernoullis equation between the two sections and taking points
at the top of the water surface,
y1 z1 v1
2g
y 2 z 2 v2
2g
hL
P.3-4
3.2 Steady Uniform Flow

For a steady uniform flow
depth is constant along the flow
velocity is constant over the cross-section
time independent
Hence, uniform flow in channels always exhibits equality in the slopes of
the TEL, the channel bottom and the water surface as shown in the figure
in previous page.
Applying Newtons second law of motion to the channel shown above.
F ma
Since the flow is uniform, therefore a = 0 and hence
F 0.
Since the depth is uniform throughout the channel length, the hydrostatic
force, F1 and F2 are equal and opposite. Thus, the gravitational forces
tending to drive the flow are exactly countered by the resistance forces
tending to retard the flow. Hence
AL sin o PL
or
where
A
sin R sin
P
A
- hydraulic radius.
P
P.3-5
hL
sin
L
Putting
Hence
o RS
When is small, S So and it is customary to use the bottom slope in the

in the expression when applied to uniform flow in channels.
o RS o
3.2.1
Manning Equations
In 1890, Robert Manning (1816 1897), an Irish engineer derived a better

and more accurate relationship, Manning equation, based on many field
measurement.
V
2
1
1
* R 3 * So 2
n
n - Mannings coefficient, s/m1/3

(can be found in most of the hydraulic handbooks)
Incorporating with the continuity equation, Manning equation becomes

Q
2
1
A
* R 3 * So 2
n
As the flow according to Manning equation is for normal steady uniform

flow,
the flow is Normal Flow
the depth is Normal Depth
P.3-6
Worked examples:
3.1 Water flows in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 12 m wide
at a depth of 2.5m. The channel slope is 0.0028. Find the water
velocity and the flow rate. (n = 0.013)
Answer
By Manning equation,
V
with n
So
A
P
R
hence
2
1
1
* R 3 * So 2
n
= 0.013
= 0.0028
= 12* 2.5 m2 = 30 m2
= 12 + 2*2.5 m = 17 m
= A/P
= 30 / 17 m = 1.765 m
V
2
1
1
* (1.765) 3 * (0.0028) 2
0.013
= 5.945 m/s
Discharge, Q = A*V
= 30*5.945 m3/s
= 178.3 m3/s
P.3-7
3.2 Water flows in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 12 m wide.

The channel slope is 0.0028. If the velocity of the flow is 6 m/s, find
the depth of the flow. (n = 0.013)
12m
Answer
2
1
1
* R 3 * So 2
n
with V = 6 m/s
n = 0.013
So = 0.0028
A
P
= 12* h m2
= 12 + 2*h m
A
12 * h
6*h
=
P 12 2 * h 6 h
6*h
= 1.790
6h
h = 2.551 m
Depth of the flow = 2.551m
P.3-8
3.3 A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 2/3, a depth of 2 m, a bottom

width of 8 m and a channel slope of 0.0009 has a discharge of 56 m3/s.
Find the Mannings n.
14m
2m
1
1.5
3m
8m
3m
Answer
A
= (14+8)*2/2 m2
= 22 m2
= 8 + 2* 2 2 32 m
= 15.211 m
A/P = 22 / 15.211 m
= 1.446 m
P
Q
Q
2
1
A
* R 3 * So 2
n
= 56 m3/s,
So
= 0.0009
2
1
22
* (1.446) 3 * (0.0009) 2
n
= 0.01507
56 =
n
P.3-9
3.4 Determine the depth in a trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1 to

1.5, a bottom width of 8 m and a channel slope of 0.0009. The
discharge is 56 m3/s and n = 0.017.
(8+3*y) m
1
1.5
8m
Answer
A
= (8+8+3*y)*y/2 m2
= (8+1.5*y)*y m2
= 8 + 2*y* 12 1.52 m
= 8+3.6056*y m
= A/P
= (8+1.5*y)*y / 8+3.6056*y
2
1
A
Q * R 3 * So 2
n
Q = 56 m3/s, So = 0.0009
(8 1.5 * y) * y (8 1.5 * y) * y
56 =
*
0.017
8 3.6056 * y
(8 1.5 * y) * y 3
8 3.6056 * y2 3
* (0.0009)
or
31.7333
By trial & error, y = 2.137 m.

