GUIDE

WORKSHOP
o Wearappropriate
safetygear:safety
g l a s s eosr a f a c es h i e l da, n dh e a r i n g
protectors
or earplugs.lf thereis no
d u s tc o l l e c t i osny s t e mw, e a ra d u s t
mask.Forexoticwoodslikeebony,usea
maycausean
the sawdust
respirator;
when
Wearworkgloves
reaction.
allergic
h a n d l i nrgo u g hl u m b e r .

o T u r nt h em a c h i noef f i f i t p r o d u c e s
a n u n f a m i l i av ri b r a t i oonr n o i s eh; a v e
resumt h e m a c h i nsee r v i c ebde f o r e
ingoperations.

s a w d u satn dw o o ds c r a p cs a nb e a
firehazard.

. D on o tu s ea m a c h i n ief a n yp a r to f i t
is wornor damaged.

. Wearsafetygoggles,
protection,
hearing
workbootsanda hardhat.Makesure
y o u rc l o t h eas r ec l o s e - f i t t i n
ag
n dl o n g
h a i ri s t i e db a c k .

. Rollup longsleeves
rings
andremove
a n do t h e jre w e l rtyh a tc a nc a t c hi n
movingparts.

saws
Chain

. O p e r a taec h a i ns a wo n l yo u t d o o rosn
a dry,clearday.

. Makesurethatworkshop
and
lighting
andthatwork
areadequate
ventilation
arelargeandsturdy.
surfaces

. K e e py o u rh a n d w
f r o ma
s e l la w a Y
turningbladeor cutterhead

. Readyourowner's
manualbefore
o p e r a t i nagn ym a c h i n e .

r F i n da c o m f o r t a bsl e
t a n c ea; v o i d
ing.
over-reach

. Keepchildren,
andpetsaway
onlookers
fromtheworkarea.

. Concentrate
on thejob;do notrush.
Neverworkwhenyouaretired,stressed
or using
alcohol
or havebeendrinking
drowsiness.
thatinduce
medications

o Tostartup thesaw,carryit to thework

; ake
a r e aa n ds e ti n o n t h eg r o u n dm
anything.
surethechainis notcontacting
t h et o o lw i t hy o u rf o o ta n do n e
Brace
r a n dt o P u l l
h a n da, n du s ey o u ro t h e h
the startercord.

. K e e py o u rw o r ka r e ac l e a na n dt i d Y ;
c l u t t ecr a nl e a dt o a c c i d e n tasn, d

. W h i l eo p e r a t i nt hges a w h
, o l di t f i r m l y
w i t hb o t hh a n d s .

. Unplug
eerforming
a m a c h i nbee f o r p
perations.
s e tu p o r i n s t a l l a t i o n
. Keepblades
knives
sharp.
andcutterhead

A TREE
FELLING
andthebackcut
Makingtheundercut
To fell a treeto makeyourownlumber
(page36), beginwithan undercut
onethetrunkontheside
thirdthewaythrough
in whichthetreeshould
facing
thedirection
up fromthe
angling
fall.Cutthewedge
baseof thetree.Knownasthe Humbolt
thismethodsaveslumberfrom
undercut,
partof a tree-the lower
the mostvaluable
partof thetrunk-a chunkof which
technique
willbelostwiththetraditional
Thenmakea backcut
of undercutting.
from
of inchesabovetheundercut
a couDle
sideto fell thetree.The
the opposite
shouldstopan inchor twofrom
backcut
to leavea hingethatwill
the undercut
of thefall andhelp
thedirection
control
prevent
bladekickback.

Direction of fall <--

TIPS
SAFETY
machines
Stationary

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. M i xf u e la n da d di t t o t h ef u e lt a n ka t
least10 feetawayfromyourworkarea.

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OFA BOARD
ANATOMY

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THEARTOFWOODWORKING

ENCYCLOPEDIA
OFWOOD

THE ART OF WOODWORKING

ENCYCTOPEDIA
OFWOOD
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TIME-LIFE
BOOKS
ALEXANDRIA,
VIRGINIA
ST.REMYPRESS
MONTREAL.
NEWYORK

THE ART OF WOODWORKING was produced by

ST. REMYPRESS
PUBLISHER KennethWinchester
PR.ESIDENT PierreL6veill
Editor
Series
SeriesArt Director
SeniorEditors

PierreHome-Douglas
FrancineLemieux
Marc Cassini(Text)
HeatherMills (Research)
Art Directors Normand Boudreault,SolangeLaberge
Designer Luc Germain,Michel Gigudre
Research
Editor Jim McRae
PictureEditor ChristopherJackson
Writers ThmsinM. Douglas,Andrew fones,
Rob Lutes
Cont r ibut ing lllu strators RonaldDurepos,Jean-Pierre
Bourgeois,Michel Blais,Jacques
Perrault,Alain Longpr,Jocelyn
Veillette,RobertPaquet
Administrator Natalie Watanabe
ProductionManager MichelleTurbide
SystemCoordinator Jean-LucRoy
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Time-Life Booksis a division of Time-Life Inc.,
a wholly ownedsubsidiaryof
THE TIME INC. BOOK COMPANY

TIME-LIFBBOOKS
President
Publisher
ManagingEditor
Directorof Editorial Resources
Associate
Publisher
MarketingDirector
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Mary N. Davis
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ThomasH. Flaherty
EliseD. Ritter-Clough
Tievor Lunn
ReginaHall
Donia Ann Steele
Bob Doyle,JohnSullivan
MarleneZack

THECONSUTTANTS
JohnArno is a consultant,cabinetmakerand
freelancewriter who livesin Troy Michigan.
He alsoconductsseminarson wood identification and earlyAmericanfurniture design.
Giles Miller-Mead taught advancedcabinetmaking at Montreal technicalschoolsfor more
than ten years.A nativeofNew Zealand,he has
worked asa restorerof antiquefurniture.
Andrew Poynter is Presidentof A&M Wood
SpecialtyInc., of Cambridge,Ontario, Canada,
merchantsoffine hardwoodsand veneers.He
beganhis careerin the wood industry in the
early'70smaking customfurniture. He is now
a director of the WoodworkersAlliancefor
RainforestProtectionand an interim director
ofthe ForestStewardshipCouncil.
JosephTruini is SeniorEditor of Hoze
Mechankmagazine.A former Shopand Tools
Editor of PopularMechanics,
he hasworked as
a cabinetmaker,home improvementcontractor
and carpenter.

EnryclopediaofWood
p. cm.-(The Art of Woodworking)
Includesindex.
(trade)
ISBN0-8094-9916-9.
-7 (Ltb)
ISBN 0-8094-9917
l. Woodwork--Enryclopedias.
2. Wood--Encyclopedias.
I. Time- Life Books. IL Series
TTl80.E6l3 1992
684' .08-dc20
92-37293
CIP
For information about any Time-Life book,
pleasecall l-800-621-7026,or write:
ReaderInformation
Time-Life CustomerService
P.O.Box C-32068
Richmond,Virginia
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@ 1993Time-LifeBooksInc.
AII rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproducedin
any form or by any electronicor mechanical
means,including information storageand
retrievaldevicesor systems,without prior
written permissionfrom the publisher,except
that brief passages
may be quoted for reviews.
First printing. Printed in U.S.A.
Publishedsimultaneouslyin Canada.
TIME-LIFE is a trademarkof Time Warner
Inc. U.S.A.
R 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 r

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CONTENTS

6 INTRODUCTION
12
14
16
18
24
26
30
34
36

UNDERSTANDINGWOOD
Anatomvof a tree
Softwoobsand hardwoods
From log to lumber
Lumbercutting methods
Propertiesof wood
Identifting wood
Wood identificationkeys
Portablelumber mills

78 DRYINGAND
STORINGWOOD
80 Waterand wood
86 Estimatingwood movement
87 Air-drying wood
89 Storingwood
98 WOOD DIRECTORY
138 GLOSSARY
L42 INDEX

40
42
45
46
48
50
53

SELECTINGTUMBER
Orderinglumber
Gradinglumber
Hardwoodgrades
Softwoodgrades
Lumber defects
Preparinglumber

56 VENEERSAND
MANUFACTURED BOARDS
58 Veneers
60 From log to veneer
63 Veneering
69 Decorativematching
70 Plvwood
72 Pliwood grading
74 Concealingplywoodedges
76 Particleboard
77 Fiberboard

IM

ACKNO\ArLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION

Iohn Sharptalksabout

WOOD
IDENTIFICATION
at anearlyagewhileworkingat our family
to woodidentification
f *ur exposed
I felta greatdealof
duringthesummers.
I sawmillin UnionCounty,Tennessee,
thelogsofvariousspecies
as
I couldseebetween
curiosityaboutthevastdifferences
"opened
up" andthelumbermovedfromthesawdeck.
theywere
logsmadeupthemajorityof logsdelivOak,poplarandothercommonhardwood
or sasoddspecies,
suchaspersimmon
eredto themill,buttherewastheoccasional
If apoplarboardwasfoundin
thelumberbyspecies.
Myjobwasto separate
safras.
mywoods.
a stackof oak,thatwasmyfault,soI quickiylearned
Not until
At thattimeI onlyknewthecommonnamesof thedifferentspecies.
theimportance
in forestryschooldidI realize
courses
woodanatomy
I encountered
werevariable
fromregionto region.
for commonnames
names,
of scientific
whenYale
hascomealongwaysincetheturnof thecentury,
Woodidentification
Nowthereare25to 30places
wherewood
forestrystudies.
wasthegnlyschoolteaching
WhenI wasin forestryschoolin
identificltionisofferedaspartof thecurriculum.
justafterWorldWarII, anintegralpartof ourworkinvolved
idenNorthCarolina,
saysourwood,
Whenwecameacross
anunfamiliarspecies,
tifringwoodsamples.
moredifficult.I canstillremember
wood,ourtaskbecame
whichwasn'tacommercial
remarking
thatheswore
whosurvived
Guadalcanal,
of mine,awarveteran
aclassmate
thingin hislife,buttherehewasworrying,asweall
he'dneverworryaboutanother
between
ashandhickory.
hecouldn'ttellthedifference
did,because
feaof a handlensandtextbooks
toolsconsisted
At thetime,woodidentification
the
photosof species
Withaviewto reducing
samples.
turingsmallblack-and-white
overtheyears
with identifringwood,I haveworkedveryclosely
anxietyassociated
Woodlovers
to getbetterphotos.
of Tennessee
labattheUniversity
withaphotography
photosof woodtypesin all sortsof
cannowreferto goodqualityS-by-lO-inch
publications
in ournationalparks.
to bookstores
places-fromwoodworking

lohn Sharpis a retiredUniversityof Tennessee

professor
offorestryand a memberof theInterHe woiles
Society.
nationalWoodCollectors
from hishomenearKnowille, Tennessee.

INTRODUCTION

Andrew Poyntertalksabout

BITYINGAND
SELLINGWOOD
r.r rupplierof hardwoods
andfineveneers
for thelast20years,
I havebeenprivI
,{, \ ilegedto getto knowsomeof thefinestwoodworkers
in NorthAmerica.
I've
alsolearneda lot aboutwoodanditsqualities,
not onlythegoodqualities,
but the
bafling onesaswell.
myowninterestin woodbeganmanyyears
beforeI estab. .lookingbachI suppose
lishedmy company.
In fact,I canvividlyrecallmyfirsi hands-onexperience
with a
pieceof Brazilianrosewood-completely
captivating!
Thatwasin themid-'60s,
andin thosedayswoodiurners,
luthiersandfurnituremakershadlittle to choosefromin thewayof differentwoods.Althoughtheycould
readwonderful{esgriptiygp.assages
aboutMacassar
ebony,
satinwood,
kingwood,
and
soon,tryingto find a reliablesourcefor allthosefinewoodswasnextto impossible.
Theneedto inventoryaselection
ofwoodforthefurniturethatI picturedmfermakingwasoneof thereasons
I started
mywooddealership
n 19j3.
My furnituqemafing
gradgally
tapuedoff,andby 1975I wasputtingallmyefforu
intottretaskof marketing
andsellingfinehardwoods
andveneers.
At thattime,everyonesaidtherain forestswouldgoon forever,andthattherewassomuchwoodin
theAmazonthatwewouldneverrun out.However,
thepassage
of timeandthe
demandfor woodhavedonetwothingsto thetimbertrade:First,aproliferationof
wooddealers
andwoodvarietieshaveenteredthemarketplace-aplusfor thoseof
uswholovewood.Second,
webecame
complacent
aboufthetruevalueof various
species
andthesustainability
of theirsupply.Wearenowonlytooawarethattherain
forestsmaynot goon forever.
A+howhqe proble-rns
causing
deforestation
areverycomple6therearestepsthat
"Measure
woodworkers
shouldtaketo helpimprovethesituation.
twiceandcufoncd'
mayseemalmosttoobasic,butit canmakeadifference
in reducing
ourconsumption.
Usingveneer
whenever
possible
is anotherstepin therightdireition.
I've becomean activememberof thewoodworkeisAlliancefor Rainforest
Protection.
wr\RPwasfoundedin 1989byaconcerned
groupofwoodworkers,
wood
turners,luthiers,
woodmerchants,
tooldealers
andloversof wood.Centralto manv
ofirprograms,Wz\RPencg,urages
orwell-managed
$e useofwoodfromsusainable
sources.
It is nowevidentthatmuchhasto change
in globalforestrypractices
olver
th; nextfewyears
ifwoodworkers
in thefutureareto enjoytheremarliable
selection
of woodthatis available
to all of ustoday.
AndrewPoynterholdsa pieceof redwoodburl at his
store,A dt M WoodSpecialtyInc., in Cambridge,
Ontario.Thecompanysellsmorethan 100typesof
woodto woodworkers
throughoutNorthAmerica.

INTRODUCTION

Ion Arno talksaboutsome

FA/ORITE
WOODS
workingwithwoodhas
Q in.. I grewup in afamilythatownedalumberbusiness,
t. l beena lifelonginterestof mine.Whilemanyfellowwoodworkers
tendto conI findthattherealessence
centrate
ontoolsandmethodsofconstruction,
ofthecraft
liesin themediumweuse-the wooditself.Theworldprovidesa greatmanyfine
timbersandsomeof them,suchaswalnut,mahogany
androsewood,
lenda certain
prestige
project.Forme,thejoyofwoodworking
fromdiscovto thefinished
comes
properties
of variousspecies
andlearninghowto choose
themost
eringthespecial
purpose,
for theintended
regardless
of itsnotorietyor reputation.
functionalwood
Everywoodhas
forwhichit isunsurpassed.
Thegoalof goodcraftsanapplication
justwhatthatapplicationis.
manshipis to discover
plentifirldomestic
Thereareliterallyhundreds
of woods,someof themreasonably
species,
thatseldomfind theirwayintolumberyards.
Neveflheless,
theyarestilloutstandingwoodsfor certainapplications.
A fewof my favoritesarecatalpa,balsam
poplarandblackash.Recently,
I haveaddedanotheroneto mylist-sassafras.
A memberof theLaurelfamily-alongwith cinnamon,camphorandbay-sassafras
iswellknownfor itssweet-scented
oil usedin cosmetics
andsoaps.
Itsbuoyant
decay-resistant
wood hasalsogainedsomepopularitywith boat builders.
however,
havelongdismissed
sassafras
asbeingtoosoftandbrittle.
Cabinetmakers,
Basically,
formehasbeento findanapplitheseassesments
areaccurate;
thechallenge
hascomefromwhatmany
cationwherethiswoodexcels.
Oddlyenough,theanswer
perceive
qualities.
asoneof its negative
isbrittle,but itsresistance
resonance
Sassafras
to flexinggivesit outstanding
when
in dulcimers.
Thebright,bell-liketoneit yieldsisaspleasant
usedasthesoundboard
asthespicyaromaof thewoodwhenit isbeingcut,shapedandsanded.
And what
rolecouldbemorefittingfor thisuniquelyAmerican
species
thanin helpingto provide
thevoicefor anAmerican
musicalinstrument?
I startedmakingdulcimers
onlyacoupleof yearsago,whenmydaughte6
amusic
lover,chose
to buildonefor ahighschoolproject.Weboughtakit, butwhenI opened
theboxI realizedthattherewasn'tanythinginsidethatI couldn'tmakein my own
My onlyregret,sofar asbeinga luthier,is I don't
shop,soI startedto experiment.
possess
a sense
of musicto goalongwith it.

dulcimer,fashioned
lon Arno displaysa home-made
ftom
sassafras
and osageorange.He is a woodtechnologist,
consultantandfreehncewriter living in Troy,Michigan.

'{"

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TINDERSTANDNG
WOOD

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s you striveto improveyour

woodsuchaspineis moreforgivl, \ masteryof the demanding
joinery,while
ing of lessprecise
craft of woodworking,
muchof
dense,brittlespecies
suchasmayour attentionwill be devotedto
hoganydemandjoints that are
learningabouttoolsandthetechcut to closetolerances.
And every
niquesfor usingthem.Butin your
quicklylearnsthatsandin!
beginner
questforperfection,
donotneglect
woodacross
thegrain,ratherthan
themostfundamental
component
parallelto it, results
in scratches
that
of everyproject-thewooditself.
areaccentuated
whena finishis
Rarelyperfectandalwaysvaryappliedto thepiece.
ing,eachpieceofwoodexhibitsits
Remember,
too,thathowaparjust ascertainlyas
owncharacter,
ticularpieceof woodbehaves
in
a humanbeing:Somewoodsare
yourshopdepends
in largemeasure
plain,somecolorfi.rl;
somearestaA pile of logssitat a sawmillin Oregon"
on whathappened
to it beforeit
ble,someunpredictable;
somework
readyto bemilledinto lumber.
reached
thelumberyard.
Howthe
easily,
somewithdifficulty.
A knowlwoodgrewin thetree,theweather
edgeof theseproperties
will allowyouto makethemostof
thetreeenduredandhowthewoodwascutanddriedallaffect
your abilities,achieving
a weddingof form,substance
and thefinalproduct.Thewoodof aleaningtree,for example,
will
technique
thatcantransformevenanordinaryprojectinto reactdifferentlyduringmachiningthanthatsawnfromthe
aworkof art.
trunkof anerecttree.Andwhetheraboardisquartersawn
or
Youcanobtainmuchfactualinformationabouttheprop- plain-sawn
hasanimpacton itsdimensional
stability.
ertiesofwoodin readilyavailable
booksandarticles.
Learning
Onewayto obtainintimateknowledge
of yourmaterialis
to applythatknowledge
ismorechallenging.
Forexample,
the to sawit yourselffrom a treeusinga portablelumbermill
knowledge
(page36).Selecting
thatmapleboardsmaycontainwidevariations
in
andfellinga tree,bucking-or crosscutcolor,textureandfigurewill assume
greater
meaning
asyou ting-it intologs,andmillingtheplanksimparta hands-on
learnto usethesecharacteristics
to bestadvantage.
Likewise, understanding
thatisimpossible
to acquireanyotherway.The
althoughDouglas-fir
isanattractive,
easilyworkedwood,vari- workisarduous,
andit alsotakesconsiderable
timeto cutand
ationsin itssurface
porositycanmakeit difficultto finishwell. drytheboards.
Buttherewards-bothin theuniquelumber
Butwhenyoulearnhowto sealthewood,youwill findmany produced
andthepersonal
satisfaction
in producingit-are
usesfor Douglas-fir.
Experience
will alsotellyouthataresilient wellworththeeffort.

A standof Douglas-firtreesbaslcs
in thesunlight
in a WestCoastforest.Many softwoods,like Douglasfrr areidealfor interiortrim or cabinetwork.

13

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arvestedfrom the trunks and
branchesof trees,wood is a
Crown
resilient,dynamicbuildingmaterial. Thebranches
howtreesgrowcanshed and leavesof a
Understanding
considerable
lightonwhywoodbehaves tree, wherephoasit doeswhenit isworkedor finished. tooyntheoia
All treesconsistof threemajorsys- takee plaae
tems:a root networkthat drawswater
andmineralsfrom the soil;a crownof
leaves,
wherewaterandmineralsare
combinedwith carbondioxidein the
presence
ofsunlightto producefoodfor
and--ofmost
thetree(photosynthesis);
interestto woodworkers-asupporting
trunkthattransporhthewaterandfood.
Viewedin crosssection,a treetrunk
to be a fairlyhomogeat first appears
nouscolumnof wood,markedby a
series
of concentric
bandscalledgrowth
a
rings.However,
a closeviewreveals
seriesof distinctlayerswappedaround
eachother,someliving,somenot. At
thecenteris theheartwood,
thedensest-and dead-part of the trunk.
Encirclingtheheartwoodis thepaler
whichin turn is surrounded
sapwood,
bythecambium,
thetrunk'sonlyactively growingsegment.The cambium's
growthaccounts
for thelayersof sapwoodthatareaddedeachyear.Oneither
thattranssideofthecambiumarelayers
port sapthroughoutthetreeandstore
surplusfood. As the inner sapwood
recedes
from the cambium,its pores
graduallyclogwith
resinsandgums,and
As the outersecbecomeheartwood.
tions becomedormant,they form a
trunk'soutermostlayer,thebark.
Thedifferences
between
sapwood
and
heartwood
areimportantto everywoodRootE
worker.Because
it ismoreporousthan Anchor tree and
finishes abaorb water
heartwood,
sapwood
absorbs
heartwood
isusu- and minerals
better.Butthedenser
allvmoredurableanddecav-resistant.from the aoil
presentin sapwood
Thecarbohydrates
cellsmakethewoodvulnerableto fungi andinsects.
Thecolorsofheartwood
are also generallyricher and more
vibrantthanthoseof sapwood.

Trunk
Alao called stem
or bole;aupporto
tree and channela
nutriente to and
from roote

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

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Growth
rings
In regions
wherea tree'sgrowthis intenupted
byseasonal
change,
its woodis characterized
bygrowthrings:concentric
bands,
usually
fractions
of an inchwide,perpendicular
to the
axisof thetrunk.Treesthatgrowin temperate
areaswitha winterseason
display
distinctrings.In thetropics,
wheregrowth
is
moreor lesscontinuous,
a sharply
defined
ringmayonlybevisibleasthe resultof a dryseason.
Theringsareintersected
by
a seriesof rays:flattenedbandsof tissuethatradiateoutward
fromthe pithto the phloemof thetree.Growthringsconsistof
twoseparate
layers.
Thefirst,calledearlywood,
is laiddownat
the beginning
of thegrowing
season;
thesecondlayer,or late-

A amall and often pulpy core

runninqup the center of the trunk

wood,isformedtowardtheend.Earlywood
is moreporous
than
latewood,
whichaccounts
for the contrastbetween
the two.
Takentogether,
the earlywood
and latewood
of a growthring
in temperate
climates
represent
oneyearin a tree'slife.The
widthof a ringdepends
ongrowing
conditions
andvaries
from
species
to species,
butchanges
fromyearto yearreveala tree's
history.
A wideringsuggests
a growing
season
withamplesun
andmoisture,
whilea narrow
ringis evidence
of disease,
unfavorable
weather
groMh
or insectattacks.Forthewoodworker,
ringsarealsocluesto thestrenghof thewood:uncharacteristicallynarrow
orwideringscansignalweaktimber.

Heaftwood
)apwood that haa beencloqqed
with resina, quma and other
extractivea: eupportg tree

Grotvth ring
A concentric rinq divided into
aarlywoodand latewood indicatin7 the amount of wood
added to a.tree'a diameter
in one growingaeason

Ray
Carriea nutrienta
laterally throu4h
the wood;alao
atoreg nutrientq
9apwood
Activo parA of the
tree'e wood throu7h
which water and
minerals are conducted from the
roote to the leavea:
al6o storea nutrienta and helpa to
support.the tree

lneulatea tree
aqainst temperature extremeo;
keepooapwood
and phloemfrom
dryin1 out

Phloem
A thin, spon7y layer of tubea that
carry diaaolvedeu4ara and qrowth
hormoneafrom the leaveato other
parta of a tree

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A thickslicefrom thetrunk of a mature

oakformsan oval-shaped
tabletop.The
growth rings that characterizedthis tree
areclearlyvisible:Light-coloredearlywoodalternates
with darkerbands
of latewood,etchinga distinct line
betweeneachyear'sgrowingperiods.

