Typhoon-Resilient Design Strategies:

Building Shape
The main strategy in protecting buildings from strong winds
is to maintain the integrity of the building envelope,
including roofs and windows, and to design the building to
withstand the expected lateral and uplift forces. The
following are some strategies that can be employed to
make the construction system more wind-resilient and
which could possibly withstand more than 250 kph winds:

The most important single factor in determining the

performance of buildings in typhoons is the building shape.
Simple, compact, symmetrical shapes are best.
The best shape to resist high winds is a square. The
square plan is better than the rectangle since it allows
high winds to go around them. The rectangle is better
than the L-shaped plan. For rectangular shapes, the
best layout is when the length is not more than three
(3) times the width.
If other shapes are desired, efforts should be made to
strengthen the corners.
If longer shapes are used, they must be designed to
withstand the forces of the wind.
For groups of buildings, a cluster arrangement can be
followed in preference to row type.

Roof Form/Shape

Use a hip roof. This is the strongest type with all sides
of the roof sloped. Hip roofs offer much less wind
resistance than gable roofs.
For gable roofs, use a high pitched roof.
Avoid a low-pitched roof. Roof pitch angle at least 25.
Experience and experiment have shown that the hip
roof with the pitch in 25 to 40 range has best record
of wind resistance.

Roof Overhangs
Avoid large overhangs as high wind force build up
under them.
Roof eaves can be limited to 18 - 20 inches.
If overhangs or canopies are desired, they should be
braced by ties held to the main structure.
Roof overhangs for verandah, patio, terraces and
balconies should be designed as separate construction
rather than extensions of the main roof of the building.
They can break-away from the main roof structure
without damaging the rest of the house.

corrugations. At all other locations, provide fixings at

every three (3) corrugation at maximum spacing.
Use galvanized iron flats under the fixings.
Use fittings with a broad washer or dome head (zinc
nail). To use more fixings for each sheet, put in the
laths at closer centres and nail closer together.
Screws hold better than nails so fewer screws can be
used. But the sheeting must be thick or they will tear
through.
When using screws for corrugated galvanized roof sheets,
use proper drive screws. Be sure that the screws go
into the purlins at least fifty (50) mm. Use large
washers under the screw heads to prevent the roof
sheets from tearing when pulled upward by high winds.
Nails do not hold as well as screws. Use nails with wide
heads and long enough to bend over below the lath.
Galvanized coated nails are better than ordinary wire
nails.
Spacing for laths and number of fixings will vary with the
gauge of sheeting used. Laths should be placed closer

together for thin sheets to provide space for extra

fixings. A guide to the number of fixings and spacing of
laths is shown below.
Gauge of Sheeting
Laths
26
mm
25
mm
24
screws

Spacing of

450 mm 600
600 mm 750
600 for nails, 900 mm for

Roofing Sheets
The connections of cladding/sheeting to the truss need
to be designed for the increased forces, especially at
the corners and the roof edges considered as zones of
higher local wind suctions. Failure at any one of these
locations could lead progressively to complete roof
failure.
The
following
are
recommended:

if possible, use long-span roof sheets.

If the sheeting is too thin or there are too few fittings,
the nails or screws may tear through the sheet. If
galvanized sheets are used, 24 gauge is
recommended.
Roofing sheets usually fail at ridges where capping
comes off, at gable ends where sheetings rolls up
sideways and at eaves where sheets lift up. At ridges,
eaves and overhangs, provide fixings at every two (2)

Sheeted roofs: - A reduced spacing of bolts, of

that admissible as per IS:800, recommended. For
normal connections, J bolts may be used but for

cyclone resistant connections U bolts are

recommended. Alternatively, a strap may be used
at least along edges to fix cladding with the purlins
to avoid punching through the sheet. Properly
connected M.S. flat can be used as reinforcing
band in high suction zones. The corrugated
sheeting should be properly overlapped (at least 2
1/2 corrugation) to prevent water from blowing
under the seam. Spaces between the sheeting and
the wall plate should be closed up to prevent the
wind from getting under the sheeting and lifting it.
This can be done by nailing a fascia board to the
wall plate and rafters.
Clay tile roofs: - Because of lower dead weight,
these may be unable to resist the uplifting force
and thus experience heavy damage, particularly
during cyclones. Anchoring of roof tiles in R.C.
strap beams is recommended for improved cyclone