The depth of the trapezoidal channel is 2.137m.
P.3-10
3.5 Water flows in the triangular steel channel shown in the figure below.
Find the depth of flow if the channel slope is 0.0015 and the discharge
is 0.22 m3/s. (n=0.014)
60
Answer
A
P
R
= 2ytan30 * y/2 m2
= y2*tan30 m2
= 2y/cos30 m
= A/P = y2*tan30 / 2y/cos30 m
= ysin30/2 m
2
1
A
Q * R 3 * So 2
n
Q
= 0.22 m3/s, So = 0.0015

2
y 2 tan 30 y sin 30 3
0.22 =
*
* 0.0015
0.014
2
8/3
= y * 0.6338
or
0.22
y =
0.6338
= 0.672 m
Depth of the channel is 0.672 m.
P.3-11
3.2.2
Optimum Hydraulic Cross-sections
From Manning equation,

5
1 A 3 * So
= *
2
n
P 3
Hence, Q will be maximum when P is a minimum.

For a given cross-sectional area, A of an open channel, the discharge, Q is
maximum when the wetted perimeter, P is minimum. Hence if the wetted
perimeter, P for a given flow area is minimised, the area, A will give the
least expensive channel to be construct.
This corresponding cross-section is the optimum hydraulic section or the
best hydraulic section.
3.2.2.1
Rectangular section
width
=b
y
depth
=y
area, A = by
P
= b+2*y
A
= 2y
y
Hence
dP
A
2 20
dy
y
i.e.
y=
A
or
2
b = 2y
Therefore, the optimum rectangular section is
2y
P.3-12
3.2.2.2
Trapezoidal section
B
= b+2*m*y
y
= (b+m*y)*y
= b+2*y* 1 m 2
By eliminating b from P,
A
P = (2 * 1 m 2 m) * y
y
For a minimum value of P, P = 0,
dP
dP
i.e.
and
0
0
dm
dy
From
dP
0,
dy
y2
A
3
1
dP
m =
0,
dm
3
It implies the side slope of the channel is 60 to horizontal.
A
y 2 3
b = my 3y
y
y
3
3
2 3
4
y
y 2 3y
and
P =
3
3
i.e.
P = 3*b
From
The optimum section is given as follow:
60 b
b
P.3-13
3.2.2.3
Other sections
N-side Channel
From the conclusion of the previous two sections
reflection of the rectangular optimum section about the water
surface will form a square of side b.
reflection of the trapezoidal optimum section about the water
surface will form a regular hexagon of side b.
For a N-side channel, the optimum hydraulic section should be in a form of
half a 2N-side regular polygon.
N 1
*180
N
b
b
b
b
Triangular Section
N = 2, hence = 90
45
Circular Section
From the result of N-side channel, it can be concluded that the optimum
section of a circular channel is a semi-circle.
It is the most optimum section for all the possible open-channel crosssection.
D
P.3-14
Worked examples
3.6 An open channel is to be designed to carry 1m3/s at a slope of 0.0065.
The channel material has an n value of 0.011. Find the optimum
hydraulic cross-section for a semi-circular section.
D
Answer
The optimum circular section is a semi-circular section with diameter D
which can discharge 1 m3/s.
For a semi-circular section,
A = *D2/8
P = *D/2
R = A/P
= D/4
As n = 0.011, So = 0.0065 and Q = 1 m3/s.
2
1
A
* R 3 * So 2
n
* D2 D 3
=
* * 0.0065
8 * 0.011 4
i.e. 1
D
D
8/3
8 * 0.011 3
* 4 * 0.0065 2
=
= 0.951 m
The diameter of this optimum section is 951mm.
P.3-15
3.7 Find the optimum rectangular section from the last example.
2y
Answer
A
P
R
= 2*y2
= 4*y
= A/P = y/2
2
1
A
* R 3 * So 2
n
2 * y2 y 3
* * 0.0065
=
0.011 2
1* 0.011* 2
2 * 0.0065
= 0.434 m
y8/3 =
2
3
The optimum rectangular section has dimension of width 0.868m and

depth 0.434m.
P.3-16
3.8 Find the optimum triangular section from the last example.
45
Answer
A
P
= y2
= 2 2*y
= A/P
= y
2 2
2
1
A
Q * R 3 * So 2
n
2
y2 y 3
*
=
* 0.0065
0.011 2 2
2
3
0.011* (2 2 )
0.0065
y = 0.614 m
The optimum triangular section is a right angle triangle with depth 0.614 m.
y8/3 =
P.3-17
3.3 Non-Uniform flow - Specific Energy in Open Channel & Critical