Cambium
A thin reproductive layor that forma
newt'isaue,addinq to the phloemand
aapwoodto increase a tree'a 1irbh

AND HARDWOODS
SOFTWOODS
reesareroughlydividedinto softbut the
I woodsand hardwoods,
termsare inexact:Somehardwoods,
suchasbasswoodor aspen,for example,aresofterthanNorth Americansoftwoodslikelongleafpineor Douglas-fir.
Thetypeandshapeof a tree'sleaves
are more accurateindicatorsof a
particularwood'sidentity.Softwoods
coniferswith needleincludeevergreen
like leaves,
whilehardwoodscomprise
deciduous,or leaf-shedbroad-leaved
ding,trees.But it is at the microscopic
between
levelthat the true differences
canbe seen.
andhardwoods
softwoods
mainlyof traarecomposed
Softwoods
cheids,dual-purposecellswhich conductthe sapup throughthe trunk and

whichare
providesupport.Hardwoods,
believedto haveevolvedlater,havenarfibercellsfor suprowet thicker-walled
port and large-diameter
thin-walled
vessels
for sapconduction,Thesecells
determinethi textureof a tree'swood.
In spring,whenthereis abundant
moistureand rapid growthof earlywood, the tracheidcellsin softwoods
havethin wallsandlargecavitiesto conduct the sap.The resultis relatively
in
porouswood.As latewooddevelops
the latterpart of the growingseason,
beginto form thickerwalls,
thetracheids
creatingdenserwood.
In hardwoodssuchas oak or ash,
developin theearlymostof thevessels
wood,resultingin unevengrain.These

With difspecies
arecalledring-porous.
maple,
hardwoods
such
as
fuse-porous
vessels
more
evenly
the
aredistributed
latewood.
Some
in the earlpvoodand
walnut,
exhibit
a
more
species,
suchas
gradualtransitionfrom earlpvoodto
latewoodand aretermedsemi-rineporousor semi-diffuse-porous.
The differencesin cell structure
betweensoftwoodsand hardwoods
whena stainisapplied.
becomeapparent
In softwoods,
the light,porousearlywood absorbsstainmore readilythan
the dark,denserlatewood-in effect
reversing
thegrainpatternlikea photographicnegative.Hardwoods,however,
absorbstainmoreevenly,enhancingthe
croin

naffprn

()FSOFTWOODS
ANDHARDW()()DS
CELLSTRUCTURE
Latewood

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view
A microscopic
arereadily
andhardwood
between
softwood
Thedifferences
magnif
ication.
whenviewed
undera microscope's
apparent
(above,
/eff)is muchsimpler
of softwoods
Thecellstructure
Almost
allsoftwood
cellsarelong,
thanthatof hardwoods.
of sapthat
an unbroken
column
whichsupport
thintracheids,
in Iatewood
cantowermorethan200 feet.Thetracheids
In hardwoods
thanthosein earlvwood.
become
thrcker-walled

(above,
through
vessels,
a series
of
right),the
sapis conducted
forthetrunk
Support
tubelike
cellsstacked
oneatoptheother.
hardwood
shown,
is provided
byf ibercells.In thering-porous
in earlywood;
f ibersaretheprevessels
aremoreprominent
In bothhardwoods
andsoftdominant
celltypein latewood.
andstarch
makeupthe
woods,
storage
cellsforcarbohydrates
woodtissue.
remainins
non-vascular

T6

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

A ROSEWO(ID
BYA]TYOTHER
NAME...
Forthepracticing
woodworker,
callwoodinstead,
sincebothbelong
to
inga pieceof woodbyitscommon
therosewood
familyandarenative
nameseldom
creates
confusion.
lf
to Brazil.In fact,thereareseveral
youaskfora fewplanks
genuine
of whiteoak
rosewoods,
suchasEast
yard,forexample,
at a lumber
there
Indianrosewood
andcocobolo,
that
is noreason
whyyoushouldnotget
costmuchlessthanthe Brazilian
whatyourequested.
Butwithsome
v a r i e t ya n d a r ee a s i e tro f i n d .
particularly
species,
exotics
thatmust However,
theymightnotfit thebill
bepurchased
bymail-order,
identities fora guitar-maker.
Otherspecies,
canbe lesscertain.
Common
names
suchasbocote,
bubinga
andpadauk,
aremisleading
whentreeswithdiffer- areoftensoldas rosewood
substientcharacteristics
sharethesame
tutes,butdo notlookat all like
name,orwhenthesamespecies
has
Brazilian
rosewood.
different
common
names
in seoarate
Toavoidconfusion,
it is helpfulto
localities.
referto certainwoodsbytheirbotanyouwanted
Suppose
samples
of a
icalnames.
Brazilian
rosewood
is
veryrareandexpensive
species
like
Dalbergia
nigra,anda guitar-maker
Brazilian
rosewood,
a black-streaked,whorequests
it bythatnamewill not
darkbrownwoodoftenusedin the
bedisappointed.
makingof superior-qual
ityguitars.
Thisscientific
naming
system
was
A supplier
couldin goodconscience developed
morethan200 yearsago
sendyoupieces
of kingwood
or tulip- bySwedish
botanist
CarlLinnaeus.

A botanical
breakdown
of Brazilianrosewood
Phyfum:Spermatophyta
Sub-phylum:
Angiospermae
Class:Dicotyledonae
Order;Rosales
Famify:Leguminosae
GenusrDalbergia
Species:Nrgra

THEHIDDEN
HARVEST

In additionto lumberand manufactured

boards,treesprovidea cornucopiaofraw
materialsfor productssuchasrollsof
newsprint(left).For centuries,
people
haveextractedsuchnaturalproductsas
cork,rubber,gum, medicine,spices,
drugs,
oils,charcoal,camphorand resins.The
cellulose
fiberfound in treesis usedin the
productionof plasticsand lacquers
aswell
aswoodpulp. Coniferoustreessupply
turpentineand resins,whichare usedin
paints,inl<sandfinishes.
Modernchemistry hasunlockedstill moreof wood's
hiddentreasures,
finding waysto remoye
suchdisparate
productsasglues,poisons
andarfficialvanilla.

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Asshownbelow,in a botanical
analysis
of Brazilian
rosewood,
Linnaeus'
nowuniversally
accepted
plantsintothe
scheme
classifies
various
groups
taxonomic
of phyla,
classes,
genera
orders,
families,
and
species.
Almostall treesbelong
to
phylum,
thespermatophyta
withhardwoodsin theangiospermae
sub-phylumandthedicotyledonae
class,and
softwoods
belonging
to thegymnospermaesubphylum,

I7

WOOD
UNDERSTANDING

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

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FROMLOGTOLIIMBER
.p

etweenthestandingtreeandthe
Ll boardsyoupickofftherackat the
lumberyardstandsa complexprocess
thatrequires
manypeople
to applyenormousskill at everystep.Undetected
defectsin the standingtree,damage

caused
duringfelling,poorjudgmentin
buckingor inattentivesawingat the
mill cansabotage
the valueof a tree
andraisethesawmill's-andthewoodbuyingconsumer's-costs.
Although
powersaws
havereplaced
muscle-driven

pit sawsin the forestandat the mill,

andcutsarenowguidedbylaserbeams
andcomputertechnology
insteadof
chalklines,no replacement
hasbeen
devisedfor the practicedeyeof an
experienced
lumberman.

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A logger(left) makeshisundercutin a mightyDouglas-firtreein therain

forats of British
columbio,canada.Fellingthesebehemoths
wasoncetheworkof two menpushingand
pulling a hugefelling saw;today,a chainsawreduces
fetling to a quick one-manjib.

L9

A tractor-Iikeskidderhaulsa
hitch oflogsfrom theforest.

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WOOD
UNDERSTANDING

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itscontentsontoa truck.
Ahydrauliclogloaderdispenses

thetrees
Selecting
begins
A neetjoumeyto thelumberyard
in thewoods,whena foresteror timber
thetreesfor cutting.
cruiserevaluates
for
Not all cut treeswill beearmarked
thesawmill; somewill beusedfor pulp
treesare
or firewood.Theselower-grade
harvested
to givetheresidual
deliberately
access
to nutrientsandmore
stockbetter
thetimroomto grow,thusincreasing
value.Theverybesttreeswill
berstand's
for veneer.
bereserved
lummostof thehighest-grade
Since
berwill comefromtheareajustunder
thebark,the forestermustbe ableto
cluesthatbetraydefects
detectataglance

canbe
in thisarea.Knots,for example,
particularlytroublesome,
depending
on wheretheyarelocated.In thebottompartof thetree,wheretheyareusuof
bya slightdisfiguration
allyindicated
thebark,knotsmaybesodeeplyovergrownthattheywillnot affectthevalue
Butfurtherup,where
of theouterwood.
by concentheyaretypicallyindicated
tric circlesor evenbumpsin thebark,
problems
in
knotsposemoreserious
termsof qualiry
between
difTheabilityto distinguish
ferenttypesof fungiis anotherimporAll fungi
tant skill in treeevaluation.
butcertainspecies
cause
somedamage,

In beechand hard
are rapacious:
a singlebodyof
maple,for example,
falsetinderfunguson theoutsideof a
of a 12-to
treemaysignalthepresence
If
l4-foot-long
columnof decaywithin.
to thecenterof
thedecaywere
confined
thetree,thiswouldbelessof aproblem,
but manyfungiinfestthemostvaluable
of thebarkis
outerwood.Anyscarring
sinceeventhetiniest
thussuspicious,
to
openingmakesa treesusceptible
fungalinfection.
peckholes
Birddamage-specifically
sapsuckermadebytheyellow-bellied
value.
alsoaffectsa tree'scommercial
cousins,
which
Unlikeits woodpecker

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

eatwood-boringinsectsthat infestdead
wood,theyellow-belliedsapsucker
feasts
on the sap,wood cells,and innerbark
oflive trees.Persistent
feedingresultsin
longstreaksofstain that effectivelyrender the wood worthless.
Felling and bucking
Tieesarecut with threepasses
of a chain
saw The first two cutsiemovea wedge
aboutone-thirdof the diameterof the
tree,facingtheintendeddirectionof fall.
The tree is felledby the third cut, or
backcut,madeoppositeto and a few
inchesabovethewedge.Asthetreefalls,
"hinge"
its directionis controlledby a

of woodbetween
thewedgeandbackcut.Expertfellers
consider
manyfactors
beforemakingthecuts-the condition
of thefellingsite,wind direction,
the
leanofthetree,andthepresence
ofdead
branches
in adjacent
trees,aptlycalled
"widowmakers."

face;large-diameter
rottingbranches
pointto decay
withinthetreetrunk.
Whiletheoptimallengthfor hardwood
logsis 16feet(8feetforveneer-quality
logs),cuttinglogsto this lengthis
not always
possible.
Sometimes
the
buckercuts8-footand l2-footloss
Oncethelimbshavebeenremoved, to avoiddefects
that wouldrender-a
thetreeis skidded
to a staging
area,or largerlogworthless.
landing,
whereit isbuckedintologs.To
ensure
thatthewoodiscutto thehighTiansporting the logs
estpossible
grade,
thebucker-likethe In somepartsof NorthAmerica,
espeforester
or treecruiser
beforehand-has ciallythePacificNorthwest
wheretrees
"read"
to
thetreefor signsofdefects areexceptionally
large,buckingisdone
beforesettingto work.Bulges
in thebark atthefellingsitebeforethelogsaretransindicate
knotsthatarecloseto thesur- portedto a centralyard.Steeply
sloping

Althougha varietyof methodshavebeenusedto movelogsto

thelumbermill,from river runsto draft horses,
truckingremains
themostcommonmethodof transportin NorthAmerica.

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WOOD
UNDERSTANDING

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Thenarrowkerf
of abandsaw
producesless
wastethan a
circularsaw.
Here,aworker
at aVermont
mill removes
a
j8-foot-long
bandsawblade
for sharpening.

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terrainmayrequirethelogsto begatheredin fromtheforestfloorusingaseries
isknownas
of cables.
Onesuchsystem
high-leadlogging.Twomaincablesandtheothera
onecalleda haulback
mainline-areriggedto thetopof atall
mast.Several
othercables,
calledchokTieesare
ers,danglefromthemainline.
felledsotheylandwith theirbutt secwrap
tionspointinguphill;crewmen
eachchokeraroundthebutt sectionof
log,signaltheheadoperaabucked-up
tot andthelogsarereeledupthehill to
nextto a
thecentralpile,usuallylocated
lumberroad.Whenthelogshavebeen
detached.
thehaulback
cableis usedto
pull themainlineandits chokers
for
anotherload.No matterhowtheyare
movedfromthefellingsiteor whenthey

logsareloadedontotrucks
arebucked,
with a hydraulicgrapplehookfor the
trip to thesawmill.
In the sawmill
Therearetwo maintypesof sawmills:
thosethatuseabandsawandthosethat
usea circularsawA sawmillis often
described
according
to thetypeof wood
it cutsandthetypeof sawit employs,
suchasasoftwood
bandmill or ahardwoodcircularmill. Largebandmillsare
logs
oftenrequiredfor thelarger-sized
industhatarecommonin thesoftwood
NorthAmerica.
Circular
try in western
sawmills,more commonin smaller
in theEast,have
hardwood
operations
a smallercapacity,
butarefarlessexpensivethanbandmills.

process
generates
Thesawing
agreat
"waste"-almost
one-thirdof the
dealof
bit
bulkof eachlog-but everypossible
of woodis chippedup andused.Some
millsorwood-fired
issoldtopaperpulp
utilities.(Thevolumeof wood-burned
substantially
sincethe
fuelhasincreased
Today
crunchoftheearly1970s.
energy
woodsupplies
about3 percentof the
energyconsumption.)
UnitedStates'
Eventhebark,whichis immediately
powers
strippedoffthelogs,frequently
thesawmill's
dryingkilns.
Thebarkisstrippedfromthelogwith
off
largegrindingcutterheads
or blasted
waterjets.Thelogis
by high-pressure
posithenmountedon a logcarriage,
tionedsothatthefirstcutssliceoffthe
widest,clearest,
mostvaluable
boards.

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

In lessthan 2 seconds,
this
bandsawblade,drivenby
a 1S0-horsepower
engine,
canslicethrougha 16-foot
log. Thered line-a laser
beam-sh ows the operator
wherethebladewill cut.

In themill, thesawyer
mayrotatethe
log to "read"thelog'shiddendefects.
Whilein thepastthis mighthavebeen
doneby hand,it is not uncommonto
seetoday'ssawyers
work in a glassendosed
booth,formingjudgments
with
thehelpofadvanced
electronic
equipment.In sucha mill, the sawyeruses
joysticks-like thoseof a computer
gam+-to twirl thelogalmostafull turn
in a matterof seconds,
firing abeamof
laserlight downits lengthto visualize
theeffectof a particularcutbeforeit is

made.In themostefficientmills,sophisticatedcomputers
areusedto selectthe
bestpositionto obtainthemaximum
productionfrom eachlog.
First,thefour outerslabsof thelog
areremoved,givingthesawyera clean
planefrom which to makehis next
"opening
cut-the so-called
face"-to
givethewidest,clearest
boardavailable.
Oncethis faceis cut,thelog is rotated,
andthreeadditionalboardsarecutonefrom eachremainingface.Large
millshandlingbiglogssendtheremain-

ing squaretimber-called a cant-to

a resawingareafor cuttinginto various sizes of dimensionlumber.
Hereagain,this sawyermust determine the optimum cutting pattern
that will yield the mostvaluablelumber.All theboardsareedged,trimmed
to lengthandgraded.
Smallermills,andthosehandling
smallerlogs,mayusea differentsawing
strategf.Afterremovingtheouterslabs,
theboardsarecutfromtheopeningface
until defects
interfere.Thenthelog is
rotatedto thenextclearest
face.Aswith
thefirst method,theremainingcantis
resawn
intolowergradelumber.Finally,
theboardsaresorted,stacked
andstickered-separated
by thin stripsto allow
airto circulatebetween
them-for their
trip to thedryingkiln, wheretheywill
remainfor up to 50days.

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A deviceknown asa "slot machine"

sorts
into the
freshlysautnboards
right widthsand lengths.

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LUMBERCUTTINGMETHODS
alogintolumberrequires
f onverting
Mostlogsare
\-r certain
compromises.
Thesimsawnin oneof tlueebasicways.
plestmethodsquares
thelogandslices
it intoboardsstraightthroughfromone
known
sideto theother.Thistechnique,
sawing,
results
asthrough-and-through
to theannual
in stockcuttangentially
growthrings.A second
method,plainis similar,except
thatthelogis
sawing,
rotatedasit is cut,andthelow-quality
pithissetasidefor itemssuchaspallets.
Plain-sawn
lumberisalsoknownasflatgrainedlumber.
Thegrowthringsin this
quartersawn
oakboard
appearaslinesthat are
parallelto theboard'sedges.

The third method.calledcuartersawingor edge-grain

sawing,dividesthe
log into four quartersand cuts every
board more or lessradially.Quartersawnboardshavetheir annualgrowth
ringsperpendicularto the face.
This orientationof the growthrings
accountsfor thedimensionalstabilityof
cuartersawn
boards.Woodshrinksand
expandsroughlytwiceasmuchtangentially to the rings asits doesradially.
When ouartersawnboards swell or
shrinktheydo so mostlyin thickness,
whichis minimal,whereasa plain-sawn
board changesacrossits width. A dining tablemadefrom plain-sawnpine
boards,for example,canchangeasmuch
asI inch in widthl a similartablemade
from quartersawn
boardswould only
swellor shrinkby one-thirdasmuch.

()FSAWING
IOGS
THREE
METHODS

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Choosing
thebestmethod
intendlogsintolumber
at a sawmill
isa balance
between
Cutting
andesthetic
appearance.
Plain-sawed use,structural
stability
/eft)produces
boards
of diminishing
widthasthe log
ing(above,
method,
is rotated
to makesuccessive
cuts.Themoreexpensive
(above,
boardwidthto the
calledquartersawing
center),limits

24

radius
moredimensionally
stable
of thelog.Butit produces
lumber,
makingit idealfordrawer
sides,tabletops
andframe
(above,
rails.Through-and-through
rghf)yieldsthe
sawing
froma log;theouter
maximum
number
of usable
boards
whiletheinnerboards
arequartersawn.
boards
areplain-sawn,

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

alsooffersan esthetic
Quartersawing
advantage:It exposesthe medullary
raysthat radiatefrom the heartofa log
like the spokesof a wheel. In most
speciesthe raysareonly one cellthick,
but in a fewspecies,
suchasoak,theray
ceiisare thicker and appearas vivid
streaks scatteredalong the grain.
poplarandbasswood
Sycamore,
arealso
idealcandidates
for quartersawing.
As the illustrationat the bottom of
page24 shows,quartersawnlumber is
not alwayscut perpendicularto the
grain,and somethrough-and-through
cut boardscloseto the centerofa log
will havequartersawn
grain.Therefore,
no matter how they are actuallycut,
boards with growth rings at angles
between45oand90oto thewidesurface
quartersawn,
areclassified
whileboards

with ringsat 0oto 45oanglesto thewide

surfacearetermedplain-sawn.
Boards
with growth rings at a 30oto 60oangle
arealsocalledrift-sawnor bastard-sawn.
In actualpractice,sawyers
usea myriad of sawingpatterns,depending
on the
type of machinerybeing used, the
intendeduseof thelumber,logdiameter
andthetypeof tree.Forexample,
in virtuallyall treesthepith or centralcoreof
theheartwoodis lessdesirable
thanand
not asstrongastherestofthe heartwood.
"boxes
Plain-sawing
out the heart"by
cuttingaroundit to eliminateit.

Thegrowthringsin thisplain-sawnoakboard
appearon thefaceasan ellipticallandscape
figure.Plain-sawnstockis slicedfrom logs
with mostof thecutstangentto therings.

ADVANTAGES
OFPTAIN.SAWN
ANDSUARTERSAWN
LUMBER
PTAIN-SAWN

OUARTERSAWN

Cheaper
andeasier
to obtain
Shrinks
andswellslessrnthickness
Usually
comesin greater
variety
of widths

Moredimensionally
stable
Shrinks
andswellslessacross
theboard
Twists
andcuosless

Lesssusceptible
to collapse
duringdrying;
easier
to kilndry
Figurepatterns
resulting
fromthedifference
between
earlywood
andlatewood
in thegrowthringsare
moreconsoicuous
Hasmoreinteresting
figure

Splitsandcheckslessin seasoning
andin use
graincaused
Raised
bytheswelling
of theearlywood
in growthringsnotaspronounced

Roundor ovalknotsthatmayoccurhavelesseffect
on structural
integrity
Pockets
of pitchextendthroughfewerboards
Notassusceptible
to splitting
whennailsor screws
driven
through
face

25

Figure
dueto pronounced
raysmoreconspicuous
Holdsfinishes
betterin somesoecies
Sapwood
in boards
appears
at theedges
andis
easilycutoff
Wearsmoreevenlv

PROPERTIE,S
OFWOOD
n experienced
woodworkerpays
of
closeattentionto the selection
has
wood for a project.Everyspecies
uniquequalitiesthat canmakeit ideal
for
for oneapplication
but unsuitable
that
another.
Amongthekeyproperties
woodsarecolor,grain,texdistinguish
figure,
weightand odor.
ture,
Manyspecies
areprizedfor theirdisis a fiery orangecolors.
Padauk
tinctive
red;blackwalnut often exhibitsdeep
purplesand chocolate
tones.Colorin

suchas
woodis theresultof extractives
tannins,gumsand resinsin the wood.
to air,these
Whencut lumberis exposed
graduallyoxidize,deepening
substances
howevthewood'scolor.In somecases,
er,thecolormayfade.
Grainand texturearetwo distinct
properties
Grain
thatareoftenconfused.
thedirectionandregularity
of
describes
thewoodfibersrelativeto theaxisof the
treetrunk.Asillustrated
on page28,the
grain displayed
by a pieceof lumber

depends
on the growthpatternof the
treefrom whichit wascut.
A wood'stexturedepends
on thesize
anddistributionof itscells.Ring-porous
havea
hardwoodswith largevessels
coarsetexture,while diffuse-porous
with finevessels
havea finhardwoods
abrupt
er texture.In somesoftwoods,
transitions
from earlp,vood
to latewood
producean uneventexture.Wherethere
islittleor no transition,
asin whitepine,
thewoodhasan eventexture.

ftqure
Landacape

figure
Fiddleback
onperobarooa

MoLLle
fi4ure
on movin4ue

on white birch

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'', '.

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i,i;,.
,1
,1
,r,:'
,
"

i'r'ill;''1 , ,,;. ;,ir , r

';,
r ''r r'

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, ; . 1 1 r, ', ,: , ' l , , , , ; , , ,,' ". ., .,

i;l:li,1
l 'i ",\,' , ,','

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,',"'
. l ' l , i , '! '.l ' ., ' , ' .

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"
,;,
.]i ri;' i,':, .'l'li, ,,,'

, l i r . ' - i , , 1r

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

Figure-an important quality in

veneers-is the patterndisplayedon the
surfaceof a board.Thisis theexpression
"61n1261s1"-fte
of a board's
sumof its
grain,contrastbetweenearlywoodand
latewood,eccentricityof growth rings,
mineralstreal6,disease
andthe method
usedto sawthe log. Someof the more
stunningfiguresin differentspecies
are
illustratedbelow.Forexample,
plain-sawn
whitebirch reveals
a so-called
landscaoe
figure.Interlockedgrainproducestherib-

bonfigurecommon
in Africanmahogany.
Wavygrainin maplesresultsin a fiddlebackfigure,sonamedbecause
ofitsusein
thebaclaofviolins.Andinegular
growths
ontheoutersurfaces
of trees,
suchaselm,
yieldanintricateburl figure.
Theweightof differentwood
species
isexpressed
asspecific
gravity,or itsdensitycompared
to an equalvolumeof
water.Thespecificgravityof anovendried sampleof Americanelm, for
example,
is0.50,makingit halfasheavy

asa tropicalhardwoodlike ekki,which

hasthesamespecificgravityaswater1.00.Lignumvitae,the heaviest
wood,
hasa specificgravityof L23.Thehigher a wood's specificgravity,the less
porousit is and the more impervious
it will be to a finish.
A wood'sodor-usually causedbv
oils in the heartwood-may alsodetermine its use.An aromaticspecies
like
cedar,for example,is often usedfor
clotheschestsand cigarboxes.