resistance. As alternative to the bands, a cement

mortar screed, reinforced with galvanized chicken
mesh, may be laid over the high suction areas of
the tiled roof. Note: - Covering the entire tile roof
with concrete or Ferro-cement will prevent natural

breathing through the tiles and will make them

thermally uncomfortable.
Roof Frame Construction
Roof trusses and gables must be braced.
Provide a more rigid fastening system for the roof
frame like metal tie-down straps (typhoon straps) that
tie the roof structure all the way down to the foundation.

Provide various structural connectors that

can dramatically reduce uplift which is the
cause of the most significant roof damage
in typhoons.
If the rafters are not secure, the ridge can
fall apart when strong wind passes over the
roof. The ridge can be secured by using:
Collar Ties - Timbers connecting the rafters.
Nail them to the side of the rafters.

Gussets - Usually made of steel/plywood.

This is used at the ridge.
Metal Straps over the top of the rafters.
The connection of roof framing to the
vertical load resisting elements i.e. wall or
post, by providing properly designed anchor
bolts and base plates is equally important
for overall stability of the roof. The
anchoring of roof framing to masonry wall
should be accomplished through anchor
bolts embedded in concrete cores. The
weight of participating masonry at an angle
of half horizontal to 1 vertical should be
more that the total uplift at the support. In
case of large forces, the anchoring bars can
be taken down to the foundation level with
a structural layout that could ensure the
participation of filler and cross walls in
resisting the uplift.

 Adequate diagonal or knee bracing should be provided

both at the rafter level and the eaves level in a pitched
roof. The purlins should be properly anchored at the
gable end. It is desirable that at least two bays, one at
each end, be braced both in horizontal and vertical
plane to provide adequate wind resistance. Where
number of bays is more than 5, use additional bracing
in every fourth bay.
In order to reduce wind induced flutter/vibration of the
roof in cyclonic regions, it is recommended that all
members of the truss and the bracings be connected at
the ends by at least two rivets/bolts or welds. Further
the cross bracing members by welded/connected at the
crossings to reduce vibrations.

Doors and Windows

Avoid openings which cannot be securely closed during
a typhoon.
Doors and windows must be protected by covering
and/or bracing. Hurricane shutters can protect windows
from most wind-blown debris.
Enhance the protection of openings by considering the
addition of impact-resistant windows, doors, louvers,
etc. An alternative is for glass panes be strengthened
by pasting thin film or paper strips. This can introduce
some damping in the glass panels and reduce their
vibrations.
Recourse may be taken to reduce the panel size to
smaller dimensions.
Since the failure of any door or window on the windward side may lead to adverse uplift pressures under
roof, the openings should have strong holdfasts as well

All external walls or wall panels must be designed to

resist the out of plane wind pressure adequately. The
lateral load due to wind is finally resisted either by walls
lying parallel to the lateral force direction (by shear wall

action) or by RC frames to which the panel walls must

as closing/locking arrangement.
Masonry Walls
It is not uncommon for un-reinforced masonry to fail in
severe cyclones. Walls braced by ring beams and
columns have remained safe.

be fixed using appropriate reinforcement such as

seismic bands at window lintel level.

Flood-Resilient Design Strategies:

storm,

or

by

tsunami.

Building on-stilts

Location

Foundation

Avoid as much as possible any high-density

development in low-lying areas (prone to flooding).
Observe required easements along sides of
waterways.
House located on a river bed, close to running water, is
very vulnerable to flooding. Not only the house, but
also its contents are vulnerable to destruction due to
heavy rains. Houses should not be built in such
obviously vulnerable locations, or if they are, they
should be designed to resist the hazards of their
location.
Houses must be located away from places subject to
landslides where soil may move down a steep slope,
debris flows where soil gravel and rocks may be
washed rapidly down by heavy rainfall, and flashfloods.
The house floor must be elevated above the
surrounding area, with special consideration for
possible area flooding, either by ground water, sea