Flow
energy line
2
v1 /2g
fluid surface
E1
hf
v22/2g
y1
y2
z1
E2
channel bed
horizontal datum
z2
In open channel, the solutions of many problems are greatly assisted by the
concept of specific energy, i.e.
v2
E =
y
2g
In terms of flow rate, Q,
E
1 Q 2
( ) y
2g A
The minimum energy will be given as

dE
=0
dy
3.3.1
Rectangular Channel
A
Q
or
v
E
= b*y
= A*v
Q
Q
A b*y
Q2
=
y
2 gb 2 y 2
Since Q is constant
dE
Q2
=1- 2 3
gb y
dy
=0
P.3-18
or
y
yc
Let
Q 2 13
= yc = ( 2 )
gb
- critical depth at which the energy is minimum.
Q
b
q - the discharge per unit width of a rectangular channel
yc
=( )
q2
g
The corresponding energy, E is

3
yc
2
Q
=
.
Emin =
Since
vc
therefore
v c2
=0
1gy c
by
v c2
=1
gy c
or
vc
gy c
Since Froude number, Fr is defined as

Fr =
v
gy ave
Hence, the minimum energy is occurred when

Fr2 = 1
For a given discharge, Q, if the flow is such that E is a min., the flow is
critical flow.
critical flow
- flow with Emin
critical depth, yc - the depth of the critical flow
critical velocity - vc = gy c
P.3-19
v1 /2g
y1
yc
y1
subcritical
or slow
2
vc /2g
C
yc
45
y2
y2
supercritical
B or fast
v2 /2g
If the flow with E > Emin, there are two possible depths (y1, y2).
(y1, y2) are called alternate depths.
C divides the curve AB into AC and CB regions.
-
AC - subcritical flow region

CB - supercritical flow region
Depth of flow
Velocity of flow
Slope for
uniform flow, So
Froude number
Velocity head
compared with
half depth
Subcritical
y > yc
v < vc
Mild slope
So < Sc
Fr < 1.0
v2 yc
2g 2
Critical
y = yc
v = vc
Critical slope
So = Sc
Fr = 1.0
v2 yc
2g
2
Supercritical
y < yc
v > vc
Steep slope
So > Sc
Fr > 1.0
v2 yc
2g 2
P.3-20
3.3.2
Non - Rectangular Channel
If the channel width varies with y, the specific energy must be written in
Q2
the form
E =
y
2gA 2
The minimum energy also occurs where
dE
= 0 at constant Q
dy
Since A = A(y), therefore
dE
Q 2 2 dA
=1(
)
2 g A 3 dy
dy
or
Since
or
=0
dA gA 3
= 2
dy
Q
dA
= B - the channel width at the free surface,
dy
gA 3
B = 2
Q
BQ 2 13
A =(
)
g
Q
vc =
A
gA
=
B
For a given channel shape, A(y) & B(y), and with a given Q, equations of
dA
and vc have to be solved by trial and error to find the A and then vc.
dy
If a critical channel flow is also moving uniformly (at constant depth), it
must correspond to a critical slope, Sc, with yn = yc. This condition can be
analysed by Manning formula.
P.3-21
Worked examples:
3.9 A triangular channel with an angel of 120 made by 2 equal slopes. For
a flow rate of 3 m3/s, determine the critical depth and hence the
maximum depth of the flow.
B
yc
o
30
Answer
For critical flow,

v2 = g*yave
Q2 = g*yave*A2
gA 3
A
(yave = )
=
B
B
For critical flow,
B = 2*y*cot 30
& A = y2*cot 30
3g 5
Q2 =
y
2
Hence
2Q 2 15
=(
)
3g
2 * 32 15
=(
) m
3 * 9.81
= 0.906 m
The maximum depth is 0.906 m.
P.3-22
3.10 In the last example, the channel Manning roughness coefficient is

0.012 and the flow rate is 3 m3/s. What is the value of the channel
slope if the flow is critical, subcritical or supercritical?
B
y
o
30
Answer
B
A
P
= 2 3 *y
1
= *B*y
2
= 4*y
Using Manning equation,