Kibbonfiqure
on Africanmahogany

Dird'e-eyefigure
on maple

Burlfigure
on Carpathian
elm

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27

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UNDERSTANDINGWOOD

grnvityis a betterirdicatorof n
Specific
wood'sweightthartsize.Witha speciJic
gravityof 0.90,a pieceof cborryweiglrs
thesanrcttsa trtttcltlnrgerblockof white
grovityis only0.35.
pine,wlrcsespeciJic

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TYPES()FGRAIN

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Featured tn lumber wiLh even wood

ftbere thaL are parallel Lo the verLtcal
axta of the trunk; makea for eLronq
wood, but hae ltttle or no fi4ure

Found tn lumber where the ftbera devi'

aLe from the verLtcalaxie of the Lrunk;
not ao atronq ae etraiqhL-qratned wood,
but producee an attracttve fiqure

Froduced by wood ftbere

Lhat undulatetn ehort,even
wavee:yielde fiddleback ftqure

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treea with twtEted trunka; common

in 1coLchpineand aweetcheetnuL

Interlocked grain
Foundtn lumberfrom treeE with oppoein7internal LwtaLe;
eomeLimeefound in elm and verycommonin tropical epeciee

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UNDERSTANDINGWOOD

W()RKING
WITH
THEGRAIN
Reading
thegrain
Manywoodworking
plantasks,
especially
ing,require
working
in thedirection
of the
grain.
Youcanusually
tellgrainorrentayourhandalong
tionbyrunning
a board
face:Thesurface
willfeelsmoother
when
yourhandis moving
withthegrainand
rougher
whenrunning
against
it.Another
method
plane
is to slidea smoothing
l i g h t lay l o n g
t h ef a c ei n o n ed i r e c t i o n ,
thenrepeat
in theopposite
direction.
The
blade
willchatter
orcatchonthewood
fibers
whenit iscutting
against
thegrain.
Asshownontheplain-sawn
boardat right,
thewoodfibers
slope"uphill"in thedirectionof thegrainand"downhill"
against
it.

Determining
thebestdirection
to plane
To prevent
a planebladefromcatching
thegrainandtearing
orchipping
thewood
f ibers,
always
cutin theuphillgraindirection.Thiswillproduce
cleanshavings
and
a smooth
surface.
Beespecially
careful
to
spotgrainthatchanges
direction
withina
singleboard.
Thedragram
at leftshows
sevgrainpatterns
eraltypical
witharrows
indicating
thebestplaning
direction.
Theuphill
drrection
maybeconstant
fromoneendof a
boardto theother(A).Orit maychange,
demanding
thatyouplane
fromeachend
toward
themiddle(B).lt couldalsochange
fromthemiddle
to theends(C).lf thegrain
doesnotslope
at all,youcanplanein a singlepassfromeitherend(D).

29

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IDENTIFYINGWOOD
apieceof
hetheryouarerestoring
furnituremadefromanunfamilof
theauthenticity
iarwoodor debating
boardwith a locallumbera particular
yard,a knackfor identifringa pieceof
lumberisa usefrrlskill.
anentirebranchofknowlOf course,
and
edgeis devotedto woodscience
Bookshavebeenwritten
technology.
havebeen
aboutthe subject,careers
offer
foundeduponit, anduniversities
coursesand degreesdevotedto it.
identifrwoodby firstslicing
Scientists
thenmountoffa thin sliverof asample,
it under
ingit on a slideandexamining
a mlcroscope.
woodworker,
however,
Thepracticing
in sawing
thanin
whoismoreinterested
identiff most
cansuccessfully
science,
for a
searching
woodsby methodically
fewsimpleclueswith thehelpof inexMostof thetoolsyou
pensive
equipment.
needareillustrated
atright.Yourinvestigationshouldbeginwith the easily
(page
properties
ofthesanrple
observable
deterandfeelthesurface;
26).Examne
minewhetherit isoilyor dry,dullor lusby tryingto
trous.Checkits hardness
You
with a fingernail.
dentthesurface

Eachmethodexposmaybeableto tell with thenakedeye allyor tangentially.

anatomisring-or diffirse- esa differentviewof a sample's
whetherahardwood
view
Thesimplest is the
porous.
Asshownin thephotosonpage icalstructure.
lookingatthe
sinceit involves
arerel- transverse
twotypesof hardwood
33,these
However,
to
with endgrainof thesample.
to tellapartwhenviewed
ativelyeasy
fibers,
avoida blurredviewof crushed
thetextureof
ahandlens.Notewhether
thesurface
with a
or smooth.Ifthe sam- youmustfirstshave
thewoodiscoarse
knife.
plehasbeenrecentlycut,it mayhave razorbladeor a well-sharpened
you
viewof asample,
odor. If it hasbeen Togetatangential
a recognizable
will needto makea cleancutalongthe
sufficientlydried,you maybe ableto
growthringsof the wood (page32).
gravity.
itsspecific
calculate
to
cut at rightangles
canhelp Makinga second
Aithoughtheseobservations
a radialview.
youwill still thefirstexposes
narrowdownthechoices,
andrecordOnceyouhaveobserved
undermaghaveto viewawoodsample
properties
andmicronificationin orderto hazardaneducat- edthesample's
Theillustration scopicdetails,you cancomparethe
asto itsspecies.
edguess
on page31showsthethreewaysthata resultswith a printedkey of wood
radi- species
to identifithewood.
transversely,
sample
canbestudied:

SLEUTH
F(|RTHEWOOD
TOOLS
Labeled wood samplea
A set of domeatic or tropical wooda with
labelaindicatin1 the apeciea;can be ueed
to help identify and aomparewooda

Hand lens
Used to axaminewood
samplea;availablein Bx,
1Oxand 12xma1nification

llluminaied magnifter
For axaminin7woodaamplea;
featu ree built- in illumination
for aharper viawinqthan hand
leno.Typicallyavailablewith up
to 2Ox maanification

Razor blade
Used to aut off wood alivers
for viewinqunder a microacope;
einqle-adqedbladea are the
aafeat type

Examiningtheendgrainof a board
throughan illuminated1& magnifier
enlnrges
severalfeaturesof a wood
samplethatarehelpfulin species
identification.

30

Poaketkni e
Used to prepare
the end qrain of
wood aampleafor
examination

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UNDERSTANDINGWOOD

EXAMINING
A W()OD
SAMPTE
perspectives
Three
viewing
The10xmagnification
provided
bya magniferor handlensallows
youto examine
threeviewsof wood's
structure,
represented bythehardwood
logsection
shown
at
rrght.Thetransverse
section
liesat right
a n g l etso t h eg r a i na n di s v i s i b l ien t h e
endgrainof stock.Thetangential
and
radialsections
areat 90'to thetransverse
section.
Thetangential
section
follows
a
straight
linethatis tangent
to thegrowth
rings.
Thissection
isthesurface
yousee
onthefaceof plain-sawn
lumber.
A radial
section
isexposed
bycutting
a straight
line
fromthebarkthrough
thepith,exposing
grainlinesthatappear
asvertrcal
strips.

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,Y

o"o

l-,-

--

o^a

\\

oXo

?
OoO

ffi

\..5---

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TRANSVERSE
SECTI()N
Earlywood

TANGENTIAT
SECTION

La'ewood

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- ? _ - c = = - ^ - ^
-g
-a^-)=

n-U

--

!:-!r-\

UU
_\_t
_ _ U - u v

c;

-;,
/^-

Tl -

Y f lO
t - rO
L
/ \ Jon X
v. X
f-LL-r;Uf'lr-r
uflX\-/
\-ln

Tracheid

Keeincanal

Kaye

3l

Examining
woodunder
a microscope
At 100xmagnif
ication,
a microscope
u n c o v em
r so r ed e t a i losf t h ec e l l u l a r
structure
of woodthancanbeseen
through
a handmagnifier.
At leftare
twoviewsof whitepine,illustrating
key
elements
in species
identification.
The
transverse
section(farlefDshowsthe
sizeof thetracheid
cellsandthetransitionin theirdensity
fromear-lywood
to
latewood.
Alsoevident
is a longitudinal
resincanal.Thetangential
section(near
/eff)shows
thenumber
andthickness
of theraysin thewood.

I
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WOOD
UNDERSTANDING

t
WITHA LENS
F(lRVIEWING
SAMPLES
W()()D
PREPARING
section
a tlansverse
Preparing
Sliceoffa sliverof woodfromtheend
grainof yoursample
usinga sharp
knifeorrazorbladeUeft).Ihesurface
andeven.lf the
shouldbesmooth
dense
anddtffiwoodis particularly
cultto cut,firstsoaktheendgrain
fora shorttimein hotwater.

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andradialsections
tangential
Cufting
marka cutting
section,
Fora tangential
to thegrowthringsonthe
linetangent
theline
Cutalong
edgeof thesample.
sureyourhands
witha bandsaw,making
arenotin linewiththebladeof thetool
(right).
makean
Fora radialsection,
at the
thesample
cutthrough
end-to-end
highpointof thegrowthringswiththe
piecefacedownonthe bandsawtable.
lightly
Tocleanupthecutsforviewing,
witha handplane.
thesurfaces
smooth
whichwillcrush
Avoidusingsandpaper,
thefibers.

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32

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UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

WOOD
IDENTIFICATION
METHODS
Although
identifying
woodrequires
andcanberevived
by moistening
a
carefulobservation
of theappropri- drywoodsample.
atefeaturesof a sample,practice
Checking
a sample
for hardness
makesthejob easier.
Firstmeasure byrunning
a fingernail
alongthe
thewidthof thegrowthrings,and
grainandnotingthedegree
of indennotethecolorandlusterof the
tationcanhelodifferentiate
simiwood.Remember
thatwoodexoosed larspecies
suchas butternut
and
to sunlightandairchanges
color,so
blackwalnut.
the hueof a freshlycut samplemay
Thestandard
toolfor macroscopic
bedifferent
afterit hasdried,Luster viewing
of woodis a 10xhandlens.
is nota commonfeatureof many
Choose
onewithbuilt-inilluminawoods,
but it canhelpdistinguish
tionforsharpresolution.
Examine
between
species
that areotherwise
samples
in goodlight,holding
the
alikein color,textureandweight.
lenscloseto oneeyeandmoving
Although
odor,likeluster,is distinc- thesurface
to bestudiedintofocus.
tivefor onlya fewwoods,it canbea
Notethedistribution
andshapeof
particu- features
usefulkeyto identification,
suchasvessels,
tracheids,
larlyamongsoftwoods.
Odoris most
resincanals,
earlywood,
latewood,
pronounced
poresandmedullary
in freshlycut lumber,
rays.Therela-

(in hardtivediameter
of vessels
(in softwood)
wood)or tracheids
is
important
in determining
thetexture
of thewood;the larger
thesecells,
thecoarser
thewood.Thedistributionof pores
withinthegrowthrings
willalsotellyouwhether
a hardwoodis ring-,diffuse-,
semi-ringor
semi-diffuse-porous.
Whenviewing
endgrain,choose
an areaof average
growthrate,avoiding
defectslike
crossgrainandknots.
Withsoftwoods,
lookfor resin
canals;
theyareonlypresent
in
pine,spruce,larchandDouglas-fir.
lf youarelooking
forrays-animportantfeatureof hardwoods-they
are
bestseenona transverse
or tangential surface,

(lFTWOWOOD
COMPARING
MAGNIFIED
VIEWS
SAMPTES

Thetwophotosaboveshowwhat theendgrain,or transyerse

sections,
of two dffirent hardwoodsamples
wouldlooklikeunderthemagnificationof a handlens.A ring-poroushardwood(above,left)featuresrows
of relativelylargeporesin theeailywoodand clusters
of smallerporesin thelatewood.Theverticalbars
interruptingtheporesaremedullaryrays.A semi-ring-porous
wood(above,right) showslittle distinction
betweentheearbryoodand latewood.Here,theporesareevenlydistributedthroughoutthe tissue.

33

KEYS
WOODIDENTIFICATION

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A collectionof labeledwood
samples
canbeinvaluablein
helpingyou become
familiar
with a varietyof woods.It
mayalsocontaina species
you wish to identify.

I orrectlyidentifyingan unfamiliar
of
\; woodsampleout of thousands
possibilities
requires
closeobservation,
knowledge
andathorough
ofwoodand
matter,
itsproperties.
Butasa practical
to
thepossible
choices
areusuallylimited
several
familiarspecies,
anda commerciallyavailable
setof labeled
woodsamples,suchastheoneshownatright,may
includea piecethatmatches
thewood
you areattempting
to identifr.Most
youwill needto record
often,however,
thefeatures
of a sample,
thenuseawood
keyfroma bookto make
identification
sense
ofyourresults.
keyis essentially
a
An identification
master
listof woodsandtheirpropertiesthat serves
asa cross-reference
to
link thefeatures
of a particularsample
name.Somekeysrequire
to a species
thatyou compare
theirentriesagainst
features
thatarevisibleto thenakedeye
or with a 10xmagnifier,whileothers
demandthat you note microscopic
details.
Stillotherkeysarebased
onthe
userhavingwide-ranging
sensory
informationaboutthewood,includingits
colot odor andtexture,andthebark
andleafshapeof thetreefrom which
it came.
Using a key is like climbing the
branches
of a tree.Youareaskedto
answera seriesof pairedstatements,
choosing
theonethatbestdescribes
the
woodin questionandproceeding
to the
nextpairindicated.
At eachstatement,
theuserforksontoa differentbranch

until reaching
a leafthatidentifiesthe
Thefirststatement
mayinvolve
sample.
thetextureof thewood.If thewoodis
porous,for example,
youaresentto one
you
if it isnon-porous,
setof statements;
jumpto adifferentsetof statements.
You
continuethisway,flippingfrompageto
pagein abook,aseachanswer
graduallyreduces
thechoices.
Finally,thesearch
isnarrowed
to a singlespecies.

Avoidkeysthat try to coverevery

woodspecies
in theworld;theywill prove
onethat describes
toogeneral.
Choose
region,suchasNorth
treesin a specific
Americansoftwoods
or tropicalhardwoods.Several
classic
keyscanbefound
in woodworking
boola;checkyourlocal
libraryor boolstore.
Somepublicagencies(below)
alsoofferwoodidentification services.

IDEI{TIFICATIOI{
SOURCES
FOR
WOOD
Books
Edlin,Herbert
L., WhatWoodls That?
A Manualof Woodldentification.
NewYork:Viking,1969.
Hoadley,
Bruce,ldentifyingWood.
Nevvton,
Connecticut:
Taunton
Press,1990.
Panshin,
A.J.andDeZeeuw,
Carl,Textbook
of WoodTechnologr.
NewYork:McGraw
Hill, 1980.

Agricultural
Extension
Service,
Forestry
andWildlifeExtension,
1990.
TimberResearch
Development
Association,
Timbersof the World:
Volumes
I and2. Lancaster;
Construction
Press,1979.
Agencies
thatofferwood
identification
services

Rendfe,8.J., WorldTimbers:Volumes
1-3.London:
ErnestBenn,1970.

CenterForWoodAnatomyResearch
U.S.ForestProductsLaboratory
1 GiffordPinchotDrive
Madison,
Wisconsi
n 53705-2398

Sharp,John8., Woodldentification:
A Manualfor TheNon-Profexional.
Knoxville:
University
of Tennessee

International
WoodCollectors
Societv
2913ThirdStreet
Trenton,
Michigan
48183

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UNDERSTANDINGWOOD

USING
A W()OD
IDENTIFICATION
KEY
Wood wiLhout eLacked raya;

Kaye broad
and viaible

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Woodrtnq-porouo(eailywoodeharply defined);
earlywoodporea larqer
LhanlaLewoodporeoand
viaible1;othe nakedeye

Kaye narrow and

uniform in width
Wooddiffuee-poroue (earlywood not eharply defi,ned):
earrwooa Pore??malter
than latewoodporeoand
visibleto the naked eye

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Wood with aLacked

Hereis anexample
of howa typical
woodidentif
ication
eLoraqe celle conapicuouo tn
raye, forming ripple
keyworks.
In thiscase,wearestarting
conLinuouelineethrouqhoul,
witha plain-sawn
marksexLendiniq
laLewood: WaLer hickory
acroea the 4ratn
board
of an unknown
wood.
Thefirststepisaimedat
when tanqenLial
narrowing
theinvestigation
to either
thehardwood
orthe
gectton of wood ta
portion
softwood
yoursample
of thekey.Youexamine
viewed:?eretmmon
witha handlensandobserve
thatit hasvessels
andis
porous;
according
to yourkey,it is a hardwood.
Next,
HearLwoodcheeLnuL- Heartwoodbrown
youmustdetermine
whether
thewoodis ring-or difbrown Lo chocolat.e
to yellow-brown
fuse-porous:
Younotice
thatitsearlywood
is notsharply or purplioh brown
youaretoldthatit is diffuse-porous.
defined;
Thenext
features
to examine
aretherays.Seenin thetangential
viewof yoursample,
theraysarerelatively
narrow
and
uniform
in width.Thisobservation
leads
to another
concerning
thesizeof thepores
in thegrowth
rings.
Since
LaLewoodef,oragecelle
LaLewoodatoraqe
the poresin theearlywood
of yoursample
arelarger
appeartn fine,continucellenot evideni
oue ltnea
thanthosein thelatewood,
thisindicates
thatyouhave
a semi-diffuse-porous
wood.Next,youexamine
thedistribution
of thepores
in thegrowth
ring.lf theywere
unevenly
distributed,
yoursample
thekeywouldidentify
ForeeevenlydiaToreaunevenlydiotrtbastanoak.
Instead,
thepores
in yoursample
areevenly
t,ributedthrou6huLedthroughout growth
distributed.
Youmustthenevaluate
thestorage
cellsin
out growth rinq
rin7 and found in cluaLere
thelatewood.
aeparatedby eectiona of
Seeing
thattheyarepresent
in a fine,
fibrouaLtssue:Tanoak
unbroken
line,youaredirected
to determine
thecolor
of theheartwood.
lf it werechestnut-brown
orchocolate,
youwouldhavea pieceof blackwalnut
or butternut.
Butsincetheheartwood
you
is brown
to yellow-brown,
Toree in the earlywoodlarger
Toree uniform in size
haveeitherwaterhickory
or persimmon.
Sincetherays
than thoee in the latewood;
throuqhoutthe rin4
Lranaition qradual (eemi-d tfof yoursample
arestacked
vertically,
creating
ripple
fuee-poroue)
youto theendof your
marks,
thekeyleads
quest:
thesample
is persimmon.

Wood non -poroue (without

veeeelo): Wood tieaue dominated by tracheide in diaLincL rowa; raye not viaible
1,othe naked eye

Woodporoua (with veoaelo):WoodLtosue dominated by veosele(poree)

embeddedin fibroue tiaaue: raJ6 may
or may not be viaibleto the nakedeye
5TART HERE

35

LUMBE,RMILLS
PORTABLE
-|a h. desireto gaina deeperunderleads
I standingof woodeventually
shop
and
out
of
the
somewoodworkers
and
back
woods,
lumberyard,into the
to the treeitself.By sawingyour own
Iumber from logs,you can produce
boardsthatexactlymeeta project'sspecificationsand gain valuableinsight
into woodasa living material.Eachstep
yieldsa thrill of discoveryasyou watch
patternsof grain and figureemerge
from thelog.
A numberof lumbermills on the
marketallowyou to cut through-andthroughcut,plain-sawnor quartersawn
boards.Thesetoolsincludelargestationaryproductionmills capableof cutting logsmore than 20 feetin length,
portablemodelswith toughbandsaw
blades,and still smallerunits that use
chainsaws.

that followshowyou
Theprocedures
howto cut logsinto lumberwith a chain
sawthat is guidedby a jig that attaches
to it. Besides
thecuttingjig anda hearyduty saw,this simplemethodrequires
nothingmore than a straightboard,
a hammeranda fewnails.
to crossMost chainsawsaredesigned
cut trees-that is, buck the logsinto
shorterlengthsafterthe treesarefelled
anddelimbed.Cuttinglogsinto lumber
is a rippingoperationin whichthesawing is donealongthe lengthof the log,
Rippingwith a chainsawrequiresat least
threetimesasmuchpowerascrosscutting, andthesawmustrun at full throttlethroughoutmostof thecut.Because
muchportablelumbermilling involves
hardwoodlogs,it isbestto usea directdrive chainsawratedat a speedof at
least3000feetper minute,with a rip-

Tominimizestrain
pingchaininstalled.
on thesaw,try to selectlogsthat arerelativelyfreeof defectssuchastwist and
taper,
- with fewknotsandburls.
Fellingtreesand cuttinglogswith a
work requiring
chainsawis dangerous
safeworkinghabits.Payattentionto
your taskat all timesand keepcutting
sharp,cleanandwellmaintained.
edges
Sinceprolongedwork with chainsaws
theears,wearhearingprocandamage
tection,suchasearplugsor earmuffs.
Prooerdressfor chainsawwork also
includesa fuIl-faceshieldandsteel-toed
boots;do not wearlooseclothing.You
canalsodon specialchainsawgloves
to protectyourhandsanda pairofsafety chapsmadefrom a tough,sytthetic
fiber,suchasKevlar'", to protectyour
slip or
legsshouldthe sawaccidentally
iump back.

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commercialjigsand
Specialized
you to cut logs
enable
machines
into lumber.Here,a bandsaw
lumbermill cutsa 2-by-10board
Thedevice
from a squared-offlog.
featuresa narrow-kerfbladethat
produces
lesswastethqna chain
saw,makingit feasibleto cut
planksasnarrowas % inch
wqsle.
thickwithoutexcessive

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WOOD
UNDERSTANDING

A t(lc INTOBOARDS
CUTTING
thelog
1 Squaring
I Tomarkoutthecant-thesouaredthe
off partof the log-andmaximize
n u m b eorf b o a r dtsh e l o gw i l ly i e l d ,
on bothendsof the log.
scribsasquare
diameStartat theendwiththesmallest
ter.Place
the insideangleof a carpenjustinsidethe bark,and
ter'ssquare
marktwooutsideedgesof the square
lines
witha pencil.
Using
thescribed
thesquare(/eff,).
asa guide,complete
Measure
and
thesidesof thesouare
transfer
themto theotherendof the log,
in
making
surethatthepithis centered
thesouare.

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OUARTERSAWING
CUTTING
PATTERN

THROUGH.Al{0.
THROUGH
CUTTIl{G
PATTERN

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thecuttingpattern
Choosing
righil,dividethe square
lumber(above,
want.Forquartersawn
between
through-andBefore
cuttingthe log,choose
asfor
quartersawing
Mark
out
the
middle
segment
into
three
segments.
mark
out
the
appropriate
and
and
through
cut
lines
in
the
two
cut
lumber,
then
scribe
pattern
through-and-through
log.
For
through-and-through
on
the
ends
of
the
cutting
perpendicular
(above,
in
the
are
to
those
outside
segments
that
of
lines
within
the
/eff),
scribe
a
series
cut lumber
to
Thegrowthringswill bemoreor lessperpendicular
tangent
to thegrowth middle.
square
sothattheboardfacesareroughly
you
faces
of
these
boards.
the
lines
to
the
board
thickness
rings.Space
the
according

37

I
UNDERSTANDING
WOOD

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thecant
Q Cutting
r-t Setthelogon spacers,
withoneside
of the marked
s0uare
vertical.
Cuta 2by-4guidelonger
thanthe log,thenpositionit ontopof the logsothatit extends
beyond
eachend.Aligntheoutside
edge
of theguidewiththesideof thesquare
andnailit in place.
Usewoodshimsto
leveltheguide.Place
thelumber-cutting
jig onthe guide(above)
andadjustits
fencesothatit runssmoothly
along
the
guide.Attach
thechainsawto thejig following
themanufacturer's
instructions.
To makethecut,position
thejig onthe
guideat thesmallest
endof thelog.Then,
withthesawbladeclearof thelog,start
upthesawandtip it forward
sothatthe
bladebitesintothelog.Carefully
step
backwards
anddrawthejig alongthe
guide,
cutting
through
thelogto theotherend.Tocuttheothersides,remove
theguideandrotatethe log.Repeat
the
procedure
to aligntheguidewiththe
square
andmakethecuI(right).
Continue
untilallthesidesarecut.To cut the
resulting
cantintoboards,
usethechain
sawandthejigto cutalong
thelinesyou
marked
in step2. lf youhavea bandsaw,
youcancutthe logintoa manageable
6by-6cantwiththechainsaw,thenusethe
bandsawto cutthecantintoboards.
With
its narrower
kerf,a bandsawbladeproduceslesswaste
thana chainsawblade.

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38

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UNDERSTANDINGWOOD

t(lc CROSSCUTTING
JIG
the
Simplify
thetaskof squaring
endsof a logbeforecuttingit into
jig
lumberwiththecrosscutting
shownat right.Thejig,whichcan
be builtto fit a varietyof logsizes,
of a guideandan inverted
consists
L-shaped
framewithtwotriangular
supportbrackets.
To makethejig, cut twopieces
for theframe.
of 7a-inchplywood
should
Thelengths
of the pieces
exceed
thediameter
of the largest
logyouexpectto handle.Thewidth
of thetop pieceshouldequalthe
desired
widthof cut.Screwthetwo
pieces
alongwiththetritogether
Screwa 2-by-4
angularbrackets.
guidethatis at least8 incheslonger
thanthediameter
of thelogto the
toppiece,aligning
itsedgewiththat
of thetop piece.
To usethejig,setthe logonspacersandposition
thejig atopthe log.
Nailthesidepieceof theframeto
theendof the log,makingsurethat
to the
theguideis levelandsquare
log'saxis.Setup thechainsawand
jig ontheguide
the lumber-cutting
asyouwouldto cut a logintoa cant
(page38).Thenstartthe sawand
tio it forward
sothatthe bladebites
intothe log hight, below).Drawthe
jig alongtheguideuntilyoucut
throughthe log.At the endof the
jig andthecutcut,thecrosscutting
off piecewilltoppletowardyou.Keep
the bladefrombindingin thekerf
andstandclearof thejig at theend
of thecut.