Invariably a typhoon is accompanied by torrential rain

and tidal surge (in coastal areas) resulting into flooding
of the low lying areas. The tidal surge effect diminishes
as it travels on shore, which can extend even unto 10
to 15 km. Flooding causes saturation of soil and thus
significantly affects the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
In flood prone areas, the safe bearing capacity should
be taken as half of that for the dry ground. Also the
likelihood of any scour due to receding tidal surge
needs to be taken into account while deciding on the
depth of foundation and the protection works around a
raised ground used for locating cyclone shelters or
other buildings

Where a building is constructed on stilts it is necessary

that stilts are properly braced in both the principal
directions. This will provide stability to the complete
building under lateral loads. Knee bracings will be
preferable to full diagonal bracing so as not to obstruct
the passage of floating debris during storm surge.

 Avoid soft storeys and asymmetrical floor plans, which

can induce torsion.

Wall Openings/Window Openings

Structural Framing
The building needs a coherent structure. If the structure
is coherent and strong, it protects the whole house.

Openings just below roof level be avoided for storm

resiliency except that two small vents without shutter
should be provided in opposite walls to prevent
suffocation in case room gets filled with water and
people may try to climb up on lofts or pegs.

Earthquake-Resilient Design Strategies:

Plan/Building Configuration
Maintain the symmetry of a structure by distributing the
seismic force resisting component evenly in all
directionsis crucial in reducing the earthquake impact.

Foundation

Soil for a good foundation that can carry the weight of a

house must be well drained so that it is dry and not
waterlogged. Waterlogged soil can become liquefied in
an earthquaketurn to a semi-liquidso that
structures sink into the ground.

A regular structure (Columns and floors are all joined to

each other in a regular format. Overhanging parts of
the building are all well supported by continuous
columns to the foundations. A complete structural
frame around the building is tied in to the foundation,
the walls and the roof structure)

 An integrated structural ring beam around tops of doors

and windows connected to columns.
An integrated structural ring beam around top of walls
connected to columns
Triangular gable end walls must be structurally
supported
A wood frame structure mounted on a concrete
frame/stub wall must be fully anchored together. A
bracket made of noncorrodible metal, must be cast into
the bearing structure to provide a structural connection
for the whole wall through to the foundation. The wood
column must be bolted to the bracket, and the bracket
must be fully secured into the concrete.

For reinforced concrete frame buildings with CHB walls,

The walls and roof need bracing against lateral movement.

In order to resist lateral forces, walls and roof structure
need cross bracing at all levels, particularly if it is a
wooden structure. This is a major principle in the
construction of traditional houses.

ties are to be cast into columns at 40cm spacing, and

are to be a minimum of 8mm diameter.
All houses are to have completely framed pitched triangular
roof trusses. Roof trusses are to be placed over
columns and tied to them.
Most roof truss joints, and particularly central ones, are to
be bolted, not nailed.
Roof truss joints of 3 or more elements are to have a metal
strap joining each roof component.
Wood blocks are to be used for fixing purlins to roof
trusses.
Joints in roof structural wood are to be made with step
joints, not with 45 cuts.
Joints in roof structure are not to be made near the middle
of a span.
All wooden parts of a house structure are to be cross
braced, stumps, walls, and roof.
Wood roof structures are to be cross braced in both
directions.

Join walls and roof to strengthen each other. Column

reinforcement should protrude from the top of concrete
columns and be bent around roof trusses for structural
strength, or roof trusses should be strapped with metal
ties to the wall structure. Exposed metal should be
painted with rust proof paint to prevent corrosion.

The joints of wooden roof trusses need to be bolted

together and tied with metal straps to provide flexibility
but not collapse under the forces of nature. Metal roof
trusses must be welded together, welded to purlins,
and welded to wall reinforcement for strength.

Wall Openings/Window Openings

Wall material must be tied to the building structure with

metal ties. Metal wall ties are to be hooked at the end.
All wall openings are to be tied to wall material.

Openings in load bearing walls should not be within a

distance of h/6 from inner corner for the purpose of

providing lateral support to cross walls, where h is the

storey height up to eaves level.