2
1
A
3
*
R
* So 2
Q =
n
=
1
1 1
B 2
* ( * B * y) * ( ) 3 * So 2
n 2
8
2 nQ B 2 3
( )
By 8
2 nQ
3 * y 23
=
(
)
4
2 3 * y2
Sc1/2 =
For critical flow, y = y
Sc1/2 =
Sc
For flow is
2 * 0.012 * 3
3 * 0.906 2 3
(
) 0.0472
2
4
2 3 * (0.906)
= 0.00223
critical,
S = 0.00223 - critical slope
subcritical, S < 0.00223
supercritical, S > 0.00223
P.3-23
3.4 Frictionless Flow with Transitions in Channel Beds

supercritical
approach flow
y1
v1
2
y2 v
subcritical
approach flow
h
When fluid is flowing over a bump, the behaviour of the free surface is
sharply different according to whether the approach flow is subcritical or
supercritical.
The height of the bump can change the character of the results.
Applying Continuity and Bernoullis equations to sections 1 and 2,
&
v1*A1 = v2*A2
v22
v 12
y1 =
y 2 h
2g
2g
A is normally a function of water depth, i.e. A = A(y).

Eliminating v2 between these two gives a cubic polynomial equation for
the water depth y2 over the bump,
v12 * y12
=0
y2 E2*y2 +
2g
3
v 12
where E2 =
y1 - h
2g
This equation has one negative and two positive solutions if h is not too
large.
The free surfaces behaviour depends upon whether condition 1 is in

subcritical or supercritical flow.
P.3-24
y1
water
depth
y2
hmax
2
1
subcritical
bump
yc
supercritical
bump
Ec
E2
E1 specific
energy
The specific energy E2 is exactly h less than the approach energy, E1, and
point 2 will lie on the same leg of the curve as E1.
A subcritical approach, Fr1 < 1, will cause the water level to decrease at the
bump.
Supercritical approach flow, Fr1 > 1, causes a water level increase over the
bump.
If the bump height reaches hmax = E1 Ec, the flow at the crest will be
exactly critical (Fr = 1).
If the bump > hmax, there are no physical correct solution. That is, a
bump to large will choke the channel and cause frictional effects, typically
a hydraulic jump.
P.3-25
Worked example:
3.11 Water flow in a wide channel approaches a 10 cm high bump at 1.5

m/s and a depth of 1 m. Estimate
(a) the water depth y2 over the bump, and
(b) the bump height which will cause the crest flow to be critical.
Answer
(a) For the approaching flow,

v1
15
.
=
Fr =
gy1
9.81 * 1
= 0.479 subcritical
For subcritical approach flow, if h is not too large, the water level over
the bump will depress and a higher when subcritical Fr at the crest.
By Continuity equation,
1.5*(1*b)
or
v2
= v2*(y2*b)
=
1.5
y2
By Bernoullis equation,
E1
v 12
=
y1
2g
15
. 2
=
10
. m = 1.115 m
2 * 9.81
v22
v 12
y1 =
y 2 h
2g
2g
(1.5
1.115
or
y2
2g
)2
y2 0.1
y23 1.015*y22 + 0.115 = 0
By trial and error,

y2 = 0.859 m, 0.451 m and 0.296 m (inadmissible)
The second (smaller) solution is the supercritical condition for E2 and is
not possible for this subcritical bump.
P.3-26
Hence
Checking:
(b)
y2 = 0.859 m
v2 = 1.745 m/s (By continuity)
Fr2 = 0.601 (> Fr1 and < 1)
(OK)
By considering per m width of the channel,

q = v*y = 1.5*1 m2/s
For critical flow,
E2 = Emin
yc
E2
hmax
q 2 13
=( )
g
15
. 2 13
=(
)
9.81
= 0.612 m
3
= *0.612
2
= 0.918 m
3
yc
2
= E1 - Emin
= 1.115 0.918 m
= 0.197 m
P.3-27
3.5 Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channel
A hydraulic jump is a sudden change from a supercritical flow to

subcritical flow.
Assumptions:
the bed is horizontal.
the velocity over each cross-section is uniform.
the depth is uniform across the width.
frictionless boundaries.
surface tension effects are neglect.
1
critical
depth level
y2
y1
v1
v2
eddy currents
Considering the control volume between 1 and 2, the forces are

y12
b
= gb*
F31 = gy1* *y1
2
2
2
y
Similarly
F32 = gb* 2
2
By continuity equation,
Q = b*y1*v1
= b*y2*v2
By the momentum equation,