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39

i;.vffi--.=,'

'"3*'.t
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i{rffSrrr**

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SELECTNGLI.A4BER
omecraftsmen
buytheirwoodprojectbyproject.
Theydesign
andlay
out a pieceof furniture,calculate
the
amountandtlpe of woodrequired,
then
embarkonaquestfor exactlywhat
they
need.Otherwoodworkers
stockpile
beautifulor interesting
pieces
of wood
evenbeforetheyhavea specific
project
in mind.Picking
throughthepilesatthe
localwooddealership,
surveying
felled
Iogsat a buildingsiteor scavenging
buckedlogsleft overfrom roadside
treework,thesecraftsmen
accumulate
promising
woodin thedryingshed-a
Principaltoolof thelumbergrader's
supplythatserves
asaninspirationfor
trade,a lumberruler measures
the
futurework.
width of aboard.With aflexible

theNationalHardwoodLumberAssociation.In addition,somecarehasprobably beentakento control the moisture

contentof thestockduringits stayin the
yard.Youcanalsoasktheretailerto furnish stockthat is surfacedto a uniform
thickness-anecessity
for woodworkers
who do not haveaccess
to apowerplaner.
Thereareother,lesscostlywaysto
obtain wood. If you live near a small
sawmill,you mayfindgoodqualitylumber at a very low price.However,the
woodwill probablybegreen,roughand
ungraded-and it mustbestickered,seasonedandsurfaced
beforeit canbeused
for furniture.Biggersawmillspreferto
Whateveryour approach,thereare
shaftanda hookat oneendfor
dealwith largevolumesof wood and
severalsourcesto coverin your search
a
maybereluctantto fill smallorders.One
Jlippingstock,therulerenables
for raw materials.The most obviousis
gradertofill an orderfor woodquickly.
answeris to pool your materialneeds
the locallumberyard.Someyardsstock
with thoseof otherwoodworkers.
Some
specialty
items,dependingon demandin theareastheyservice; sawmillswill sellyoutheir "planerouts"-small piecesof varylumberyardsalong the coast,for example,might carry
ingwidthsandthicknesses
thatcanbeboughtatbargainprices.
mahoganyand teakfor boat constructionand repair.But
It may alsobe economicalfor you to buy wood that has
because
mostyardsprimarilysupplytheconstruction
trades, beenrecycledaftermanyyearsof usein bams,factories,wharves
your solid-woodchoices
will probablybelimitedto structur- and otherstructures.Youmayalsofind an opportunityto do
al softwoodlumberand perhapsan occasional
pieceof oak. your own recycling.Reusingold wood makessenseenvironFor a wider choiceof hardwoods,and for wood carvingand
mentally,and it is rapidly becomingthe only legalway of
turning blanks,you will haveto rangefartherafield.Look in
obtainingsomespecies.
In addition,recycledboardsthat were
the YellowPagesfor dealerships
that specialize
in fine hardcut from straight-grained
old-growthtimber maybe superiwoods,or scantheadvertisements
in woodworkingmagazines or to freshlumbercut from smallertrees.Therearedrawbacks
for mail-orderwoodworking-supply
companies.
to recyclingwood,however.Wear,rot andinsectsmayaddup
Youwill paytop dollarfor hardwoodsboughtfrom a retail
to a wastefactorof 50percentor more.And you shouldexpect
source,but in return you will generallyreceivematerialthat
to extractmanynails,boltsand staples-andstill ruin saw
hasbeengradedfor qualityusingthestandards
established
by
bladesin encounters
with hiddenmetal.

Differentgradesof lumbercanvary widely-even in the

samestackof boards.Thereis no morecertainwayof
geningwhatyou want thanselecting
thestockyourself.

4I

ORDERINGLUMBER
Board-foot
calculations,
henit is time to orderlumber verydifferent.
a volumeof
for a project,it paysto do your whichactuallydescribe
atthebottomof the
homework
beforeyougoto thelum- wood,areexplained
page.
general
next
As
a
rule,you can
Bybecoming
an
informed
and
beryard.
you
like
dimension
bythelinincrease
order
stock
of
well-organized
consumer,
youroddsof comingawaywith your earfoot-25linearfeetof 1-by-4lumber,
Themainlimitationof
needsmet andyourwalletintact.You for example.
method,
however,
is that it only
having
make
extra
trips
this
will alsoavoid
to
with
lumber
of
uniform
width
your
works
to
supplier.
. Species:
you
mix
dimenwood
and
thickness.
Once
Askfor a specific
notmerelyabroadfamilyname. sions-asyou probablywill end up
species,
"white
oak,"notjust doing when orderinghardwoodForexample,
order
"oak."Every
becomes
hasuniqueproper- a boardfoot measurement
species
your
needs.
necessary
to
describe
ties;selectonewith thecharacteristics
Howyouorderyourwoodcanalso
It can
thatsuittheneeds
ofyourproject.
youneedsoftwood
of wood dependonwhether
behelpfulto learnthebasics
(page
youcin usuWth
identification
30),sinceat some orhardwood softwoods
width
allyspecifyanyboard
or lengh,
lumberyards
several
similartypesof
boardsaregenerally
woodsmaybelumpedtogetherunder whilehardwood
available
in randomwidthsandlengths,
thesamename.
. Quantity:Lumbermaybeordered depending
onthegradeyouorder.
.
SizeWoodissoldin nominalrather
eitherby thelinearfoot or theboard
soremember
to make
foot.Besureyoursupplierknowswhich thanrealsizes,
forthedifference
whenorderyouareusing,because
theyare allowances
measure

ing surfaced
lumber.A 1-by-6pieceof
pine,for example,is actually3/qinch
widewhendried
thickand5%inches
Withrough,or unsurfaced
andsurfaced.
greenlumber,
thenominalandrealsizes
Formoreinformationon
arethesame.
hownominalandrealsizescompare,
referto thechartson pages
46 (hardwoods)and48(softwoods).
Thethickness
boardsis
of hardwood
commonlyexpressed
asa non-reduced
fractionin quarters
of aninch.A l-inchistermed
for example,
thickoakboard,
plankis %
% lumbera 1%-inch-thick
andsoon.
. GradeWhenorderingaparticular
gradeofwood,usestandard
terminology.Referto the charton page47 for
hardwoods
andon page49 for softwoods.Themaindifferences
between
higherandlowerhardwoodgradeslie
In
in appearance
ratherthanstrength.
woodfor
general,
reserve
higher-grade
thevisiblepartsofyourprojects.

1HO?TI?
Carryinglumberby aar
Traneportlumberon your car eafelyand oecurelywith juol a
f ew pieceoof rope.Tieone ropet o a eolid sf,ructure in t'he t runk
-a Lrunkhinqe,for example-and makea loopaf. lhe other end,
Securea secondrooeunderlhehoodandform anolherloop,At,
the lumberyard,
elipNhewoodthrouqhone loopand Nhenhitch bhe
other one in poeition,TokeepN'helumberfrom lurchinqbackand
torLh,tie a ihird ropearoundlhe lumberand secureit to Nhewindow poel.Ueefoamorlowelslo proteclthe sideofyour car,

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42

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SELECTINGLUMBER

. Seasoning:Lumberis sold either

kiln-dried(KD) or air-dried(AD).The
practicaldifferencebetweenthe two is
thatKD woodhasa lowermoisturecontent-about 8 percent,while air-dried,
high-densityhardwoodsgenerallyhave
a moisturecontentrangeof 20to 25 percent.Softwoods
andlower-density
hardwoodsareair-driedto 15to 20 percent
moisturecontent.KD lumberii therefore preferablefor makingindoor furniture,becausethe wood is unlikelyto
dry out any further;aswell, the kiln's
heatallowsthe wood'scellsto reposition, reducingthe likelihoodof warping and checking.This doesnot mean
you needto restrictyourselftobuying
onlyKD lumber,however;infact,many
carversprefermoisterwood,makingAD
wood a betterchoicefor them.Youcan
bring air-driedwood to the appropriate
moisturelevel for cabinetmaking,as
shownin the Drying andStoringWood
chapter(pageTB).

. Surfacing:
Alsoknownasdressing,
surfacing
refers
to howlumberhasbeen
prepared
at themill beforeit is sentto
thelumberyard.
Lumberthatissurfaced
is usuallysurfaced
on bothsides:S2S
lumberhasbeenplaned
smoothonboth
faces,
whileS4Swoodhashadbothfaces
jointed.Rough,
planedandbothedges
or unsurfaced,
lumber(Rgh)is less
expensive
thaneitherS2Sor S4Swood,
andif youowna planeranda jointer,
youcansavemoneybysurfacing
rough
lumberin yourshop(page53).
A sample
orderfor woodat a lumberyardmightbeasfollows:100bd.ft.
%FASredoak,S2S.
Thiswouldamount
to 100boardfeetof nominally
2-inchthickFAS(Firsts
andSeconds)
gradered
oakwithbothfaces
planed
smooth.
Onceyoureceive
yourlumber,check
it carefully
to makesureyouaregetting
whatyouwant.If theorderdoesnot
meetyourspecifications,
do not feel
obligedto buyit.

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o Maketwocopiesof yourcutting
list (page44); giueoneto the lumberyard
andkeeponeforyourself.
r Whenordering
hardwoods,
request
realistic
sizes.Largeplanksof some
species
arenotavailable;
hardwoodsaregenerally
available
in
random
widthsandlengths.
. Whenever
possible,
inspect
the
youwillbebuying.
lumber
. Examine
eachboardto seehow
it willfit intoyourproject.
Where
appropriate,
test-fit boards
together
for a goodvisualmatch;if, for
youarebuilding
example,
a table,
lineuptheboards
youhaveselectedfor thetabletoo
to becertain
pattern.
theyforman interesting
. Onceyouhaveselected
the
youintendto buy,besure
boards
to leave
thepileneatly
stacked.
Lumber
thatis notstacked
conectlv
tendsto warpandcanbedamaged.

CALCULATING
BOARD
FEET
IIIUMBER
OFBOARD
FEET
()F
IN4 TII{EAR
FEET
DIFFEREI{T
SIZEBOARDS
1"x 12"x 12"= | eYs11;12rd
board foot
l-by-7=lboardfoot

1-by-6=2boardfeet

1-by-12=4boardfeet

TIPS
ONBUYING
TUMBER

2-by-4 = 2 2/sboard feet

2-by-6=4boardfeet

43

Ordering
lumber
bytheboard
foot
Because
theboardfootis a unitof measurement
thatoffersa standard
wayof totaling
thevolume
of stockregardless
of dimensions,
it is commonly
usedwhendealing
withlumber.
Asshown
at left,
thestandard
board
footisequivalent
to a piecethat
is I inchthick,12 inches
wideand12 inches
long.
Tocalculate
thenumber
of board
feetin a particularpieceof wood,multiply
rtsthreedimensions
together.
Thendividetheresultby 144 if the
d i m e n s i oanrsea l l i n i n c h e so,r b y 1 2 i f o n e
dimension
is expressed
in feet.Forthestandard
board,
theformula
is:
I " x 1 2 "x 1 2 "+ I 4 4 = | ( o r1 "x 1 2 "x I ' + 1 2= I ) .
Soif youhadan8-foot-long
youwouldcal1-by-3,
culatethe boardfeetasfollows:
1 x 3 x 8 + 12 = 2
(or2 boardfeet).Otherexamples
areshownin the
illustration.
Remember
thatboard
feetarecalculatedonthebasis
of nominal
rather
thanactualsizes.

SELECTINGLUMBER

Making
list
andusinga cutting
A cuttinglistrecords
thefinished
sizes
proneeded
fora oarticular
of thelumber
j e c t .l t m a yb ei n c l u d ewdi t ht h ep l a n s
youwillhaveto
youpurchase;
otherwise,
yourownbased
of
fashion
ona drawing
T .a l l yu pt h en u m b eor f b o a r d
t h ed e s i g n
f e e tf o re a c hp i e c eu s i n gt h ef o r m u l a
shownon page43; tackon anextra30
in
to account
fordefects
to 40 oercent
shown
thewoodandwaste.Forthe project
o nt h i sp a g ew, h i c ht o t a l sr o u g h lly6
boardfeet,youshouldorderat least20 or
to
25 boardfeetof a/alumberin addition
quantity
thenecessary
of plywood
sheeti n g .T i , ec u t t i n lgi s ts h o u l idn c l u dteh e
nameof thepart,thequantity,
thedimensionsof thepieces
andthekindof wood
forthe prolect.
Forconvenience,
suitable
piece.
letter
to
each
assign
a

Adjuotableehelf

CUTTING
LIST
Piece
ATop
B Bottom
CS i d e
D Fixedshelf
E Adjustable
shelf
Drawer
front
F
side
G Drawer
H Drawer
back
I Drawer
bottom
J Back

44

L.

Oty.
1
1

23Vt

32

1
1

23Vq

I
2

ZZ'/4

W.
13
13
13
13
I2Vz

Th.
1

Material Board
feet
2
.
I
0
ash

I
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ash
ash

2.I0

1
I

ash
ash

2.I0
L94

ash

IlVz

1
i

2lVq

32

5
10
24

1
I

.77
.80

z5'/4

223/e

2IVq

rlt

ash
ash
plywood

Yd

plywood

5.78

.74

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GRADINGLUMBER
T umbergradingisa wayof evaluating
l-.i thesurface
aualiwof a boardaccording to certainitandards,takinginto
accountfactorssuchasthenumber,size
and degreeof defectsin thewood.The
goalis to ensurethat woodworkersget
whattheypayfor; a boardof a certain
gradeof wood boughtin Mainewill
closelyresemble
a similar-grade
board
purchasedin New Mexico.
At first glance,the rulesof grading
may seemarbitrary.For starters,the
standardsaredifferentfor softwoodsand
hardwoods,
the resultof the enduseof
eachtypeof wood.Softwoodsareprimarilyusedin construction,
soa grader may assumethat a softwoodboard
will be usedasis, with no furthersurfacing.Hardwoodboards,on the other
hand,arealmostalwaysplaned,crosscut andrippedinto smallerpiecesto fit

a particularpieceof furniture.Addedto
that is the factthat,while thereis one
standardfor hardwoods,softwoodsare
furtherdividedinto separate
groupsand
gradedaccordingto rulesestablished
by
differentorganizations.
Takingthe time to becomefamiliar
with hardwoodand softwoodgrading
will pay dividends.A sound understandingof the gradingsystemenables
you to selectthemostappropriate
board
for thejob at hand;it canalsosaveyou
money.Thereisno need,for example,
to
orderlongplanksoftop-gradeFAS(or
Firstsand Seconds)lumber
if mostof
the piecesof the cabinetyou intendto
build areonly threeor four feetlong.
Youwouldprobablybe betteroffbuying No. I Common,whichis considerablycheaper,
andwill be adequate
once
you havecut out the defects.

Lumberproducersandvendorshave
long found it advantageous
to study
wood typesand set rulesfor grading
to guarantee
a uniform product.Oneof
theearliestilstancesof gradingoccurred
in 1764,when SvenAversdonofStockhohn dividedSwedishpine into four categories-best,good,commonandculls.
During the lBth Century,appearance
wasthe primary criterionfor grading
wood,but asknowledge
ofwoodpropertiesincreased,
standards
chaneedto
includestrengthandtheamountolclear
or usablewoodin eachboard.
Thebestwayto becomefamiliarwith
gradesisto visita lumberyardandexamine stockfirsthand.Getto know how a
hardwoodgradelike FASdiffersfrom
No. I Common.And whenyou Select
lumber,tryto picturehow eachpart can
becutout of a boardwith theleastwaste.

(lFA TYPICAL
HARDWOOD
LUMBER
GRADER'S
EVATUATION
BOARD
N0.I
COMMON
GRADE

Cutting No. lt

Cutting No,5:

3 t/2" x 4',/z' (15 3/+ unita)

41/2" x 41/z' (2O 1,/aunite)

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Cutting No.4:
6" x 5 2/a'(34 uniLe)

B 1/2"x 41/z' (38 1/+unita)

Equipped
withlumber
rule,penandlogbook,
a professional
grader
lumber
canevaluate
a hardwood
boardin roughly
15
seconds.
Although
thesystem
is scientific,
it is notfoolproof
.
Grading
is alldonebyeye-theeyeof a human
grader.
Still,
rigidquality
control
ensures
thatonlya verysmallpercentage
of boards
arenotgraded
correctly.
Herearethefourbasicstepslumber
graders
taketo make
theirassessment:
L Determine
thespecies
andmultiply
thelength
bythewidth
(SM)in square
of theboard
to findthesurface
measure
feet(1 foot)x 12 feet= 12 SM.
in theboard
above,
12 inches
2. Choose
thepoorest
facefromwhichto gradeandvisualize

thenumber
of imaginary
defect-free
cutsthatcanbemade;
in thiscase,
4.
3. Determine
thenumber
of portions
of cuttingunits-clear
lumber1"wideby 1 long-thatcanbemadefromthe4 cuts;
in thiscase,I08y4.(lf theboardwereperfect,
it wouldyield
144cutting
units.)
4. Consult
a chartthatliststhequalities
grades
of different
andfactorin thenumber
of cutting
unitsandthenumber
of
allowable
cuts:A No.1 Common
boardrequires
thattwothirds
of thetotalcuttingunitsareclear.Given
thesizeof thisparticularboard,
upto 4 cutswouldbeallowed.
Sincethisboard
meetsbothcriteria,
it justifies
thegradeNo.1 Common.

45

HARDWOODGRADES
,.{ hundredyearsago,hardwoodgrad:i-l ing variedfrom mill to mill, but
u,ith the formation of the National
(NHLA)
LumberAssociation
Hardwood
standardized.
in 1898,gradingbecame
At first,the ruleswerebasedstrictlyon
in 1932
thenumberandsizeof defects;
theywerebroadened
to reflecttheproportionof a boardthiitcanbe cut into
These
calledcuttings.
smallerpieces,
piecesmustbe clearon onesideand
soundon theother.Theirsizealsodeterminesthe grade.Today'shardwood
assume
thatboards
gradingstandards
trreinvariablycr,rtinto smallerpiecesto
makeftrrniture;thus,gradeis basedon
a board'spoorestface,exceptin thecase
rvhichtakesthe board'sbest
of Select,
faceinto account.
hardisoneofsevenstandard
Select
rvoodgrades.
Thetop gradeis FAS(an
folabbreviation
ofFirstsandSeconds),
No.2A
No. 1 Cot.nuron,
lowedby Select,
and28 Common,andNo.3ACommon
andNo. 3B Common(clnrt, opposite).
No. 2A and No. 28 Corrmonarefrequently lumped togetheras No. 2
manyiumberyards
Common;likewise,
sellNo.3AandNo.38 Commontogether asNo.3 Common.
Thebetterthegrade,thehigherthe
of clerrcuttiugs:
B3'r perpefcentrge
centof Select
boardsmustbeclearface
cnttir-rgs;
only 50 percentof a No. 2

But
Commonboardneedbedefect-fi'ee.
gradingis a moresubtleart than these
indicate.Tr,voboardsthat
calculations
arethesamesizewith thesamenumber
canendup in differentgrades:
ofdefects
mtryprevent
Thepositionof thedefects
oneboardfrom havinglargeenough
clearcuttingsto makethehighergrade
of theotherboard.
Althoughpayingmore for betterthatyouwill endup
gradestockn-Ieans
thismay
rvithwoodhavingfewerdefects,
to
not always
be theeconomicalthing
modest,
do. If your projectis relatively
hand-pickthelumberyourselffrom a
varietyofgrades,
depending
on thefturction of eachboardin the piece.Where
faceisialledfor,the
onlyonedefect-li'ee
selectgradeis a goodchoice.Or,for the
piecesofyour ftirnitureprojectthatare
relativelysmall,for example,you may
be ableto getby with No. 1 Common
No.2A Commonboards
sradeboards.
for thepartsofprojectsin
ire suitable
rvhichappearance
is not of paramount
imoortance.
suchashiddenfurniture
lumframes.If youdo buylower-grade
planon morewastewher.r
ber,however,
youarecalculating
thenumberof board
feetto order.
beautyis in theeyeof the
Of course,
feelthat
beholder.
Somecabinetmakers
to a
defects
suchasknotsaddcharacter
pieceof furniture.And if mostof the

partsrvill end up beingsmall,lowergradewoodisuotonlyrrrore

ecortorttical,it mayalsobenore suitablefor the
taskat hand-by yieldingmoreattractivelyfiguredrvood.

THICKNESS
STANDARD
FOR
SURFACED
HARDWOOD
Nominal
Actual
(rough) (surfaced
twosides)
3/au

3/rc"

Vr"
Te'

5/to"

3/+u

e/rc"

1/rc"

1'

3/4t or r3/16t1

It/4'

lrAa"

Lr/z'

1 q / n
l"/16

z',

IVz"or I3/q"

3"

2Y4"

4u

33/4'

TlresetwLtoak boordsdentortstrstetlrc rottgeof hardtood

t , r r ( / ( ' sT. l r c l o pb o , r r ,,l' o t r l , r i r t s
a,sNo.2A
krnts artd is classi.ficd
Corrrrrtort;
the bottotrrboartlis
FASgrodelrurilter.
defbct-fi'ce

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SELECTINGLUMBER

HARDWOOD
TUMBER
GRADES
GRADE

FAS

SELECT

N0.1
C()MMON

8'-16'

6 ' , -1 6 '

4',-L6'

N0.2A& 28
C()MMON
4' - I6',

6" orwider

4" orwider

3" orwider

3" orwider

3" orwider

3" orwider

83Vt%

83Vz%

662/s%

50%

33%%

25%

3 "x 7 ' ;
4"x5'

3 "x 7 ' ;
4"x5'

3 "x 3 ' ;
4 "x 2 '

3" x2',

3"x2'

Notlessthan
172"wide
containing
36
square
inches

Formula
to determine S M + 4
number
of cuts
A
M a x i m unmu m b e r

SM+4

S M + l+ 3

SM+2

Allowable
length
of board
Allowable
width
of board
Minimum
% of
clearfacecuttings
M i n i m u smi z eo f
clearcuttings

^{ ^l^^. ^,.++;-^^
ur Lrtrdt uuLUilB5

Reading
thechart
Thischart,created
bytheNational
Hardwood
Lumber
Associatron(NHLA),
records
theminimum
requirements
a board
must
meetto merita particular
grade.
Generally,
a higher-grade
board
is longer,
widerandmoredefect-free
thanoneof a lesser
grade.
Theclearpieces
areobtained
wrthasfewcutsaspossible.
B yc o m p a r i n
t hged i m e n s i oonfsa b o a r w
d i t ht h ef i g u r e s
supplied
in thechart,it is possrble
to determine
thegrade
of
pieceof lumber.
a particular
Thefirsttwohorizontal
rowsoro-

Unlimited

9elect
N o . 1C o m m o n

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No.2A and 2E
Common

videdataon minimum
board
dimensions
foreachgrade.
The
thirdrowgivesinformation
onthepercentage
of defect-free
surface,
orclearfacecuttrngs,
a boardmusthaveforeach
grade.
Theminimum
sizeof eachclearfacecuttingis listed
jn rowfour.Oncethesurface
(SM),
area,
orsurface
measure
of a boardis determined,
theformula
in row5 willgive
the
totalnumber
of cuttings
allowed
fora particular
grade.
Row
6 contains
thenumber
of clearcuttings
eachgradepermits.
Thelocation
grades
of lumber
ona log
Highgrades
of lumber,
suchasFAS
andSelect,
aregenerally
cutfromthe
outerpartof the log,nearthe bark.
N o .3 C o m m ognr a d e sf o, u n dc l o s e r
t o t h ep i t h ,a r en o ta l w a yssu i t a b l e
forcabinetmaking
andarefrequenily
usedfor packing
cratesor pallets.
In some
species,
suchaswalnut,
where
coloris important,
thesapwood
does
notqualify
astopgrade,
eventhough
it maybeclear.