F1 = F2 = 0
hence F31 F32 = *Q*(v2 - v1)
Sub. F31 and F32 into above, then
Q
Q
gb 2
)
( y1 y 2 2 ) = Q(
y 2 b y1b
2
Q 2 y1 y 2
=
(
)
b
y1 y 2
P.3-28
In a hydraulic jump, y1 y2,

2Q 2
y1*y2*(y1+y2) =
gb 2
2Q 2
2
2
y1 y2 + y1y2 =
gb 2
2Q 2
y2 2
y2
( ) ( ) 2 3 =0
i.e.
y1
y1
gb y1
Solving the above equation,
y2
1
8Q 2
= [ 1 1 2 3 ]
y1
2
gb y1
This is the hydraulic jump equation.
Using Froude number,
Fr1
v 12
=
gy1
Q2
=
gy13b2
y2
1
= [ 1 1 8Fr12 ]
y1
2
or
y1
1
= [ 1 1 8Fr2 2 ]
y2
2
then,
(y1,y2) are called conjugate depths.

The energy loss in a jump is given by
v22
v 12
y1 =
y2 hf
2g
2g
v v2
=( 1
) ( y1 y 2 )
2g
2
i.e.
hf
P.3-29
hf
Since
1
Q2 1
=
( 2 2 ) ( y1 y2 )
2
2 gb y1
y2
2Q 2
y1*y2*(y1+y2) =
gb 2
hence,
hf
( y 2 y1 ) 3
=
4 y1 y 2
This is the energy loss equation for the hydraulic jump (y2>y1, hf>0).
The power loss in a jump is
P = ghf*Q
This energy loss is useful for getting away with the unwanted energy of a
flow. The energy loss is due to the frictional forces amount the eddy
currents in the pump. It will increase the temperature of the fluid.
P.3-30
Worked example:
3.12 Water flows in a wide channel at q = 10 m2/s and y1 = 1.25 m. If the

flow undergoes a hydraulic jump, calculate
(a) y2,
(b) v2,
(c) Fr2,
(d) hf,, and
(e) the percentage dissipation of the energy.
Answer
(a)
Since
or
(b)
q
y1
10
=
m/s = 8 m/s
1.25
v1
Fr1 =
gy1
8
=
= 2.285
9.81 * 1.25
y2
1
= [ 1 1 8Fr12 ]
y1
2
1
= [ 1 1 8 * (2.285) 2 ]
2
= 2.77
y2 = 2.77*1.25 m
= 3.46 m
v1
By Continuity equation,
y
v2 = v1*( 1 )
y2
1.25
= 8*
m/s
3.46
= 2.89 m/s
P.3-31
(c)
(d)
v2
gy 2
2.89
=
9.81 * 3.46
= 0.496
Fr2 =
hf
( y 2 y1 ) 3
=
4 y1 y 2
(3.46 1.25) 3
=
4 * 3.46 * 1.25
= 0.625 m
(e)
E1
percentage loss
v 12
=
y1
2g
82
=
1.25
2 * 9.81
= 4.51 m
hf
* 100%
E1
0.625
=
* 100%
4.51
= 14 %
=
P.3-32
3.6 Gradually Varied Flow
It is not always possible to have uniform depth across the flow i.e. normal
flow with normal depth.
The depth of flow can be changed by the conditions along the channel.
Examples of Gradually Varied Flow are:
backwater curve
water surface
dy >0
dx
yn
dam
Downdrop curve
water surface
yn1
dy
dx <0
slope change
yn2
In a uniform flow, the body weight effect in balanced out by the wall
friction.
In gradually varied flow, the weight and the friction effects are unable to
make the flow uniform.
P.3-33
x
2
v1/2g
THL
f
dh
2
v2/2g
fluid surface
v1
y1
y2
z1
channel bed
horizontal datum
v2
z2
Basic assumptions are

slowly changing bottom slope
slowly changing water depth (no hydraulic jump)
slowly changing cross section
one dimensional velocity distribution
pressure distribution approximately hydrostatic
Denoting
v1
z1
y1
p1
= v;
= z,
= y,
= p,
v2
z2
y2
p2
= v + dv
= z + dz
= y + dy
=p
Apply Bernoullis equation between section 1 and 2,

p ( v dv) 2
p v2
yz =
( y dy) ( z dz) dh f
2g
2g
Neglecting higher order terms,
dhf + dy + dz +
v
du
g
=0
When lim dx 0,
dh f dy dz v dv
=0
dx dx dx g dx
P.3-34
The four terms are

dh f
- rate of head loss along the channel
dx
= S (head loss gradient in Manning equation)
dy
- rate of change of water depth
dx
- water surface profiles gradient
dz
- rate of vertical change along channel = -sin
dx
v dv
- rate of change of velocity head along the channel
g dx
By Continuity equation
v*A = constant
dv
dA
+v
=0
i.e.
A
dx
dx
dv
dA dy
+v
=0
A
dx
dy dx
dy
dv
+ vB
=0
A
dx
dx
vB dy
dv
=or
dx
A dx
v dy
=y dx
Therefore
v dv
g dx
v 2 dy
=gy dx
dy
= -Fr2
dx
Hence
dy
dy
- sin - Fr2
=0
dx
dx
sin S
dy
=[
]
dx
1 Fr 2
- general equation of gradually varied flow.
s+
or
Since Fr and S are function of y, i.e. Fr = Fr(y), S = S(y), therefore
P.3-35
dx
1 Fr 2
=[
]
dy
sin S
This is a 1st order non-linear differential equation. Numerical method is

used to solve the equation.
dx
1 Fr 2
=[
]
sin S
dy
2
x2
y 2 1 Fr
x1 dx = y1 ( sin S)dy
2
y 2 1 Fr
x2 = x1 + y (
) dy
1 sin S
The simplest solution is the direct mid-point solution of the integral.

i.e.
x2
1 Fr 2
= x1 + (
) y y *(y2-y1)
sin S ( 1 2 2 )
The expression may be used to calculate the water profile in a step-by-step

sequence from a known (x1, y1) value.
P.3-36
Worked example:
3.13 Determine the upstream profile of a backwater curve given:

Q = 10 m3/s,
b = 3m, sin = 0.001, n = 0.022.
water surface
yn
5m
dam
Answer
For normal flow, (S sin )

2
1
A
Q = * R 3 *S 2
n
( 3y n )
3y n
*(
) * 0.001
i.e.
10 =
0.022 3 2y n
yn = 2.44 m
The water profile is from 2.44 m to 5 m along the channel.
From Manning equation,
2
1
1
v = * R 3 *S 2
n
n2v2
S = 4
R 3
Hence
x2
= x1 + (
1 Fr 2
0.001
n 2 v2
) *(y2-y1)
R 4/ 3
P.3-37
section, I
1
yi (m)
5
4.75
4.25
3.5
3.25
10
11
Fr
1-Fr*Fr
R (m)
So - Sf
dx (m)
0.25
4.875
0.684
0.099
0.990
1.147
0.000812
305
0.25
4.625
0.721
0.107
0.989
1.133
0.000787
314
0.25
4.375
0.762
0.116
0.986
1.117
0.000758
326
x (m)
0
305
619
945
0.25
4.125
0.808
0.127
0.984
1.100
0.000722
341
0.25
3.875
0.860
0.140
0.981
1.081
0.000677
362
0.25
3.625
0.920
0.154
0.976
1.061
0.000622
392
1285
3.75
dy (m) ymean (m) v (m/s)
4.5
1647
2040
0.25
3.375
0.988
0.172
0.971
1.038
0.000551
440
0.25
3.125
1.067
0.193
0.963
1.014
0.000459
524
0.25
2.875
1.159
0.218
0.952
0.986
0.000337
707
0.31
2.595
1.285
0.255
0.935
0.951
0.000146
1992
2480
3004
2.75
3711
2.44
5703
From the table, the water level is not affected by the dam at 5.7 km
upstream.
5m
4m
3m
normaldepth
2m
dam
1m
8km 7km 6km 5km 4km 3km 2km 1km
From the graph, the water depth at any location can be obtained.
P.3-38
Class Exercise 3.1:

A 500 mm-diameter concrete pipe on a 1:500 slope is to carry water at a
velocity of 0.18 m/s. Find the depth of the flow. (n=0.013)
500mm
[y = 18 mm]
P.3-39
Class Exercise 3.2:
What are the dimensions for an optimum rectangular brick channel (n =

0.015) designed to carry 5 m3/s of water in uniform flow with s = 0.001?
What will be the percentage increase in flow rate if the channel is a semicircle but retained the same sectional area?
[increase = 8.4%]
P.3-40
Class Exercise 3.3:
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6.0 m and side slopes of 1:1.
The depth of flow is 1.5 m at a discharge of 15 m3/s. Determine the
specific energy and alternate depth.
[E = 1.59 m, y = 0.499 m]
P.3-41
Class Exercise 3.4:
A triangular channel has an apex angle of 60 and carries a flow with a

velocity of 2.0 m/s and depth of 1.25 m.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Is the flow subcritical or supercritical?