FA9

N o . 3 Aa n d 3 E
Common

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Unlimited

NO.38
C()MMON
4' - I6',

permitted

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C()MM()N
4' - I6',

47

SOFTWOODGRADES
generally
I lthoughcabinetmakers
manyfinepieces
fI preferhardwoods,
of furniturehavebeenbuilt with softfor using
wood.Therearegoodreasons
lessexpensive
cousin:Softhardwood's
morereadilyavailable
woodisgenerally
andis easyto work.
thanhardwood,
Pineisoneofthemostpopularchoicinclude
Itsvarieties
esof cabinetmakers.
yellowpine
whitepine,Southern
Eastern
fromtheWest,suchassugar
andspecies
pine,Idahowhitepineandponderosa
Western
softpine.Douglas-fir,
another
wood,isalsogainingpopularityasacablarch
andWestem
inetwood.Sitkaspruce
aretwoothergoodchoices.
youshouldrestrict
Forcabinetmaking,
shownin
of softwood
yourself
to grades
thechartonthefollowingpage.Rememsold
aregenerally
berthatsoftwoods
S4S-thatis,planedsmoothon both
Andthey
faces
andjointedontheedges.
bestface
ontheboard's
based
aregraded
aftersurfacing.
are
softwoods
Unlikehardwoods,
on the
gradeddifferentlydepending
redthegradefor a California
species;
doesnot
woodboard,for example,
pine.You
applyto a pieceofponderosa
aboutsoftwood
canobtaininformation

from the American

gradingstandards
Lumber StandardsCommitteein Germantown.Marvland.
Softwoodgradingtakesboth strength
into account.Three
and appearance
gradecategories-Select,Finish and
Common-are often usedfor woodworking.Selectand Finishgradesmust

Thk Fr ench- Canadian nightstand

was built entirely with pine-an
attractive alternative to more
expensivehardwoods.

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be clearof defects,while boardsin the

Commongradesmay containdefects
suchastight knots.Selectand Finish
to a moisturecontent
stockareseasoned
of 15percentor less.Commonboards,
usedmainlyin constructionandhomebuilding,may haveup to a 19percent
moisturelevel.Thequalityof Common
gradeboardsis furtherdividedinto categoriesI to 5, with the highestnumber
to the lowestgrade.
corresponding
Someboardsdisplaya gradestamp,
like the one shown on page49. The
stampdisplaysinformationaboutthe
moisturecontentwhensurfaced
species,
and gradeof the stock.To avoid marhowever,l-inchring their appearance,
thick boardsin the better gradesare
often not stampedaftersurfacing.The
stampmay alsobe missingfrom lesser
gradeboardsthat havebeencut into
shorterlenghsby retaillumberdealers.
Keepin mind that softwoodis sold
accordingto nominal size,or green
which is differentfrom a
dimensions,
board'sactualsize.A2-by-4,for example, actuallymeasureslt/zby 3t/zinches.Thechartbelowshowsnominalsizes
of somecommonly availableboards
alonewith their true sizeswhensufaced.

LUMBER
SIZES
S()FTWOOD
ANDACTUAL
NOMINAL
0r{cHEs)
dry
Surfaced
I-by-2
1-by-3
1-by-4
1-by-6
1-by-8
1-by-10
I-by-12
2-by-2

3/q-by-Ir/z
.3/a-by-2Vz
3/q-by-3Y2

green
Surfaced

dry
Surfaced

Surfacedgreen

2s/zz-by_teAo

2-by-4

I1/z-by-3t/z

Le/rc-by-3e/rc

2s/sz_by_2e/rc

2-by-6
2-by-8

Ir/z-by-5Vz

ls/$-by-5Ye

l1/z-by-7rh

Ie/rc-by-7Vz

25/sz_by_3e/rc

3/q-by-51/z

2s/ez-by-5Ye

3/q-by-7t/+

25/sz-by-7Vz

2-by-I0
2-by-I2

25/zz-by-91/z

3h-by-IlVt

2s/gz-by-lI1/z

3-by-4
4-by-4

I|/z-by-IVz

Ie/rc-by-IsAa

4-by-6

3/q-by-9t/q

ACTUAT
fl1{CHES)

it0MtNAt
0NcHES)

ACTUAL

til0MlllAt

(rNcHES)

48

lr/z-by-91/t

ls/rc-by-9Vz

IVz-by-Ilth
2Vz-by-3Vz

Ie/rc-by-Mz
2s/rc-by-3s/rc

3r/z-by-3r/z

3e/rc-by-3eAo

31/z-by-5r/z

3eAo-by-55/a

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SELECTINGLUMBER

SOFTWOOD
TUMBER
GRADES
FOR
CABINETMAKING
GRADES

CHARACTERISTICS

SelectB andBTR(supreme) Clearappearance

quality;minordefects
andhighest
andblemishes.
ldealwithclearfinishes,
Notalways
available;
expensive
C Select(choice)
Highquality;
smalldefects
andblemishes
D Select(quality)
Goodquality;
defects
andblemishes
morepronounceo
Superior
Finish
qualityof finishgradelumber;
Highest
minordefects
andblemishes
PrimeFinish
Highqualitywithfewdefects
andblemishes
(colonial)
No.1 Common
Haslimited
availability
andsizeranges;
mayhavesmalltight
knots,
making
thisgradeappropriate
if a knottyappearance
is desired
(sterling)
No.2 Common
Larger,
coarser
defectsandblemishes;
oftenusedwherea knotty
appearance
withstrongcharacter
is desired

DECIPHERING
A GRADE
STAMP

Reading
a grade
stamp
Mostsoftwood
gradestamps,
likethe
oneshown
at left,contain
fivebasicelements.
A codenumber
identifies
themill
thatproduced
theboard,
andthegrade
of thewoodappears
nextto thetrademarkof theagency
thatestablished
the
rulesforgrading
thewood(inthiscase,
theNortheastern
Lumber
Manufacturers
Association).
Thespecies
is alsonoted;
sometimes
morethanonespecies
is
stamped
ontheboard,
indicating
it may
beanyof thoselisted.
Finally,
theseasoning
information
reflects
themoisture
content
of thewoodat thetimeit was
surfaced:
S-DRY
means
thattheboard
wassurfaced
afterseasoning
andhasno
morethan19 percent
moisture
content;
MC15 refers
to a board
witha maximum
moisture
content
of 15 percent;
S-GRN
is
reserved
forunseasoned
woodsurfaced
witha moisture
content
above19 oercent.A boardthathasbeensurfaced
whilestillgreen
tendsto shrink
andits
dimensions
willnotbeasaccurate
as
thoseof a boardthathasbeensurfaced
afterit wasseasoned.

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PINE

O R W APYt N E @

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49

LUMBERDEFECTS
affect
ostlumberdefectsadversely
strength,
a board'sappearance,
workabilityor ability to takea finish.
or
however,
irregularities
Sometimes,
make
a
piece
abnormalities
canactually
when
especially
of woodmoredesirable,
theyproducea popular,distinctivefigor burl. Of course,
ure like bird's-eye
intendeduseis the final arbiter;what
is
maybea blemishto onewoodworker
for
anotherboard'ssellingpoint.Knots,
example,would be a significantdefect
in boardsintendedfor a tabletop,but
featureof some
theyarean essential
typesofpaneling.
Lumberdefectsareeithernatural,
man-madeor the resultof poor seasoning.All woodharborsnaturaldefects
that arecausedby growingconditions
itself.Thesame
or qualitiesof thespecies
typeof defectmaybe presentin different woods.Someimperfectionsare
Looseknots,for
found in all species.
example,
arecausedsimplyby theway
of brotreesgrow.Theyaretheremnants
encased
kenbranches
thathavebecome
by thegrowthof newwood.Othernatural defectsincludegum in hardwoods,
andreactionwood
oitchin softwoods
Naturalforcessuchas
in all soecies.
fire,wind, fungi and insectscanalso
causedefectsin wood. A common
defectoFthissortisbluestain.
Several
defectsoccurwhenwood is
exposedto the air and allowedto dry.

Because
wood doesnot shrinkuniwarpingcan
formly in all dimensions,
resultwhen the moisturecontentof
lumber droosbelow a certainlevel.
(Referto theDryingandStoringWood
for moreinformation
on propchapter
of wood.)Somecommon
er seasoning
defects
arechecks,
bow,cup,
seasoning
twist,crookandsplit.Keepin mind that
thesedefectscanalsooccurin boards
cutcloseto thepith of a log.Somecom-

mon defectsareexolainedin the chart

belowandopposite.
to
Althoughit isvirtuallyimpossible
defect-free,
buywoodthatis completely
youcanincrease
yourchances
ofobtaining thebestlumberfor your needsby
your woodcareftilly(page42).
selecting
Anotherpoint to consideris that you
if
somelumberwith defects
cansalvase
tools
you havjaccessto the necessary
andlearnhow to usethem (page53).

Threepiecesof oak with defects:The top board shows splits,

the middlepiecerevealschecksat oneend,and the bottonr
boerddisplaysa crook,a looseknot and reactionwood.

INWO()D
DEFECTS
REMEDIES

CHARACTERISTICS

Looseor dead

weaken
withthesurrounding Doesnotseriously
Appears
asa whorlthatis intergrown
canbecutoutor
woodtissue.Knotsformasthegirthof thetreeincreas- a board;
asappearance
dictates.
lf thebranches
are used,
thebranches.
es,gradually
enveloping
theknotintestillaliveat thetimeof theirenvelopment,
grates
withthewoodin thetreetrunk
knotsbefore
working
Remove
bya darkring.Whena
Appears
asa whorlencircled
enveloped withthelumber.
stumpiseventually
branch
diestheremaining
integrate
with
bythetrunk.Butthedeadstumpcannot
ordeadknot,
it, creating
a loose
thetissue
surrounding

50

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SELECTINGLUMBER

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,V

CHARACTERISTICS

REMEDIES

Anaccumulation
onthesurface
of theboardor in oocketswithintheboard.Usually
develops
whena treehas
suffered
an injury,exposure
to fireor insectattack.

Donotusewherea quality
finishis required,
asgumwill
bleedthrough
mostfinishes.

Lengthwise
ruptures
orseparations
in thewood,usuallycaused
byrapiddrying.Maycompromise
strength
andappearance
of board.

Canbecut off.

Anend-to-end
curvealongtheface,usually
caused
byimproper
storage
of lumber.
Introduces
internar
stresses
in thewoodthatmakeit difficultto cut.

Flattenbowedboardson
thejointer(page55),or cut
pieces,
intoshorter
thenuse
thejointer.

An edge-to-edge
curveacross
theface,usuallycaused
whenonefaceof a boarddriesmorequicklythanthe
other.Common
ontangentially
cutstock,on boards
cutcloseto the pith,or if onefaceof a boardhasless
contact
withtheairthantheother.

Cupmaycorrect
itselfif both
facesareallowed
to dryto
thesamemoisture
content.
Cupped
boards
canbesalvagedonthe bandsaw(page
54) or jointer(page55).
Boardcanbesalvaged
on
joinler(page55),or cut into
shorterboards.

Uneven
or irregular
warping
whereonecorneris not
aligned
withtheothers.
Results
fromuneven
dryingor
a crossgrainpattern
thatis notparallel
to theedge.

End-to-end
curvealongtheedge,caused
by incorrect
seasoning
or having
thepithof a logcloseto theboard
edge.Weakens
thewood,makingit unsuitable
for
weight-bearing
applications.

Boardcanbesalvaged
onjointerortablesaw
(page55).

Similar
to checks,
appearing
asseparations
along
thegrowth
rings.Alsoknownasringcheckor ring
shank.Results
fromimproper
dryingof woodor
fellingdomage.

Boardcanbe used,butsplit
maymartheappearance
of
thewood,becoming
more
noticeable
whenstainis
applied.

Appears
asa darkstreakacross
thefacesoredgesof
lumber.
Occurs
whenplaner
knives
aredullorspin
on onepartof boardfor toolong.

Remove
machine
burnwith
jointer(page53) or sander.

Appears
asa discoloration
of thesurface
on otherwise
normal-looking
wood.Results
frommoldsthatflourish
whenlumberis driedorstoredin warm,moistor poorly
ventilated
conditions.
Species
likehollyandEnglish
sycamore
areproneto bluestain.

Conceal
witha darkstain.

51

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()FUNEVEN
GROWTH
THESTRESS

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wood
Recognizing
reaction
ischaracwood,
shown
above,
Reaction
growthrings
terizedby itscompressed
lt occurs
when
lifeless
color.
andsilvery,
a t r e et r u n kh a sa p r o n o u n c ceudr v e ,
whena treegrows
on
asoftenhappens
a sloneThisdefect
canalsobeseenin
boards
cutclose
to thepithof a trunk.
probwoodposes
Working
withreaction
it has
because
lemsforthewoodworker;
properties
thannorshrinkage
different
in the
malwood,the internal
stresses
a sawblade
to bindand
board
cancause
k i c kb a c kW
. h e nt h ew o o di s c u t o r
s a n d e di t, h a sa f u z z ys u r f a caen d
reaction
Bending
absorbs
stainunevenly.
anyIoadonit maycause
woodorplacing
it to break
across
thegrain.

i l r r i i l i i rl i r i l i l

llil illt il{l ll{tlltl lill llll llll lill llll lltr
llll llll
ui
llj
lll ill {il ul irJi$ i$ ut iil ul ul i$ ul ul {Ij ru

1HO?TI?
Checkinglumberfor lwist
but you can
Warpedboardscan somelimeebetouqhI'o recoqnize,
windinqslicks.
epoltwieled,olockquicklywit.hlheatdof ohop-made
Io a lenqlhthatr ie trwicet'hewidLhof lhe
CuI Nwonarrowboard,a
board Nobe tested.I eI Lheboard f acedownon a workLable,then
to eachot'her.
3i4hl
elickeaL bolh endo,Varallel
placebhewinding
acroo;Ihe t opeof Nheet tcks.Yourboardie twieted if NheLopo
of the slicks are noNperfectlyaligned.

-*---l

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PREPARING
LUMBER
hefirstjobin a cabinetmaking
projectinvolves
preparing
yourstock.
If
youowna jointer,a planeranda table
saqyoucandotheworkyourself.
Whetherto construct
alargecabinet
or a miniaturejewelrybox,lumberis
generally
prepared
in thesameway.The
procedures
youfollowdependon how
the wood was surfacedbeforeyou
boughtit. Forroughboards,
youstart
by smoothing
onefaceon thejointer,
thenoneedge.
Thiswill giveyouadjoiningsurfaces
thatareperfectly
square
to
eachother.Next,passthesecond
face
througha planersothatthefacesare
parallel.
Nowyoucanrip yourboards
to widthandcrosscut
themto lengh.
ForS2Slumber,whichhasalready
youneedonly
hadbothfacessurfaced,

passoneedgeacrossthejointer,thenrip
and crosscut.S4Swood,with all four
surfaces
dressed.
canbe cut to width and
lengthimmediately;only edgesthatwill
be gluedtogetherneedto bejointed.
Althoughlumberwith defectsshould
be avoided,you may find yourselfwith
a few warpedboardsyou do not want
to discard.Several
simpletechniques
for
salvagingdefectivestockareshownon
pages54and55.A cuppedboardcanbe
ripped into severalnarrowerpieces,in
effectflatteningthe curveinto stripsthat
can be jointed. A crookedor bowed
boardcanbe salvaged
on thejointer by
graduallycutting awaythe high spots.
And a simplejig canbe usedwith the
tablesawto transforma boardwith an
unevenedgeinto a squarepiece.

SURFACING
STOCK

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Jointing
a board
lAaand7einch.Jointa board
Seta cuttingdepthbetween
faceasshownin the
joint
photoabove.
To
an edge,feedthestockslowly
across
thecutterhead,
making
surethattheknives
arecuttingwiththegrain(page
29).While
feeding
theworkpiece
overtheknives,
usea hand-over-hand
motion
to keepdownward
pressure
onthepiecejustto the outfeed
sideof the cutterhead,
maintaining
pressure
against
thefence.Continue
thesemovements
untilyoufinishthecut.

53

Forsurfacinga boardface,push
blockshelpto keepstockflat and
your handssafe.Lateralpressure
keepstheedgeagainstthefence.

t
LUMBER
SELECTING

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Planing
stock
Seta cuttingdepthupto %ainch.Stand
to onesideof the olaneranduseboth
handsto feedthestockcarefully
into
themachine,
keeping
the boardedges
parallel
to theedgesof the planer
table.
gripsthe boardand
Oncethe machine
beginspullingit across
thecutterhead,
support
thetrailingendto keepit flaton
the table(right).Asthe cut progresses,
moveto the outfeedsideof the olaner
andsupport
the piecewithbothhands
roller.lf you
untilit clearstheoutfeed
passes
aremaking
several
to reduce
the
planethesameamount
board's
thickness,
of woodfrombothfaces.Thiswillminimizewarping.

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WARPED
LUMBER
SALVAGING

Ripping
cupped
stockintonarrow
boards
Thistechnique
forsalvaging
involves
cuppedboards
theband
you
saw,but
canachieve
thesameresultwitha tablesawor a
radialarmsaw.lf youareusinga bandsaw,installyourwidest
bladeandsetup a ripfenceonthemachine's
table.Setthe
widthof cut;thenarrower
thesetting,
theflattertheresulting

54

(high)sideup on
boards.
Tomakea cut,settheboardconvex
thetableand,buttingthe boardagainst
thefence,feedit
steadily
intothe blade(above).
Makesurethatneither
handis
in linewiththecutting
edge.Finish
thecutwitha pushstick.
Remove
anyremaining
highspotson thejointer(page55).

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SELECTINGLUMBER

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()RBOWED
JOINTING
CROOKED
STOCK

5
:
5 :

llltflt]llllilltflltllltllltillttlllillll]IlilllflllilI]ultt][ltllll]ll
5HO?TI?
5trai6hteningout
an unevenedge
EvenouLlhe edgee
of a crookedboardon
the Lablesaw wiNha
jiq. CUN
ohop-made
a pieceof 3/+-inchplywoodwiLhpertectly
paralleledqeo.?laceNheboard
oquarelyon to? of Nheplywood,
with the
unevenparNoverhanging
oneedqe.tsult etop blocke
againotNhetrailinq
endandedqeoftheboardas shown,then
screw
NheblockeNoNheplywood.
AtLachNoggle
clampeto Ihe blocksand
preeeIhe clampodownNoeecurethe boardto the jiq.
1et Ihe width
-oliae
of cuI equalNo'Nhe
width of rhe Vlywoodpieceand
*,e iiq acro*e
lhe eawtable,cuttin4 the edqeof Nheboardetraiqht.

55

Jointing
concave
andconvex
surfaces
Thediagrams
at leftshowhowto
"straighten
out"crooked
boards
onthe
jointer.Theseverity
of thedefectsis
greatly
exaggerated
forclarityin theillustration;
extreme
crookshould
bestraightenedon a tablesawasshownbelow,
0n
thejointer,
theideaisto passthehigh
spotonthe board's
edgerepeatedly
across
thecutterhead
untiltheedgeis straight.
Fortheconvex,
or outward-bowing,
edge
(left,above),
passthehighspotat the
middleof the boardacross
theknives
as
(cutsI and2).
manytimesasnecessary
Avoid"nose-diving,"
or allowing
theleadingedgeto rideupduringthecut.When
thesurface
is f lat,makea finalpass
alongtheentireedge(cut3).Toflatten
theconcave,
or inward-bowing,
edge(/eff,
joint
below), oneendof theboardas
(cuts1 and2),
manytimesasnecessary
thenturntheboard
around
to reoeatthe
process
at the otherend (cuts3 and4).
Thisoperation
is similar
to basicjointi n g ,e x c e pt th a ty o uo n l yc u tt h eh i g h
spotat thetrailingendof theboard.
Start
thecutwiththeleading
endof the board
an inchor soabove
tablelevel.Feed
the piecetowardthecutterhead
with
onlythetrailing
endin contact
withthe
infeedtable.Whenthedeepest
partof
theconcave
edgeis above
theknives,
lowertheleading
endof theboardonto
theoutfeed
tableandcomplete
thepass.
Oncethesurface
is even,makea final
passthelenghof theboard(cut5).
Flattening
bowed
stockis simrlar
to face
jointing:
withtheboard
concave
facedown,
makeasmanypasses
asnecessary
to
remove
thehighspotsneartheends.Use
pushblocks
to keepyourfingers
safely
awayfromthecutterhead.

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\TENE,ERSATD
IIRED BOARDS
he time-honoredtechniqueof
arrayof appealingconfigurations-herveneering
cantransforma simple
ringboneand reverse-diamond
among
cabinetdoor into a flamboyantburstof
others.Theycanalsotakefull advantage
colorandgrain,an unassuming
pieceof
of suchbeautifulbut unstablewoodcuts
furniture into a seamless
work of art.
ascrotchandburl, whichareimpossiAnd thoughwood veneershaveshifted
bleto work with in solidform.
in and out offavor overthe centuries,
Theold masters
veneered
overa solwoodworkershaveusedthem to marid-woodbase,or substrate,
usinghot
velouseffectsincetheancientEgyptians
gluemadefrom animalhides,bloodand
embellished
objectswith thin sheetsof
bones.Theysmoothedthe veneerand
preciouswoods.In the lBth and early
pressedout air bubbleswith special
l9th Centuries,fineveneers
becamethe
hammers.
Whilehammer-veneering
is
hallmarkof sophisticated,
high-style
Decorativematching of veneerscan
still practiced,today'scraftsmenmay
furniture. Largeswathsof distinctive createunusual qnd breathtakingeffects, choosea moremodernveneerpress;
wood veneerscoveredtabletops;marsuch as the natural grain figure
theycanalsochoosefrom a muchwider
quetrypictures-delicatepatternsmade
selectionof gluesand substrates.
The
featured in this Victorian davenport.
by aligningpiecesofveneerand insetgluemaybean aliphatic-or plastic-resin
ting them in the surroundingwood-decoratedall manner type;the substrate
maybe anyoneof a numberof manufacofcabinetry.
turedboards,mostpopularlyplyvood,particleboard
or mediVeneering
declinedwith the adventof productionmachinum-density
fiberboard.
Theintroductionof thesemanufactured
ery in the l9th Century,only to reboundonceagainin the
boardsrevolutionized
furnituredesign:Because
the boards
early20thCenturywith advances
in manufactured
boardtech- aredimensionallystable-they neitherswellnor shrink with
nologyand improvedadhesives.
As materialscontinueto
seasonal
changes
in humidity-traditional frame-and-panel
improve,veneeringmakesmore sensethan ever.Furniture designscanbe replacedby largeunbrokenveneeredsurfaces.
that wouldbe prohibitivelyexpensive
to craftfrom solidexotOf thevarietyof manufactured
boards,cabinetmakers
probic woodscanbeveneered
with thesamewoodsat a muchmore
ablymakethemostuseof plpvood,itselfa productof veneer
reasonable
cost.
construction.Plywoodis availablein manygradesfor many
And, of course,veneeringtodayoffersthe sameesthetic uses;always
buythebestyou canafford.Cabinet-grade
hardadvantages
it alwayshas.With veneers,
woodworkersarefree wood pllwood, whichis alreadyfacedwith attractiveveneers,
to createstunninggrainpatternswith suchtechniques
asbookis a cost-effective
alternativeto solidwood-ideal for such
matchingor slip-matching;they canarrangeveneersin an
projectsaswallandfloor cabinets,
bookcases
anddrawerfronts.

Manufacturedboardsofferthesolidityof hardwoodalongwithgreater
dimensional
stability.Clockwise
from lowerleft is a samplingof the
mostp op ular cabinetmaking typ es: softwood plnv ood, medium-densityfiberboard,particleboard,
hardboardandBalticbirchplywood.

57

I
I
\ / eneerrevolutionizedfurnitureV makingasfarbackas2000sc,when
theEgyptians
handsawed
thin sheets
of
wood and then adheredthem to thicker backingswith animalglueand heatVeneeringsoondeveloped
edsandbags.
into a refinedart andbecamea hallmark
of many furniture stvles.The rococo

stylesof theLouisXV periodin themid1700sfostereda demandfor kingwood,

tulipwood,purpleheartand rosewood
veneers,
whilethefuts andCraftsmovementof thelate1800signitedacrazefor
marquetrybasedon mahogany,
walnut
and satinwoodveneers.
By the turn of
the 20thCentury.modernveneermills

servedboth the furnitureandconstruction industries.

Almostasfragileasan eggshell
and
burstingwith thewarmthandopulence
ofexotic hardwoods,veneersareavailablein morethan200varieties,
some
cutasthin as%ooinch.Someof themost
popularvarieties
arelistedbelow.

A GATLERY
OFCOMM()N
DECORATIVE
VENEERS
VENEER

ANDFIGURE
COTOR

AVAILABLE
CUTS

SUPPLY

TEXTURE
ANDWORKAEILITY

Avodi16

yellow
Golden
to gold;
mottled
figure

cut
Quarter

Plentif
uI

Medium
textured;
easy
towork.
Stains
unevenly

B l a c kw a l n u t

Lightgray-brown
to darkpurplebrown;
striped
figure

Crotch,
butt,flat,
quarter
cut,burlcut

Plentif
uI

graindifficult
Medium
texture;
to work.Takes
f inishwell

Brazilian
rosewood

Chocolate
to violetandblackto
brick-red;
striped
f igure

Flatcutand

Rare

nil2rf cr arrt

Medium
texture
and
oily;difficultto work.
Resists
finish

elm
Carpathian

Brickredorgreenish-brown
to light
tan;burlfigure

Burl

P l e n tui fl

Medium
texture;
easyto
work.Takes
finishwell

lmbuia

Richchocolate
to olive-brown
and
gold;burlandstriped
figures

B u r lf,l a tc u ta n d
rotarycut

Rare

Medium
texture;
easyto
work.Takes
finishwell

Lacewood
(Silky-oak)

pinkto reddish-brown,
Silvery
f leckf igure

cut,flat
Quarter

Moderate

Medium
texture;
easyto
work.Takes
finishwell

Mahogany

Lightpinkto reddish-brown,
striped
andfiddleback
figures

cut,flatcut,
Quarter

P l e n tui fl

Coarse
texture,
difficult
to work.Takes
finishwell

Maple

whitesapwood
withtan
Creamy
heartwood;
curlyandbird'seyefigures

cut,flatcut,
Quarter
crotch,rotary,burl

P l e n tui fl

Finetexture;
difficultto
work.Takes
finishwell

Myrtle
burl

Goldenbrownto yellowish-green;
mottled
andburlfigures

Burl

Moderate

Finetexture;moderately
difficultto work.Takes
f i n i s hw e l l

0live
ashburl

Creamy
whitewithdarkbrown
streaks;
burlfigure

B u r ls, t u m p

Rare

Coarse
texture;
easyto
work.Takes
finishwell

Peanvood

Rosycream;straight-grained
figure,
sometimes
curly

cut,flat cut
Quarter

Rare

Finetexture;
easyto work.
Takes
finishwell

Purpleheart
(Amaranth)

Deeppurple
withlightgraysapwood;stripedfigure

cui,flatcut
Quarter

Plentif
ul

Coarse
texture;
hardto work.
Takes
f inishwell

Sapele

Reddish
brown;
mottled
anc
ribbonstripefigures

cut
Quarter

Moderate

Mediumtexture;easyto work.
Takes
f inishwell

Ceylon
satinwood

yellow;
Golden
mottled
figure

Flatcut,quarter
cut

Rare

Finetexture;
easyto work.
Takes
f inishwell

Yew

Warmorange
withdarkerstreaks;
burlfigure

Flatcut

Rare

Finetexture;
easyto work.
Takes
f inishwell

Zebrawood

Creambackground
withdarkbrown
lines;striped
figure

Quarter
cut

Rare

Medium
texture;
moderately
difficultto work.Takes
f inishwell

erninh

hrrfi

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VENEEITS
AN I) N{I\NUI:A(]'I'LI
II.EDI]OARDS

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WH E RVE
E NEERS
ORIGINATE
ONA TREE
Birds'-eye
mapleveneer

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Mahogany crotch veneer

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Crotch veneer

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ili,i. ir'r itt iiii

rll;.,i

1 1 , ' i I l ' I a :a : ' )i l i i ' : '

it iriir

1,.,1
Iiii'rai-:

I i l j : r I / : - r ' : : :rj:i , i r i . r , , ' , , ' , 1 - ti i t i . : )

: , r 1 1 1 1 ' 11 1r 1 1 ; 1 1 1 . r1i 1l .i i 1 . f f l .

Carpathian
elmburl veneer

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Eurl veneer
i i t ' i . i i . i ; 1 t . , , l i i, ' : i 'i ' 1 1 . ; 1 , ,
i.,i f i' i i i., f a-.I i. i I ra:,:::t,l,i i, -rr'r| :. a i-.1.i a-,ri a :

i.i,1 i't:tii

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1'1i1r.1i1,,i,i;1r,r'.. t-iii't-i ir,, i: r t:l i i,.,I : :t :: i..

, l/.:'1
/l'ii rir. ;:,.;i i :: f:, 1 ::ri.,ti-ia a'\art iit r . l r ' , . 1 t t a r a , ; i r i' ,. ,- ' , 1i i i i i , , ' : . i . , ,

Europeanbeechveneer

Walnutbutt veneer

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Flat-cut veneer
.; ;: I r':, : 1-.ii,. | )a.t| 1... i | |, ri i:'tti,:j.

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Eutt veneer

|
: a.,)
r,),\,a.a.l..itli1.,rri t .i.:.,.jtl .j a,,\.::11..

at'

r , L , i - i r - t l i t l i i r l ' : ' . i . i , i i i ; . : . i r i i . : r r j i..

-i.raa:
liiei,i', i'i;ittr:,,..i.
a)f a
l'-ll)itt
t:j i.',r i:.,tr;i
irii.,,n.:j

FROMLOGTO VENE,ER
a log
1'\ nceitsbarkisstrippedaway,
\J .un be cut into veneerin oneoi
threervays:
sawcutting,rotarycutting
or flat slicing.Sawcutting,whichgoes
employs
backto theearly19thCenti"rry,
hugecircularsawsto rip stripsof veneer
from logs.Althoughnot asefficientas
othertechniques,
sawcuttingis still used
to producesomecrotchveneers
from
irregularly
grainedor densewoodssuch
asebony.
Rotarycuttingand flat slicingcan
produceveneers
asthin as7sto l,/rzoinch
andaslongasI B feet.In rotarycutting,
a log mountedin a hugelatherotates
againsta presslu
barwhilea razor-sharp
knife oeelsoff a continuoussheetof
veneeithelengthof thelog.Fir plp,vood,
aswellassomedecorative
veneers
such
asbird's-eye
maple,arenormallyrotary
cut.Half-round,rift andbackcutting
arevariations
thatproduceveneerfrom
half-lossratherthanwholeones.
In flatslicing,
a half-log
isheldontoa
framethatswingsr-rpanddownagainst
a stationaryhorizontaiknife;a sliceof
veneeris removedwith everydowncrown-cut
stroke.FIatslicingproduces
veneers.
A typeof flat slicingknownas
quarter-clrt
slicingisusedon woodsthat
displaya strikingfigurewhenquarterwhiteoakor lacewood.
sawn,asin sapeie,

VENEER-CUTTING
METH(lDS
Rotary autting
UsedLo cut con'
etruction plywood
and eomedecora'
tive veneeraguch
ao btrd'o-eyemaple

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Half-round autting
A method used for
burlaand aome
decorattveapectea

Eack cutting
A rotary cutting
method that. yielde
buLLand croLch
veneer9

Flat eliaing
Uaedto makecrowncut veneer?;pro'
duceaveneerawiLh
repeatinqfigure thaL
facrltLaf,ea
book'
matchingand oLher
decorative effects

Quarber-auialiaing
Uaedto cut decoraf,tveveneerg,auch
ae ribbon,atripe
and flake,that are
obtarnedfrom quar'
Lereawnloqe

Flat-slicedsheetsof verteermove
nlortgtt conveyorfor drying tud
storagehr n vetreer
.fnctory.

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Ri{t cutting
Yieldeveneerwtth
the raye at rou7hly
45" to the eurface;
uoedprimarilyon
whiLeoak

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VENEERSAND MANUFACTUREDBOARDS

VENEER
TYPES
ANDSIZES
VENEER
TYPE

stzEs

AVAILABLE
SPECIES

Rnienr

Length
upto 10 feet;widthfrom8 to 36 inches

Bird's-eye
maple,
bubinga,
Douglas-f
ir,
masur
birch
Ash,Brazilian
rosewood,
cherry,
maple,
oak,teak
Avodi16,
mahogany,
oak,Queensland
maple,
sapele,
satinwood,
zebrawood
M a p l ew, a l n u t

nr rl

Flat-sliced

Length
3 to 16 feet;widthfrom4 to 24 inches

Quarter-cut

Length
3 to 16 feet;widthfrom3 to 12 inches

Buttandsiump

lrregular
dimensions.
Sheet
sizes
varyfrom10 x 36
to 18 x 54 inches;
average
sheetsize12 x 36 inches
Length
from18to 54 inches;
widthfrom10to 24
inches;
average
sheetsize72 x 36 inches
lrregular
dimensions.
Sheet
varyfrom8 x l0 to
sizes
18 x 54 inches;
average
sheet
size16 x 24 inches

Crotch
Burl

SH()P.MADE
VENEER

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upthecut
1t Settine
-

I T o c u t v e n e eor n t h e b a n ds a w ,f i r s tm a k ea p i v o tb l o c kf r o mt w o p i e c e so f
w o o dj o i n e di n a T , w i t h t h e o u t e re n d o f t h e s h o r t epr i e c et r i m m e dt o f o r ma
r o u n d e dn o s e .I n s t a l al 3 / q - i n c rhe s a wb l a d eo n t h e s a wa n d i n s t a l l t h er i p f e n c e
o n t h e t a b l e .S c r e wt h e p i v o tb l o c kt o t h e f e n c es o t h a t t h e r o u n d e dt i p i s a l i g n e d
w i t h t h e b l a d e .P o s i t i o tnh e f e n c ef o r t h e w i d t ho f v e n e eyr o uw a n t( a b o v e )I ,y p i c a l l yr / ei n c h .l f t h e s t o c ky o ua r ec u t t i n gi s r e l a t i v e ltyh i n ,c l a m pa f e a t h e r o o a r o
t o t h et a b l et o s u p p o ritt d u r i n gt h e c u t .

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Amburana,
mahogany,
walnut
Carpathian
elm,English
oak,madrone,
myrtle,
oliveash,redwood,
thuya,
walnut

VENEERSAND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

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r) Cutting
theveneer
L f eeatheworkpiece
intotheblade
withbothhands,
keeping
thestockflush
against
thetip of the pivotblock(abovd.
To prevent
the bladefromdriftingoff
line,steerthetrailing
endof theworkpiece.
Neartheendof thecut,move
to
thebackof thetablewiththesawstill
r u n n i ntgo f i n i s ht h ep a s sH. o l d i nt gh e
against
thepivotblock,
stocksquare
oullit oasttheblade.

Illlllltllllllllllllllltllltllllllullltllllilltlllllllliltllllllltlltl r
1HO?TI?

)alvaqin6 warped veneer

Crotchand burlveneerz
eomelimesbecome ---1,
warpedand brilNle,the reeulLof
aqinqor improVer
oNorage.Io
flatten
the eheeNe,
dampen
them ueinga e?on7e
moisNened
wiNhwarmwaf,er
and elackthemon a pieceof Vlywoodwilh lwo or Nhreesheelo of newopaperbetweeneach
slice.Tlacea heavyweiqhl,suchas a concreleblock,on top.
Let,theveneero
sitfor a day or two.Wrapthe sheetsin Vlaotic and eloreLhemundera weiahluntilvou needthem.

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VENEERING
I pplyingveneeris like woodworkA ing in reverse.
Insteadofstarting
with a board,thencuttingandsanding
it down to its finished dimensions.
veneeredpiecesarebuilt up alayerata
time. Beglnningwith a substrate-or
base-of solidwood or a manufactured
panel,you gluebandingto theedges
and
thenwiderpiecesof veneerto bothfaces.
With a plywoodbase,orientthegrain
ofthe veneersothat it is perpendicular
to the grain of the plywood,and both
facesof theplyr,voodmustbeveneered
to
preventcupping. (Neverapplyveneer
overfir plywood,because
the grainof
the fir canbe seenthroughthe veneer.)
With a hardwoodbase,veneershould
be appliedparallelto the grain.
Furniture-qualityparticleboardand
medium-densityfiberboardalsomake
goodsubstrates
for veneering.Sincethese
materialshaveno grain (theyaremadeof

woodparticlespressed
togetherwith an
adhesive),
you may arrangethe veneer
on thepanelsanywayyouwish.But the
lackofa graindirectionis alsoa disadvantage:Neitherof theseproductsis as
strongasplywood,andanyjoints cut in

Specificallydesignedfor cutting veneer,

a yeneersaw is usually usedin
tandem with a guide block or a
straightedgeto ensurestraight cuts.

them must be reinforcedwith splines

madeof someothermaterial.
Brittleveneers
mustbeappliedovera
thickerunderlayveneersuchaspoplar.
Alwayscut the veneerlargerthan the
actualsizeneeded,allowingan overhang
of aboutlz nchall thewayaround.The
overhangis trimmed offlater.
If you arepressingdown veneerthe
traditionalway-with a veneerhammer-use hideglue,whichis reheatable.
Otherwise,
whiteglueisyourbestchoice.
Whicheveradhesive
you employ,it will
beeffective
onlyifthe veneeris flat,clean
and dry.
Asshownin thissection,veneercan
alsobe presseddown in a veneerpress.
Newercommercialvacuumpresses
feature a pump that sucksthe air out of
a plasticbag that surroundsthe substrateandveneer,allowingatmospheric
pressure
to hold theveneerin place.

VENEERING
TOOTS
Veneerpreaa
For preeain7 veneerdown on a subatrate
paneLfeaturea a base,pipe clampe,pipe
ClamPgaddlea and veneer
preaa clampa.Componenta
are bouqht.aaa kit and
aaaembledby uaer to auit
dimenaioneof panel

Veneeraaw
For trimmin4 and cutting
veneer;ite curved blade,
offaet handleand thin,
eharp-tipped teeth
enaureclean

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Veneertape
A thin, etronq, perforated
tape ueed forjoinin7 pieceo
of veneerbefore qluin4
Veneerhammer
For preoeing veneer
down on a subatrate
paneLpuahedalonq the
aurface likea equeeqee.
Featurea three workin4
aurfacea for veneeraof
varyinq widtha

Hand roller
A hard rubber roller uaed to
apply edqe bandin4to the
edgee of eubetraLe panele

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VENEERSAND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

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APPLYING
VENEER
'l

Gluing
downedgebanding
fortheedges
I Cutfourstripsof banding
ofthesubstrate
oanelfromthesameveneer
youwilluseforthefaces.Makethestrips
overlap
thepaneledges
byabout% inch,
r r a i nw i l lr u na l o n tgh e
a n db es u r et h e i g
them.Secure
edges,
ratherthanacross
thepanelin a vise,thenapplya thinbead
of glueto anedge.Usea smallbrushto
evenly,
thencenter
the
spread
theadhesive
banding
overtheedge.Laya stripof wax
paperoverthebanding
andthen,using
theedgeandfaces,
woodpadsto protect
downwiththree-way
clampthebanding
c l a m p ss,p a c i ntgh e ma t 6 - t o 8 - i n c h
Tighten
each
intervals,
untilthegluedries.
a thingluebead
clampin turn(right)until
banding
squeezes
out.Trimtheexcess
(step2), thenrepeat
fortheotheredges.

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llllllljilltllllilIllll llllljlllllllll lllllll r]I1

IIJllll
llllilI]rll1
r") Trimming
excess
banding
L Once
thegluehasdried,holdthe
panelon edgeon a worksurface.
Butt
far
a
veneer
saw
against
the
thebackof
panel
with
its
teeth
on
the
endof the
Firmlydrawthesawtoward
banding.
youto,trimawaytheexcess
banding
Make
sure
the
back
of
thesaw
hbovd.
f
lush
face
of the
remains against
the
panpanel
the
cut.
Turn
the
throughout
repeat
on
the
other
side.
el around
and
Excess
banding
canalsoberemoved
laminate
witha
trimmer(page68).

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gHO?TI?
Cutting edge banding
*..o.si
Tocut severaleNriVeof
S\
veneeredgebandinqin one
slack Lhemone
operaLion,
alop Nheobher,edqeoaligned,
beNween
Lwopieceoof l/+-inchplywood.Tackthetwo plywoodpieceo
wilh finishinqnailoplacedalonq
Noqebher
Ihe edqeo;be sureihe nailNipedo not pertorale trhebandinqor ?aeeLhrouqhthe boIbom
pieceof plywood.MarkcuLlinqlineofor lhe bandingon the
Loppieceof Vlywood,Ihen
cut alonqNhelineeon a Nableeaw
or bandeaw.be carefulnol lo cul alonalhe lineof nails.

64

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VENEERS
AND MANUFACTURED
BOARDS

Edging
thefaceveneer
T h ee d g e so f a d j o i n i n gs h e e t so j

veneer
mustbe perfectly
square
if the
twopieces
areto butttogether
properly.
Tosquare
them,youwillneeda shootingboard.
Cutthreepieces
of 3/rinch
plywood
slightly
longer
thantheveneer.
0 n ep i e c es h o u l d
b ew i d ee n o u gtho
holdtheothertwopieces
ontopand
thewidthof theplanelyingon itsside.
Place
thetwopieces
of veneer
faceto
faceandsandwich
thembetween
the
pieces
toptwoplywood
sothat the edges
of theveneer
arealigned
andprotrude
byabout\/einch.Setthesandwich
on
topof thethird,widerboard
andclamp
theentireassembly
to a worksurface.
Runtheplanealong
theshooting
board
fromoneendto theotherto trim off
the projecting
veneer.
Makesureyou
keepthesoleof theplane
flushagainst
theedges
pieces
of thetop plywood
duringthe cut (left).

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Taping
veneer
sheets
together
lf youarepressing
downyourveneer
sheets
gluethem
witha veneer
hammer,
(step5). lf youare
in placeindividually
applyrng
morethanonesheetof veneer
to
a panelfaceandusinga veneer
press
to
holdthemdown,tapethesheets
together
andgluethemdownasa unit.Alignthe
sheetsedge-to-edge
on a worksurface,
arranging
themgood-side
upto produce
pattern.
a visually
interesting
lf thereare
gapsbetween
adjoining
sheets,
trimthe
edges
ona shooting
board,
Thecombined
l e n g t ah n dw i d t ho f t h ev e n e esrh o u l d
exceed
thedimensions
of thepanelby
aboulr/zinch.Onceyouhavea satjsfactoryarrangement,
moisten
a fewlengths
of veneer
tapewitha water-dampened
sponge.
Tapethesheets
together
across
theirjoints
at 6- to 8-inchintervals,
then
applya stripof tapealongeachjoint
(right).Press
thetapef irmlyin place
witha handroller,

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VENEERSAND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

JIG
VENEER-TRIMMING
to widthquickCutsheetsof veneer
on a routertable
ly andaccurately
jig shownat right.
wiihthetrimming
forsuggestReferto the illustration
ed dimensions.
Cutthebaseof thejig from%incfiplywood
andthetop piecefrom
Choose
a boardwith a
hardwood.
slightbowforthetoppiece,if possipressure
near
clamping
ble;applying
theendsof the boardwillflattenit,
producing
uniformpressure
against
the base.Thetop pieceshouldbe
sheets
slightlylonger
thanyourveneer
andthe baseat least12 inches
longer.Screwwoodblocksto the
basesoihe top piecewillfit snugly
between
them.Thenscrewa toggle
clampto eachwoodblock.
To usethejig, installa flush-cutguideon a
tingbit witha bearing
router,andmountthetoolin a router
to betrimmed
table.Placetheveneer
between
the baseandtop pieceof
thejig asyouwouldwhentrimming
witha shooting
board(page65).l{ake
fromthejig
surethesheetsprotrude
by 7s inch,thenpressthetoggle
clampsdownon thetop pieceto
securetheveneer
sheetsto thejig.
Position
the fenceto seta cutting
widthof 7einch.(Caution:
Guard
for clarity.)Turn
andfenceremoved
ontherouterandslidethejig across
trimmingthe
thetable(right,below),
veneer
flushwiththeedgeof thejig.
Besureto keepthejig buttedagainst
theoperation.
thefencethroughout

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Toppiece
11/2"x4"x30"

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VENEERSAND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

downtheveneer
f, Gluing
panelfaceupon
r-,1Setthesubstrate
a worksurface
andspread
ona thinlayer
of gluewitha smallbrushor handroller
(right).Donotapplyadhesive
directly
t o t h ev e n e e g
r ;l u ew i l l m a k ej t c u r l .
Remember
to usewhiteglueif youare
working
witha veneerpress(step6);
choose
hideglueif youareusing
a veneer
hammer(step7). Handling
theveneer
gently,
center
thesheets
overthepanel.lf
youtapedveneer
sheets
together,
set
themtaped-side
up.Makesuretheveneer
overhangs
theedges
of thepanelevenly.

Pressing
press
theveneer
in position
witha veneer
press,
lf youareusinga veneer
assemble
thedevice
followingthemanufacturer's
instructions.
Makesurethespacing
between
thepipeclampsaddles
is slightly
longer
thanthe
length
of thepanel.
Setthepanelonthebaseof thepress,

veneered
facedownwitha stripof waxpaperbetween
theveneered
faceof thepanelandthebase.Protect
theupperfaceofthepanel withwoodpads.Tighten
thepressclamps
oneat a time(above)
untila thingluebeadsqueezes
outfromunder
thepanel.

67

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VENEERS
AND MANUFACTURED
BOARDS

theveneer
in position
I Pressing
/ witha veneer
hammer
lf youareusinga veneer
hammer,
setthegluedpanel
veneered
faceup on a worksurface.
Buttwoodscraps
against
theends
of thepanelasstopblocks,
thenscrew
themin place.
Holding
withbothhands,
worktheheadof thetoolback
thehammer
pressing
andforthovertheveneer,
downf irmlyandfollowing
Toeliminate
orto smooth
thegrain.
bubbles
outsections
that
meltthegluebyrunning
havenotstuckproperly,
a household
ironovertheveneer,
thenpress
downagain
withthehammer.

l]liilflllllt]l]I]IlllltfirlllltilIlIr]llfilll1
lll]ilIlu[tll]rll]llll
5HO?TI?
Veneeringa
aurvedsurfaae
Tn

nraaa

\raAaar

downon a conloured surface,

suchas the drawer fronLshown
nere,uoeSanabaqoor pillowcaeeefilledwiLh
sand,ForbesL
reeulNe,
etarE
layin4the baqe
on Nhemiddleof
Nheeurface,workinqyour wayto Nheende.7ince
moderateheal acceleraleslhe qlue-curinq?roceee,
keeplhe baqoneara healerao you ?re?arefor Nhejob.

Trimming
theexcess
Oncethesluehascured-2hours
i s t h et y p i c awl a i t i n p
ge r i o d - t r i m
t h ev e n e et rh a tp r o l e c tbse y o ntdh e
f:np

n f tLh' r ou n : n p l

lJuilur.

vRL p
v uel rt rr

. ^ +L lhl C^ ^ ^ ^ ^ l
Pdlltrl

veneered-face
up on a worksurface,
p o s i t i o n i ns g
t o pb l o c kas sy o uw o u l d
(step7).
whenusinga veneer
hammer
F i ta l a m i n a t rei m m ewr i t ha f l u s h c u t t i nh
s i t .t h e nr e s t h em a c h i noen
thepanel
withthebitjustclearof the
e x c e svse n e e rH. o l d i ntgh et r i m m e r
withonehandandsteadying
thepanel
w i t ht h eo t h e rt,u r no n t h et o o la n d
g u i d ei t f r o mo n ee n do f t h ep a n e l
to the other(/eff).Repeat
for the other
threeedges
of thepanel.
Lightly
moiste n a n yv e n e et ra p ea n dr e m o vteh e
stripswitha scraper.

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DECORATIVEMATCHING
some
Q incecertain[pes ofveneer,like
r.J burlsandexoticspecies,
areavailable
onlyin smallsizes,
pioducinga sheetof
veneersufficientlylargefor your project
will ofteninvolvejoining severalsmaller piecestogether,
with somecuttingand
tapingbeforeglue-up.Whenever
veneers
arejoined,you mustpayattentionto
grain,figureand textureto avoidclutteredor haphazardpatterns.But as
shownbelow veneers
carefullymatched
with decorative
effectsin mind canyield
resultsunmatchedby wood in its natural state.
Veneersheets
thatareintendedto be
matchedshouldbe cut from the same
log in successive
passes.
The resultis a
series
ofsheetsthatareessentially
identical. The type of match you achieve
dependson both the figureand grain
orientationofthe veneerandthesizeof
thefinishedpatternyou intendto create.

Artfully matchingveneers
cancreateeye-catching
effects.
Thistabletopfeaturesa
centerdiamondmatch.