What is the critical depth?
What is the specific energy?
What is the alternate depth possible for this specific energy?
(yc = 1.148 m, E = 1.454 m, y = 1.06 m)
P.3-42
Class Exercise 3.5:
A rectangular channel is 4.0 m wide and carries a discharge of 20 m3/s at a

depth of 2.0 m. At a certain section it is proposed to build a hump.
Calculate the water surface elevations at upstream of the hump and over
the hump if the hump height is 0.33 m. (Assume no loss of energy at the
hump.)
water surface
y1
y2
Q
hump
P.3-43
Class Exercise 3.6:
In a hydraulic jump occurring in a horizontal, rectangular channel it is

desired to have an energy head loss equal to 6 times the supercritical flow
depth. Calculate the Froude number of the flow necessary to have this
jump.
[Fr1 = 4.822]
P.3-44
Assignment: Open Channel Flow
1.
Calculate the normal depth in a concrete trapezoidal channel with side

slope of 1 to 3, a bed slope of 0.00033, a bottom width of 4.0 m and a
water discharge of 39 m3/s. Manning coefficient is 0.013.
y
3
1
3
4m
2.
Determine the critical depth of the trapezoidal channel for a discharge

of 15 m3/s. The width of the channel bottom, b = 6 m, and the side
slope is 45.
3.
Consider a flow in a wide channel over a bump with an approaching

velocity, v1 at the upstream is 1 m/s and the depth, y1 is 1 m. If the
maximum bump height is 15 cm, determine
(a) the Froude number over the top of the bump, and
(b) the depression in the water surface. (y2 > 0.5 m)
4.
Water flows in a trapezoidal channel at a rate of 8.5 m3/s. The

channel has a bottom width of 3 m and side slope of 1:1. If a
hydraulic jump is forced to occur where the upstream depth is 0.3 m,
what will be the downstream depth and velocity? What are the values
of Fr1 and Fr2?
5.
A wide canal has a bed slope of 1 in 1000 and conveys water at a

normal depth of 1.2 m. A weir is to be constructed at one point to
increase the depth of flow to 2.4 m. How far upstream of the weir will
the depth be 1.35 m? (Take n in the Manning equation as 0.013)
END
P.3-45

3 Channel

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HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

3 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Classifications of Open Channel Flow

Open Channel Geometry

Depth of flow, y: vertical distance from the bottom to surface.

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Hydraulic radius (hydraulic mean depth), R:

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

Average depth (hydraulic average depth), yave:

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

Energy Equation for Steady Uniform Flow

Hydraulic Grade Line, S W 1 1

Energy Grade Line,

Channel bed slope, So

where L is the inclined length of x measured along the channel bed.

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

3.2 Steady Uniform Flow

Applying Newtons second law of motion to the channel shown above.

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

When is small, S So and it is customary to use the bottom slope in the

In 1890, Robert Manning (1816 1897), an Irish engineer derived a better

n - Mannings coefficient, s/m1/3

Incorporating with the continuity equation, Manning equation becomes

As the flow according to Manning equation is for normal steady uniform

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

3.2 Water flows in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 12 m wide.

Depth of the flow = 2.551m

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

3.3 A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 2/3, a depth of 2 m, a bottom

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

3.4 Determine the depth in a trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1 to

By trial & error, y = 2.137 m.

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

= 0.22 m3/s, So = 0.0015

Depth of the channel is 0.672 m.

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

Optimum Hydraulic Cross-sections

From Manning equation,

Hence, Q will be maximum when P is a minimum.

Therefore, the optimum rectangular section is

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

The optimum section is given as follow:

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow

The diameter of this optimum section is 951mm.

HYDRAULICS & HYDROLOGY

Chapter 3 Open Channel Flow