Straight-grained
woods,suchaszebrawood and sapele,for example,yield
veneersthat areexcellentfor diamond,
reverse-diamond
andherringbone
patterns.Burl, crotchand stumpveneers
can be butt-and-book-matChed
into
Iarge,elaborate
circularandovalpatterns
idealfor creatinginteresting
tabletops.
Recognizing
grainpatternssuitable
for decorative
matchingtakespractice.
You haveto know what to look for:
A little swirl at the edgeof a sheet,for
example,mayyield a beautifuldesign.
To geta quickideaof what an end-toendor a diamondmatchwouldlooklike,
placea mirror at a right angleto thesurfaceof theveneeriusetwo mirrorssetat
90oto eachotherto previewa butt-andbook-match.
Onceyou havesettledon
yourpattern,stackthesheets
ofveneerso
thattheirgrainis aligned,tapetheedges
andcut thepieces
for thematch.

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End-to-end
A mirrorlike ?attern featurinq
flat-cut veneerewith prominent landacapefigure

Eutt-and-book-match
Commonlyuaed with butt, crotch
and etump veneereto create an
unfoldina, circular effect

Reverse-diamondmatch
FeaLuresfour aheetEof
veneerthat appear to
converqeat their center

1lip matah
Often ueed to produce
dramatic effecta: reducea
dratorDioncauaedby liqht
refraction problemawhen
book-matchinqmaple

Eook-match
A repeating pattern where
adjoininqsheeta of veneer
appear to radiate from Lhe
joint betweenthem, like the
paqea of a book

Herringbone
Veneerawhoeefi4uree run
diagonallyoff the aheet,
creattnq a ztqzag effecL

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PLYWOOD
I lthoughit maynotbeasglamorous
A or assteeped
in woodworkingtradition assolidlumber,plywoodoffers
severaladvantages
to the cabinetmaker.
First,it comesin a wide rangeof standardthicknesses
andsizes.Second,
it is
dimensionallystableand is unlikelyto
warp or showsignsof checkingor splir
ting.Third, it is available
with just about
anycommonlvavailableveneeron its
faces.And fourth, it is easyto cut.
Indeed,plywoodis a good choicefor
almostanydesignthat doesnot involve
intricatejoinerysuchasdovetails.
Although veneerhas a venerable
history andplyr,vood
is a relatively
modern development-first producedcommerciallyin themid-1800s-thetvvoare
closelyrelated.Plyuood,afterall, is a
layeredwood materialmadefrom thin
sheets,or plies,of veneer.Decorative
plywoodis often facedwith matched

veneers
madefrom high-grade
hardwoodssuchascherryor walnut.The
veneerusedin construction-grade
plywoodis peeledon a rotary lathe
from eight-foot-longlogsof poplar,
pine or Douglas-fir.
As shownopposite,
both decorative
and construction-grade
plywoodare
manufactured
with an odd numberof
plies,givingthe sheeta balancedconstruction.Threepliesareusuallythe
minimumnumber.Beneath
thefaceand
backveneers
ofa typicalsheetarelayers
knownascrossbands.
Thegrainofeach
crossband
runsat right anglesto that of
adjacentpliesto counterwood movement. The resultis a warp-resistant
boardthat is equallystrongacrossboth
dimensions.Someply,voodsare also
availablewith reinforcedcores.
As with solid lumber, plywood is
availablein both hardwoodand soft-

woodvarieties,althoughthetermsrefer
strictly to the faceand backveneers.
Hardwoodplyr,vood
is a stableandcostefitctivealternative
to solidwood,andis
usedin woodworkingapplicationswhere
appearance
matters,suchasfor cabinets,
drawerfronts and furniture. Softwood
plywoodis generallyusedfor carcase
construction,
bookcases
andshelving.
Not all pliwoods arecreatedalike.
Morethan70woodspecies
areusedin
its manufacture.Plywoodsaregrouped
accordingto strengthand durability;
both softwoodand hardwoodvarieties
areavailable
in fourgroupsor categories
that areusuallystampedon the sheet.
Group I (softwood)and CategoryA
(hardwood)species
arethe strongest
andmostdurable;Group
4 andCategory
D arethe poorestgrades.Referto the
chart(below)forthespecies
thatmakeup thevariousgroupings.

COMMON
W()()DSUSEDIN PLYWOOD
CONSTRUCTION
SOFTWOOD
Group
I
Group
2
Group
3
Group
4
r American o PortOrford o Red
r Biglooth
Beech
Aspen
Cedar
Alder
r Yellow
r Quaking
'Cypress . Paper
Birch
Aspen
. Balsam
Fir Birch
. Douglas- .
r Alaska . Basswood
Lauan
fn
Cedar
r Red
. Black
o Western
. Eastern
Cedar
Maple
Larch
Hemlock r Western
r Virginia
l Rrro:r
o Bigleaf
Cedar
Pine
Maple
Maple
o Cottono
r Longleaf Yellow
. Jack
wood
Poplar
Pine
Pine
.
Sugar
r
. Shortleaf Black
o Ponderosa Pine
Spruce
Pine
Pine
o Balsam
.
o Southern Sitka
o Redwood Poplar
Spruce
Pine
o White
. Tanoak
Spruce

HARDWOOD
Category
A
o White
Ash
r Bubinga
. Hickory

Category
B
Category
C
Category
D
r Black
o
o
Ash American Bigtooth

Basswood Aspen
o Avodir6
. Butternut . Q u a k i n g
. Black
e American A q n p n
Cherry
Chestnut o Western
r RedOak o RockElm
. Hackberry Cedar
. White
r African
. Fuma
0ak
Mahoganyo Silver
. Black
. Pecan
o Honduras Maple
Willow
o
o Rosewood Mahogany Eastern
White
Pine
. Teak
r Qanalo
r Western
o Black
WhitePine
Walnut
o Black
Tupelo

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VENEERSAND MANUFACTURE,DBOARDS

()FPLYWOOD
TYPES
T h e b a s i cd e s i g no f a l l p l y w o o diss t h e s a m e a
: c o r ec o v e r e d
on bothsidesby layersof crossbanding
anda faceveneer.
The
mostcommontype hasa veneercore.All softwoodplywoods
a r em a d et h i sw a y ,a n dt h e ya r es t a b l ew
, a r p - r e s i s t aanntd
i n e x p e n s i vH
e ,a r d w o opdl y w o o dcsa na l s ob e m a d ew i t hs o l i d
l u m b e ro r p a r t i c l e b o acr d
o r e sT. h em i d d l ep l yo f I u m b e r - c o r e

plywood
consists
narrow
of several
stripsof solidwood-usupoplaror basswood-edge-glued
allymahogany,
together.
plywood
Particleboard-core
hasa solidcoreof particleboard
or
plywood
medium-density
fiberboard.
Lumber-core
holdsnails
andscrews
bestandis preferable
whenadditional
strength
andflatness
arerequired.

VENEER
CORE

Dack veneer

Croaabande

TUMBER
CORE

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Lumpercore

PARTICTEBOARD
C()RE

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Eack veneer

TarDicleboard
core

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71

PLYWOODGRADING
tl- h. wide array of plywood types Theirfaceandbackveneers
arecut from
I available
makeschoosingtheappro- a relativelyweather-resistant
wood.
priate one for a project more involved Interior plywoodis madewith a waterthan simplyselectinga particularthickresistantadhesiveand is usuallyproness.Bothhardwoodandsoftwoodolvducedwith an appearance-grade
face
wood panelsarerateddependingon
veneerand a lesser-grade
backveneer.
how theyshouldbe usedand on the
For mostinterior applications,
woodappearanceof their face and back
workersgenerallychooseExposureI or
veneers.They are alsoavailablein one
interior-grade
panels.
of threegrades,or durabilityratings
Thethreehardwoodply,voodgrades
dependingon the gluesand veneers areTypesI, II and III. TypeI includes
usedin the constructionof the oanels. fully waterproofexteriorpanelswhile
Softwoodplywoodcomesin eiterior
TypeII is aninterior-grade
plywoodable
andinterior grades,and a categorycalled to withstandsomemoisture;Type
III is
ExposureL
a moisture-resistant
interiorplr.wood.
Exterior-grade
and ExposureI plyTypesII andIII areyourbestchoicesfor
wood areusuallymadewith a water- mostcabinetmaking
projects.
proof adhesive,
creatingweatherproof
The appearance
ofthe faceandback
panelsthat are resistantto moisture. veneersis anotherfactor that distin-

guishesdifferent plpvood types.As

shownin thechartopposite,both hardwoodandsoftwoodpanelsareavailable
in sixgrades.
Ifyou aiebuyingsoftwood
plywoodyou candetermineits grade,
plusadditionalinformationabouta particularsheet,by readingits gradestamp
(below).Hardwoodpliruoodis generally not stamped;if you needa particular
grade,you haveto askfor it andtakethe
suppliert word that you aregettingwhat
you want.
Plywoodis manufacturedin a range
of sizes.Softwoodplywoodrangesin
thicknessftomlE to 7ainch,whilehardwood ply,voodis availablefrom yato
I inch thick. The standardpanelsizeis
4 by 8 feet,but specialorderscanbe
placedfor largersheets.

DECIPHERING
A SOFTW(|(ID
PLYWOOD
STAMP
ANDEDGEMARK
Reading
a gradestamp
andedgemark
Mostgradestampson softwood
plywood,
suchastheoneshownat left,contain
s i xb a s i ce l e m e n tIsn. a d d i t i otno t h e
(APA)
American
Plywood
Association
trademark,
thestampidentif
iesthemill
thatproduced
the boardandthe product
publicatron
standard
thatcontains
the
grading
rules.Thehyphenated
lettersin thiscaseA-D-designate
thegrades
of thefaceandbackveneers
respectively.Thedurability
classif
ication
maybe
eitherexterior,
interior
or Exposure
1,
groupnumber
andthespecies
indicates
thewoods
thatmayhavebeenusedin
themanufacture
of thepanel.(Seethe
charton page70.)In orderto avoidmarringa plywood
withtwogoodfaces-A-A
grade,
forexampleanedgemark,
suchas
theoneshown
at lower left,is used.Panel
edges
sometimes
car. APA.0Q0. PS1- 93
ry colorstripes
E X P OSURE1
to designate
thegrade.

2'':f;::

ExPosuR
et--

. Gr1.

72

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VENEERSAND MANUFACTURED BOARDS

PLYWOOD
FACE
VENEER
GRADES
HARDWOOD
PTYWOOD

SOFTW(IOD
PIYWOOD

Premium

Sanded
smooth;
cantakea clear
finish;faceveneer
matched
forgrain
andcolor,freeof opendefects
Sanded
smooth;
cantakea natural
finish,butis moreoftenpainted
Smooth
andsanded;
mayhave
minorsolits
Smooth;
mayhavesomebroken
grain,
sanding
defects
andknotholes
up
to % inch
C Plugged Sanded;
similar
to C grade,
butknotholes
andsolitsaresmaller
D
Usedmainly
forinnerpliesand
backveneer;
mayhaveknot-holes
upto 2% inches

Good

Sound

Utility

Faceveneer
withwell-matched
seams
andsmooth;
madeof specific
hardwood,suchaswalnutor mahogany.
Freeof contrasts
in colorandgrain
Faceveneer
similar
to premium,
but notaswellmatched.
Freeof
sharpcontrasts
in colorandgrain
Faceveneer
smooth,
butnotmatched
forcoloror grain;defects
onlyon back
veneer.
Generally
intended
forpainting
Veneers
haveroughgrainandmay
haveknotholes
upto 3/dinch,aswell
assomediscoloration,
staining
and
slightsplits.Notmatched
forcolor
or grain

Back

Mayhavelarger
defects
thanutility
grade,
butnonethatimpairpanel
strength.
Notmatched
forcolor
orgrain

Specialty

Madeto orderto meetspecific

panels
requirements,
suchasseparate
grainpatterns
withmatching

llllllltlllltllllllllll fillllltllllfiltlllllll lll llltlllliltll1ll

illt

?HO?Tt?

A plywoodaarrier
eheele of plywood,particleboard
or hardboardcan beheavyand
awkwardNocarry.Thecarrier
ehownherewillmakethe load
eaeierNobear.RouLa |-inch-wide
rabbeLalon7oneface of a 12inch-lonqboard.Cut a nohchoutr
of oneend of a pieceof plywood,
Nhenscrewa woodblockacroee
the endof Nhenolch to serveae
ahandle.ALIachLheotherend
of fhe plywoodpieceNothe rabbebedface of Lhe board.Io use
lhe carrier,eimplyhookit,under
lhe loweredqeof the eheeNand
Vullit up underyourarm.

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73

CONCEALINGPLYWOODEDGES
plywoodhas
or all its advantages,
one major drawbackfor cabinetmaking:The multi-plycompositionof
on theiredges
thepanelsis clearlyvisible
and ends.Fortunatelvtherearea number of simple options for concealing
the unsightlyplies.Pressure-sensitive
wood-graintape,for example,canbe
pressed
in placeby hand.Or, asshown
edgebandingcan
below,self-adhesive
be appliedwith an iron. Bothproducts
comein severalstandardwidths and
wood species.
The illustration at right showsseveralmoreinvolvededgetreatmentalternativesideallysuitedto customwork.
Wth thesplinedmiterjoint, for example,the miterededgesof two panelsare
gluedtogetherand reinforcedwith solid wood splines.The other methods
involve cutting strips of hardwood
bandingor moldingandbondingthem
to the edgesof the panel.Thestepsfor
applyingone of thesetypes-tongueand-grooveedgemolding-are shown
on the followingpage.

EDGE
TREATMENTS
FOR
PTYWOOD

Tongue-and-4roove
edqe moldinq
)olid wood
edqe banding

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BANDING
SELF.ADHESIVE
Applying
self-adhesive
edgebanding
Seta household
ironon High(without
steam)
andallowit to heatup.Meanwhile,
secure
thepanelonedgein a viseor with
clamps,
asshown,
andcuta stripof bandingslightly
longer
thantheedgeto be
covered.
Setthebanding
adhesive-side
d o w no n t h ep a n eel d g eH
. o l d i ntgh e
b a n d i nign p l a c e
w i t ho n eh a n dr,u nt h e
ironslowly
along
thepaneledge,pressing
thetrimflat.Theheatof theironwillmelt
theglueandbondthebanding
to thepanel. Keeptheironmoving;
resting
it onone
spotformorethana fewseconds
will leave
scorchmarks.Flatten
outthe banding
b yr u n n i nag s m a lhl a n dr o l l ebr a c ka n d
forthalongthe lengthof the paneledge.
Shave
off anyexcess
banding
witha laminatetrimmer(page68).

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74

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VENEERSAND MANUFACTUREDBOARDS

T()NGUE-AND-GROOVE
EDGE
MOLDING

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rllll]Il]llrlrJillrliltllll]llllllilluiltlllllltillJllltullilltll]l
5HO7Tt?
thop-made
edgebanding
Cutthin eNripeof
edqebandinqfrom
a boardon LheNable
eaw.l./take
the etriVo:,'i
a l i q h Nl o
y n q etrh a n
Lhepaneland aNleael
as wideae trhepanel'e
Lhickneee.
1ecurethe panel
uVriqht,
in a viee,then aVplya
Lhingluebeadalonqito edqe.
Tlacethe bandinqin Vlaceand tape it
firmlyat 2-inchinlervale.When
the qlue
io dry ehaveoff any exceo;bandingwiI,h
a laminatetrrimmer(paqe6B).

75

M a k i n ga n da p p l y i ntgh em o l d i n g
I n s t a lal c o m b i n a t i obnl a d eo n y o u r
t a b l es a wa n d m a k es e v e r apl a s s e tso
c u t a g r o o v eo n et h i r da s t h i c k a s t h e
p a n e l .N e x t y, o u n e e dt o c u t t h e m a t c h ingtongue;it shouldbe sawnin the edge
of a hardwood
boardthe samethickness
a s t h e p a n e lA. d j u s t h e b l a d eh e i g h t
s o t h a t i t e q u a l st h e a m o u n to f s t o c k
remaining
o n e i t h e rs i d eo f t h e g r o o v e .
C u tt h e w a s t ef r o mo n e s i d eo f t h e
t o n g u et,h e nt u r n t h e b o a r do v e ra n d
r e p e a t h e p r o c e d u r teo c o m p l e t et h e
t o n g u e f; i n i s he a c hp a s sw i t ha p u s h
sltck (above,left).Cut the pieceof moldi n gf r o mt h e b o a r d F
. i n i s ht h e j o b b y
s e c u r i n tgh e p a n e lu p r i g h it n a v i s ea n d
s p r e a d i n sgo m eg l u e i n t h e g r o o v e
and
on the tongue.Fit the two piecestogethe r ( i n s e ta) n dc l a m pt h e m i n p l a c ew i t h
t h r e e - w acyl a m p s .

PARTICLEBOARD
suchasparticleood composites
boardandfiberboardarea popular choicefor carcase
backs,drawer
bottomsand concealed
oanels.Made
fromblendsof woodparticles
andsyntheticadhesive
bondedtogetherunder
i n t e n shee a ta n dp r e s s u r ceo, m p o s i t e
boardsareasstrongand asdurableas
most solid woodsand generallyless
exoensive.
Thevarealsomoredimensronallv
staDle.
Particleboard
wasfirst developed
in
1930s
way
recycling
wood
the
asa
of
flakes.chiosand sawdustdismissed
as
sawmillwiste.Today,manymillsfocus
production,
mainlyon particleboard
processing
softwoodandmedium-denparticles
sityhardwoods
into composite
rvithmachines
calleddrum flakers,chipnersandhammermills.
Particleboard
is manufactured
by two
methods:extrusionand mat-formins.
In the lesscorlmon extrusionpro..ri,
woodparticles
andadhesives
areforced
togetherthrougha small,thin opening
to form panels.
Thegrainorientationof
theparticles
isperpendicular
to thefaces
of the panels.With mat-forming,the
particlesand adhesives
are squeezed
into a mat in a press.
With thismethod,
the grainof the fibersis parallelto the
oanelfaces.
Mat-formedparticleboard
comesin
threeconfigurations( riglt ). Single-layer
features
woodparticles
particleboard
of
paruniformsizeandshape.
Multi-layer
ticleboardhascoarsershavinss
at the
coreof thepanelarrdfinerorreis
on the
partioutsidesurfaces.
Graded-densitv
cleboard
issimilarto multi-laveroaiticleboard,but with a moregradual'charrge
from coarseto fine particles.Standard
particleboard
sheetsare 4 by B feet,
although5-by-10panelsareavailable;
thicknesses
rangefrom 7+to 2 inches.

TYPESOFMAT-FORMED
PARTICLEB()ARD

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Made from a mat of aimilarlyetzedand evenly
distributed coar6ewoodparticleo

Featurea a core layer of coarae woodparDiclearetnforced

by two ouLer layere of fine, high-denettyparticlee

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Gra ded -d enaity pa rti cleboa rd

CharacLertzed
by a gradualtransttton from coareewood
woodparparbicleoat Lhecare to veryftne,htgh-denetLy
ticlee on the outer eurfacee

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FIBERBOARD

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f, iberboard,or hardboard,is pressed

I' into matsmuchlikeparticleboard,
but becausethe wood oarticlesare
reducedto individualfibers.the result
is a thin, hard and densesheetwith
smoothsurfaces.
Hardboardcomesin
threegrades:standard,temperedand
service.Temperedhardboardis harder,
heavierand morewater-resistant
than
the two other types.Thicknesses
range
from 1Azto s/a inch.Anothervarietv.
called medium-densityfiberboard
(MDF), featuresa fine surfacetexture
with facesandedgesalmostasworkable
assolidwood.MDF is available
in thicknesses
from 1/+to IV+inch and canbe
boughtwith veneered
surfaces.

HARDBOARD
STAI{DARD

Hardboard
Made of individualwoodfibera; commonlyuaed in furni|ure
and cabinet work becaueeof ite fine. amooth aurface

WORKING
CHARACTERISTICS
OFMANUFAGTURED
BOARDS
BOARD
TYPE
Plywood

WORKABITITY

FASTENING

Easyto work;fine
faceveneers
need
littlesanding

Faceholdsfasteners
well,butedgesoften
split.Borepilotholes;
screwdiameter
should
notexceed
one-quarter
of panelthickness

Particleboard Difficultto work;

useofcarbide
tipped
toolsrecommended;
weara dustmask
whenworking

Holdon fasteners
poor;borepilotholes.
U s ef i n i s h i nnga i l sa n d
drywallscrews

Hardboard

Edgeseasyto rout,
Faceof tempered
hardshapeor groove;
well.
boardholdsscrews
(othertypesnotaswell)
sanding
of faces
n o tr e q u i r e dU.s e
Borepilotholesanduse
o f c a r b i d tei p p e d
sheetmetalscrews
toolsrecommended
Medium-densityEdgeseasyto rout,
Holdon nailsexcellent;
poor
fiberboard
snape0rgroove;
holdon screws
sanding
of facesnot
required.
Useof carbidetippedtools
recommended

77

VENEERING
plywood
Softwood
canbeveneered

Frl{tsHrl{G

Tempered
hardboardcanbe
veneere0

Accepts
mostfinishes

Canbecovered
withthinveneer

Canbefinished
or painted

Premium
andgood
grades
of hardwood
plywood
needlittlefinishgrade
ing;sound
canbe
painted;
plysoftwood
woodgradesN andA can
bepainted
or finished
particleboard
Multi-layer
and
Multi-layer
graded-density
par- accepts
mostfinishes;
ticleboard
excellent othertypesnotsuitable
forveneering
forpainting
orfinishing.

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Irt

DRY]NGAI.{D

STOruNGWOOD

vYmarenar:"uo'o,l:r'll!!firri'
'"1?,1lo'inl",TffiYil'.!f
:?T:*::'"*.p-T*-Y
,s.i-.:,,,'l
E
-

separate
layers
of lumberin apile,allowingair circulationaroundtheindivid-

ple,yourjoinerymethods
shouldallow
for woodmovement.
If thevdo nor.

p i e c e s o f f u r n i t u r e c a n l i t e r a l l y s e l f - _ ; - . f - - : . . - - . ^ v . 5 v r v v r ! u r r r \ v !
whitepine'air-dryingtoa l0to l2perAao+q,n+
\^/l^il^+L^^'-'.ri^^+j^^'^-.-^^r
*
destruct'
whi]ethe.pnlication

ofawood
A resistance
moisture
meterlike
centmoisture
levelissufficient
f"#r,
finishmayslowdimensional
change
theoneshown
,
above
isa cylinfurnitureprojects.
Whichever
drying
nothingcanstopit.
dricaldevice
with twopinsihoto*
methody* .iroor.,y*iun ur. u rp.Freshlycut lumber,or greenwood,
pressed
intoa board.Themeter
cialmeterliketheoneshownin thepiro
has,a relatively
highmoisturecontent,
measures
electrical
resistance,
to aboveto measure
moisturecontent.
whichforhardwoods
canrangefrom,60
whichwitl varydepending
onthe
Apartfrom controloverthewood,
percent
to 100percent
of thedryweight.
amountofwateiin thewood.
theprincipalU.n.nt of atyinliun'b.,
Thischapterfocuses
on waysof reducin theshopiseconomic.
Thefeweroper1^ <
ingthatto a levelsuitable
for cabinetmaking,
around8 to l0
ationsperformed
on 1 nl.ank
Uefor"y""U"yii-ru.n u, arypelc:lt' depending
on theclimate.and
species.
ing andsurfacing-thilessit costs.Forlargequantities
of
unlessyoubuygreen
woodwiththeintentionofdryingit
luirber-say,t,060boardfeetor more-theiavingscanadd
yourself,
yourlumberisalready
eitherair-driedor kiln-'driid. up to hundreds
of dollars.
Air-driedwood.may.have
up to 25percentmoistureconProperstorage
is asimportantasdrying.Driedwood
tent.Kiln-driedlumberhasa loweilevel,6 to 8 percent. .*por.dto theeiements
carire-absorb
someof themoisture
Although.kiln-dried
woodis generally
preferable
for furni- thatwasextracted
fromit. Thereareseveral
waysto ,ioi. r"ooa,
turebuilding,
somepurists
avoidit,contending
tlalttrgprocess depending
on the.kindgf G. youhaveandthewoodyou
subdues
thenaturalcolorsof certainwoodsand,in thi short workwithl-froq longpia-nlis-io
shortstocktoopi..i*, to U.
term,caninduceinternalstresses
in thewood,makingit
consigned
to thekindiingbox.youcandesign
y6uio*n tun'difficulttoresaw'
berraik,usingth.o*rtlio*ninthischapteias'startingpoints,
-L_--_-, r , r ptafl15
,
of
at a time, or installa coirmercial
lurnberruil.Iid;;;;;rlir.rn.n,
. Largeindustrialkilnshousehundreds
butthereareanumberof.do-it-yourself
modelsthatarerela- to storewood,consider
installing
adehirmidifiJr
to rejucethe
tivelysimpleto built,includinga small-scale
solar-powered highrelative
humiditylevel.o.111on
in suchanarea.

Kilnsprovideafast and ffictive wayof drying

woodto a moisturelevelappropriate
for cabinetmaking.Here,stacksof hardwoodplanks
areloadedbyforklift into an industrialkiln.

79

WATERANDWOOD
in woodcancause
oisturechanges
for a pieceof [urniture,
problerns
somemerelyannoying,othersquitesericutlogcancontainwater
ous.A freshly
equalto twiceits dry weight;madeinto
a oieceof furniture,it canturn stone
diy. This capacityto hold different
different
amountsof moisturer,rnder
wood to swelland
conditionscauses
contract.If thispropertyis not consida drawerthat
eredby thecabinetmaker,
oDenssmoothlvin the deadof winter
cin swellandjam shutin thehumidity
of summer.A perfectlysquarecarcase
cabinetcanpull itselfapartashumidity
to season.
levelschansefrom season
The am6untof waterin a pieceof
asa percelrtage
woodisoftenexpressed
weight.
of its oven-dryor water-free
if a 50-poundblockof
For example,
wood dropsto 30 poundsafteroven-

How wet is wood?Thisf'e*ly

cut log of Eastenthemlockcontains 1.5gallonsof water or sap
Conrpletelydry, the log wotld
weighone-haf ns rrruchns its
green weight.

MoiaLurecontent
above30%
(no chanqe)

Moiature content
aL F9?-26%
(no change)

Moisture content
at 17%
(1/+'ahrtnkaqe)

content
of a plain-sawn
Asthemoisture
plankof 2-by-10
lumber
drops
softwood
point(FSP),
below
thefibersaturation
At 17
across
thegrain.
thewoodshrinks
nercpntthe hoardis l,/atnch narrower
t h a ni t w a sa t i t s F S P .l t l o s e sa n o t h e r
r / q i n c ho f w i d t hw h e nk i l n - d r i etdo a n 8
p e r c e nlte v e l S
s artly
. h r i n k a gdee p e n d p
n
n ua cJ vnv Lo, veJ i o c ' du av , n, Jc, Li Jt ,v .
v ,,

oonpr:llv

MoisLurecontent
^+

lzo/

(3/a"ehrinkaqe)

MoieLurecontenL
at B%
(1/z'ehrinka4e)

doncpr

w o o d ss h r i n ka n ds w e l lm o r et h a n l i g h t e r
onesS
. a p w o oadl s ot e n d st o c h a n g e
d i m e n s i o nms o r eq u i c k l yt h a nh e a r t w o o d .

drying,theweightof theshedwater-20
pounds-divided by the wood'sdry
weight-30 pounds-is the rnoisture
in thiscase,
contentof theoriginalpiece:
66 oercent.
Woodholdsrnoisture
in twoways:
as
freewaterin cellcavitiesand asbound
waterin cellwalls.As wooddries,free
wateris exoelledfirst.When this is all
what is
discharged,
the wood reaches
point(FSP).
termeditsfibersaturation
At thispoint,thecellcavities
areempty,
buttheboundwaterremairts,
Dermeatingthecellwalls.Formostwoods,the
FSPoccursbetween23 percentand 30
percentmoisturecontentdepending
on
with 28percenttheaverage.
thespecies,
isthatat the
Thekevoointto remember
fibersaiuration
ooint.thereisno dimensionalchangein wood from its freshly
cnt size.It simplyweighsless.However,

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80

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DRYINGAND STORINGWOOD

if thewooddriesfurther,fallingbelow
theFSBit losesboundwaterfromits
cellwalls.Thecellsshrinkandsodoes
thewood.Astheillustration
onpage80
shows,themoreboundwatera board
losesthemoreit shrinks.
Theonlywayto preventwoodfrom
shrinkingis to treatit with a chemical
(PEGisanabbrevisuchasPEG-1400.
ationofpolyethylene
glycol;1400isthe
chemical's
molecular
weight.)
PEG-1400
diffirses
intothewoodandreplaces
the
boundwater,keeping
thecell-walls
fulIyswollen.
Thetreatment
issuitable
only
for greenwood,however,
andis most
popularfor usewithturningandcarvingblocks.
Woodgainsandloses
moisture
asthe
relativehumidityin theair aroundit
changes.
If therelative
humidityroseto
100percent,
apieceof woodwouldreach

30

s
==

its fibersaturation
pointandbeat the hold a largeamountof moisture.But
samesizeaswhenit wasmilled.If rela- whencooledindoors,it canhold much
tivehumidityfellto 0 percent
thewood's less.The resultcanbe fairly high relamoisturecontentwoulddropto 0 per- tive humidity. Both extremescause
cent.Because
relativehumidityfalls changes
in the moisturelevelof wood
between
thoseextremes
onlya portion and in its size.
of theboundwaterislost.Realisticallv, You can takeseveralprecautionsto
themoisture
content
range
of moststock counteractthe effectsof changing
is5 to 20percent.
humidity levels.If you storelumbei
Fromseason
to season,
therelative indoors,tryto keepthe relativehumidhumidityin agivenlocation
canvary80 ity fairly constant,usinga dehumidier,
percent
or more.Thisisbecause
relative for example,whenttrelevelsgettoo high.
humidityandtemperature
areclosely And althoughyou may not be ableto
intertwined.
Warmair canholdmore controltheenvironmentwhereyour furmoisturethancoldair.Asaresult,when niturewill endup,you shouldbuild the
coldwinterairisheated,
asit isin homes pieceto compensate
for wood moveandworlshops,
itsabilityto holdmois- ment.Whencuttinga panelfor a frame,
tureincreases
dramatically.
Ifthereisno for instance,leavea t/s-inchgapin the
addedmoistureavailable,
therelative grooves
thatwillhousethepanel.Theextra
humidityplummetsto extremely
low spacewill allowthe panelto expandand
levels.
In contrast,
hot summerair can contractashumidity levelsriseandfall.

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o
.E
= l

7
7

'=

E
lrt

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

(%)
Relative
Humidity
in Atmosphere

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90

100

Relating
a wood's
equilibrium
moisture
content
to relative
humidity
Whether
woodis in theformof a log,
a kiln-dried
board
ora finished
oiece
of furniture,
itsmoisture
content
varies
withtherelative
humidity
of theair
around
it. Ashumidity
rises,
sodoes
thewood'smoisture
content,
expressed
in percent
in thegraphshownat left.
Themoisture
levelof a pieceof wood
eventually
reaches
itsequilibrium
(EMC)
moisture
content
afterthehumiditystabilizes.
TheEMCalsovaries
depending
onthetemperature.
The
bandshownin thegraphcovers
EMC
valuesfor mostwoodsat 70 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Those
values
decrease
slightly
at higher
temperatures
and
Increase
marginally
withcooling.

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DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

SHRINKAGE
W(IOD
andradialshrinkage
Tangential
asshownby
uniformly;
Lumber
doesnotcontract
at left,tanthedottedredlinesin theillustration
gential
rings-is
to thegrowth
shrinkage-parallel
whichoccurs
abouttwicetheradialshrinkage,
forthe
accounts
across
the rings.Thisdifference
and
andpanels
aswoodexpands
warping
of boards
in moisture
content.
withfluctuations
contracts
of a boardis usually
alongthelength
Shrinkage
r/zinchin
A 2-by-i0plankthatshrinks
negligible.
mightloselessthan%oinch
width,forexample,
alongits8-footlength.

(lFDIFFERENT
WOOD
SPECIES
VATUES
SHRINKAGE
stable
wood
dimensionally
Finding
of shrinkthetypical
amount
Thechartat rightshows
and
in boththetangential
species
ageof various
whengreenwoodis driedto zero
radialdirections
(Values
areshownin percent;
moisture
content.
for
column,
valuein thetangential
a 10 percent
boardwould
thata 10-inch-wide
means
examole,
wide.)Although
to 9 inches
shrinkbythatamouni
in
radialcontraction
exceeds
shrinkage
tangential
shrinkbythesame
everycase,notwospecies
tangentially
anc
is 8 percent
Theaverage
amount.
Thekeycolumn
of thechartis
4 percent
radially.
of
theproportion
thethird:TheT/Rratioindicates
Thelowertheratio,
to radialshrinkage.
tangential
between
thetwotypesof
the lessthedifferential
andthemorestablethewood.Species
shrinkage
(i.4) and
likemahogany
lowratios,
withrelatively
to warping
than
teak(1.8),arelesssusceptible
suchasbeech(2.2).
woods
withhigherratios,

SPECIES

(%)
TANGENTIAL

(%)
RADIAL

T/RRATIO

7.8

4.9

1.6

9.3
11.9
6.4
4.9

6.6
5.5

1.4
2.2

3.4
2.5
2.8
2.4

1.9
2.0
2.I

3.7
5.0
4.2

1.9
1.6

Ash,White
American
Basswood,
Beech,
American
Butternut
Cata
Ipa
yellow
Cedar,
Alaska
Western
red
Cedar,
Cherry,
black
Douglas-f
ir
Elm,American
Hackberry
Hickory,
shagbark
Holly,American
Madrone
Honduras
Mahogany,
Maple,
sugar
0ak,red
Oak,white
Persimmon
Pine,Eastern
white
Pine,ponderosa
Sassafras
American
Sycamore,
Teak
Walnut,
black
Willow,
black

82

6.0
5.0

7.r
7.8
9.5
8.9
10.5

2.r

2.5

1.9

4.8
7.0
4.8

1.5
2.1

5.6

z-z

9.9
8.6

4.8
4.0

2.r
2.r

10.5
II.2
6.1

5.6
7.9
2.7

1.9
1..4
2.9

6.2

3.9
4.0
5.0

1.6
1.6

9.9
12.4
5.1

8.4
4.0

1.4

t.6

5.5

I.7
1.8
7.4

8.7

3.3

2.6

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MEASURING
THEMOISTURE
CONTENT
IN WOOD

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ill'lllf"llf
lfil'1ll-fl1-lllf-lll'llf'
III"lIIfll-fll-fiI"
ill llll"ffilll
5HO?Tt?
Reading moist ure aontent
in thick stock
Themelal pinson commercialreeisIance-Iy?e moielure melero are lypicallyabouL1 inchlong.9inceLhepine
ehouldideally :
::
reachlhe
middleof a
boardwhen
.:
takinq a readinq,theyLend
Nobe inadequatefor slocklhat ie thickerlhan 2 inches.You
can
exNend
Lhereachof lhe pineby drivin7Iwofiniohingnailo
into the woodunLilIhe Lipe reachthe middleand Lhe
headsproNrudetrom Ihe eurface.Thentouch Lhe meLer
pineLo the nailheadsand t akea readina.

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Usinga resistance-type
moisture
meter
Todetermine
themoisture
content
of
yourstock,usea moisture
meter.Set
thestockon a worksurface
andpush
themetalpinsontheendof themeter
intothefaceof theboardasfarasthey
willgo.Twistthedialontopof thebarreluntilthelightturnsonandtakea
(above).
reading
points
Repeat
at several
andaverage
theresults.
Alternatively,
crosscut
theboard12 inches
fromeither
endandtakea reading
fromthefreshly
cut end grain(photo,page79). MosI
meters
arecalibrated
forwoodat room
temperature-about
68' F. Follow
the
manufacturer's
instructions
to adjust
yourresultsif youareworking
in temperatures
significantly
above
or below
thislevel.

DRYINGAND STORINGWOOD

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KIU{
sotAR

glassparis,suchasusedpatio
reusing
youmaywish
Thekilnshownbelow,witha roofand
doorsorstormwindows,
glass,provides to basethesizeof the kilnandits
frontwallof tempered
theday, framing
a natural
dryingcycle.During
onthedimensions
of therecythewooddries;
warmed
bysunlight,
Thekilnshownbelow
cledmaterial.
in thewetter
at night,the moisture
is 5 feetwide,16 feet
andopposite
towardboard longandabout8 feethigh.
coreof thestockmigrates
forthekiln,
Choose
a sunnylocation
moreevendrying.
ensuring
surfaces,
gravandspread
thenlevelthesurface
to the
Buildthekilnaccording
blocksat 2- to
el overit. Layconcrete
amountof woodyouplanto dryandthe
then
3-footintervals
asa foundation.
lf youare
spaceyouhaveavailable.

builda baseframeof pressure-treated

4-by-4sontopof the blocks.Therest
of the framingandraftersareconwith2-by-4stock;thefloor,
structed
wallsanddooraremadeof 3/+-inch
plywood.
exterior-grade
0ncethe baseframeis in place,
nailtheflooron topof it, thenconstructa studwallframefor thefront
of the kiln.Cutthestudsto length
andnaila soleolateto theirbottom

FRONT
VIEW

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Topplate

Faecia board

Lumberaupport

Glaea atop
Concreteblock

Baee frame
1ole plaLe

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DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

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)tick

D'*

endsanda top plateat theirtopends,

Recess
thefrontedgesof thestuds
aboulVt inchfromthe frontedgeof
the platesto provide
a ledgeforthe
glasspanels.
Makethegapbetween
thecenterof thestudseoualto the
widthof the panels,
spacing
themno
morethan4 feetapart.Setthewall
frameupright
andnailthesoleplate
to thefloorandbaseframe.Repeat
theorocedure
to makeandattachwall
framesforthe backandsidesof the
kiln,thistimewithoutoffsetting
the
studsfromthe plates.Cutthestuds
forthesidewallssothatthe roofwill
h a v ea 4 - i n - 1 2s l o p e( 4 i n c h e so f

risefor every12 horizontal

inches).
Cutthe roofraftersto allowa few
inches
of overhang
at thefrontand
back,thennailtherafters
to thetop
plates,spacing
themto fit theglass
panelsto be installed
on the roof.
Tackfasciaboards
to bothendsof
therafters,
leaving
a smalllip above
thetopedgesof theraftersto holdthe
roofpanels.
Cover
theopening
between
thefasciaandthebackwallwitha
1-by-4boardasa soffit.0n thefront
of the kiln.thissoaceshouldbe left
ooen.Nextnailthewallsto theoutsideedgesof thestudson the back
andoneside,installing
hinges
and

85

hasolockson onesidewallto convert

it intoa door.
To installtheglasspanels
onthe
roof,setthemon adjacentrafters,
leaving
amplespacebetween
the panelsfor screws.
Thenfastendownl-by3 woodstripsthatoverlap
the edges
of the panels
to holdthemin place.
Toaccommodate
theglasspanelsin
thefrontwallof thekiln,cut notches
in the bottomedgesof the rafters,
t h e ns l i d et h e p a n e l us p i n t ot h e
notch,resting
the bottomof the panelsonthesoleplateledge.
Screw1by-3woodblocksto thefrontedgeof
thesoleplateto support
themiddle
of eachglasspanel.
Tokeeptheairin thekilncirculating,fastena pieceof plywood
as a
baffleto twoadjacent
studson the
backwall,leaving
anopening
between
thebaffleandthetopof thestudsfor
airto enter.At floorlevel,construct
a
frameonthefrontof the bafflefor an
exhaust
fan.Thefanwillpullwarmair
downthrough
thebaffleandcirculate
it through
thekiln.Install
theswitch
forthefanonthe baffle,alongwitha
thermostat
to startthefanwhenthe
airtemoerature
reaches
80"Fanda
timerto turnthefanoff at night.
To keeothe lumberstackoff the
pieces
floor,naildown2-by-2support
spaced
about16 inches
apart.Pile
thelumber
asyouwouldforair-drying,
leaving
adequate
spacebetween
adjacentboards
andseparating
the layers
of stockwith1-by-2stickers.
lf youcannot
supply
electricity
to the
kiln,leaveadditional
spacebetween
the boards
to ensure
adequate
aircirculation.
Drying
of thewoodmaytake
several
months;
usea moisture
meter
(page83)tocheckonthe lumber's
periodical
moisture
content
ly.

ESTIMATINGWOOD MOVEMENT
J J nlesyouplanto buildallyourfur\-/ niturefrommanufactured
boards
you
andplywood,
suchasparticleboard
shouldexpectthewoodyouworkwith
Thisshould
to swellandshrinkslightly.
not causeanyproblems
aslongasyou
for thechange
compensate
of dimensionswhenyoubuildyourpiece.
A goodfirststepis to measure
the
moisturecontentof thelumber(page
how muchthis
83).Thendetermine
moisturelevelwill change
asrelative
humidityfluctuates
in ttrelocationwhere
the finishedpieceof furniturewill
beplaced(page81).Finally,try to estimatetheamountof woodmovement
thatwill occurasa resultof thewood's A thin lineof unfinishedwoodis a telhalesignof woodmovementin this
photographofpart of a frame-and-panel
moisturecontent.
Asa ruleof
closeup
changing
door.After thefinish
lumberwill move wasapplied,the humidity levelin the roomwherethecabinetwas
thumb,plain-sawn
0.04inchperfootofwidthforeveryper- storedgraduallydropped,causingthe woodto contract.A similar
in itsmoisture
The amountof movement
in a carcase
centchange
content.
construction
mighthavethreatened
woodis.025inch. thepiece'sstructuralintegrity.Theframe-and-paneldesign,however,
valueforquartersawn
(Thedifference
allowsfor wood'snaturalswellingandshrinking.ThepanelJloats
between
thetwogivesa
inside
goodindicationof whycabinetmakers afixedframewith roomfor % inchof movementhorizontally.
choosequartersawn
overplain-sawn
lumberwhentheywantto limit wood
youuse
movement.)
If, for example,
plain-sawn
whitepinewith anequilibrium moisturecontentof 12percent
in
summerwhichdriesto an EMCof 8
percentin winter,youcancounton as
inwidth
muchas0.16inchofmovement
M akin6 a m oiet"ure indiaalo r
per foot betweenthe two seasons.
Keepthio moiolureqauqein your ehoVae a reminderof the
in lengtharenegligible
Changes
enough
relationehipbelweenhumidityand woodmovemenl,To
make
to bediscounted.
the qauqe,'cuN
a

1HO?Tt?

len7bhof wood
from Nheend of a
alued-uooanel.or
bonda tew wood
blockeNoqelher
edqe-to-edqe.
Nail
a melal oointerto
oneendof lhie arm,
then altachbhe
arm'eotherendto
a pieceof plywood.Drivea screwthrough the pivot,holeof rhe
pointerinlo lhe plywoodeo lhat the poinlerio parallelio Lhe
end of the arm. Leavethe ecrewlooeeenouahto allowthe
As Ihe relativehumidityflitctuaVesand lhe
pointerto pivof,.
arm swellsor shrinks,lhepoinberwillewivelto eilher side.
f

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"l- h. illustrations
wood,betweendifferentlayersof stock
on page88show vent fungi from causingblue stain.It
lum- will also help guaranteea minimal exposes
I wo simplewaysto stackgreen
the top andbottom surfacesof
properdrying.Asshown amount of warping of the boards. the boardsto the sameflow of air.
berto ensure
Lumbercanbe air-driedindoorsor
in thechartbelow,dryingtimesvary Placingstickers,or narrow strips of
outdoors,
but for bestresults,
for differentwoods.To avoid
youshouldstarttheprocess
of
differentbatches
outconfusing
sideor in anunheated
wood.markthe endsof each
building
likea barnor garage.
In a heatboardwith thespecies
andthe
it. It is alsoa
ed indoor location,where
dateyoustacked
goodideato treattheendsofthe
humidityis typicallylow and
temperatures
boardswith animpervious
coatarehigh, green
woodmaydrytoorapidly,which
ing suchashot paraffinwax,
promotes
varnish,
dilutedglueor a comchecking.
Outdoors,
mercialendsealer.
Otherwise,
thelumbershouldbecovered
with a sheetof plywoodto
the endsof boardsmay dry
more quicklythan adjoining
serveasprotection
fromtheelements.Asthewooddries,check
checks
to form
surfaces,
causing
itsmoisturecontentperiodicalin thewood.Ifyou areworking
ly with a meter,keepingnotes
withlogs,coating
theirendswill
for futurereference.
increase
theamountof usable
Wooddestined
for outdoor
lumberthelogswill yieldby as
useneedonlybedriedoutside.
muchas20oercent.
Forindoorfurniture,thewood
Whateveithe
sizeor location
shouldcompleteits drying
of yourdryingstack,air must
Logsfor carving can be storedin a pile one atop the
inside,preferably
circulateevenlyaroundall the
at a humidiother,provided their endsare not in contact.The ends
ty levelsimilarto that in the
surfaces
of thestock.Thiswill
should be coatedwith a sealer,however,soonafter the
locationwherethe furniture
ensure
thatthesurfaces
ofthe
logsare bucked to ensureeven drying of the wood.
will eventually
beused.
boardsstaydry enoughto pre-

W(l(lDS
APPROXIMATE
DRYING
TIMESF(lRVARIOUS
HARDWOODS DAYS

s0nwo0Ds DAYS

Ash,white
Basswood,
American

60-200
40-150

Douglas-f
ir
Hemlock

Beech,
American

70-200

Pine,
Eastern
white
Pine,sugar

Butternut

60-200
70-200
50-150
60-200
50-200
70-200
30-150

Cherry,
black
gray
Elm,
Hickory
Maple,
sugar
Oak,red

Redwood
red
Spruce,

20-200
60-200
60-200
15-200
60-365
30-120

Sycamore,
American
black 70-200
Walnut,

87

Thesechartsindicate
thedryingtimefor
greenboards
a stackof 1-inch-thick
outThelowendof therangeforeach
doors.
is for lumberstacked
species
in springor
summer-prime
drying
weather.
Thehigh
endis for lumber
stacked
in autumnor
winter.
Thefigures
assume
thatthelumb e ri s d r i e di n a r e g i o w
n i t ha c l i m a t e
similar
to thatwhere
thewoodwascut.

DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

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TW()OPTIONS
FORAIR-DRYING
LUMBER

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Toair-dry
a largequantity
of lumber,
startyourstackwithtwo4rowof stickers
withplywood,
topped
witha pairof concrete
blocks
by-4supports
equalin lenghto theboards
pressure
to bedried(above). toapplyuniform
onthestackandprotect
it fromrain.
Restthesupports
onconcrete
blocks.
Thenplace4-by-4bolsters Stack
quantrties
smaller
of lumber
in support
frames
madefrom
(below).
yourlum- fourpieces
at 3-footintervals
across
thesupports.
Beginstacking
of 2-by-4stocknailed
together
Builda frame
berat rightangles
to thebolsters,
leaving
a spacebetween
each for eachendof thestackandonefor every3 feetof board
pieceequalto theboardthickness,
Separate
eachlayer
witha 1- lengh.
Theframes
should
beslightly
widerandhigher
thanthe
by-2sticker
as longasthewidthof thestack;
cutthestickers stack.Arrange
theboards
asyouwouldfora larger
stack,sepafromdryheartwood.
Thinner
stickers
willslowthedrying
timefor ratingeachlayer
withstickers.
Space
thestickers
at 18-inch
difficult
likewhiteoak.Alignthestickers
species
withthebol- intervals,
aligning
onewitheachframeandalsocentering
them
sters;if youaredrying
thinstock,placethebolsters
andstickers between
theframes.
Tokeepthestackpressed
downfirmly,insert
closer
together
to prevent
thewoodfromwarping.
Cover
thetop
wedges
tightlybetween
theframes
andthetoprowof stickers.

88

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hetheryou wishto storelumber,manufactured

boards,
dow"shorts"-all
elsor
thoseodd-sized
pieces
youcannotaffordto tossoutyou shouldfind a storage
optionto
suityourneedson thepages
thatfollow.Thedimensions
providedin the
illustrationsare given strictly as
guidelines.
Eachdesigncanbeadaptedto anysituation.
Theonlydesign
youcannot
element
skimpon is adequate
supportfor the
rack.A dozenl0-foot-long
planks
of6l+
whiteoakcanweighasmuchas400
pounds.
Racksupports
shouldbesecured
directlyto wallstudsor to thejoistsabove
theceilingatnomorethan40-inchintervals.In mosthomeswith 16-inchoncenterframing,thismeanstyinginto
evervotherstudor ioist.If thewallsand

ceilingof yourshoparefinished,
usea
studfinderto locatetheseframingmembers.Someracla,likethecantilever
tlpe
shownon page91,mayneedfootings,
joistsupports
or both.
If space
isatapremiumin yourworkshop,youneedto consider
thedesign
andplacement
ofyourwoodstorage
systemcarefully.
Theend-loading
typeof

Commerciallumberracksareavailablein varioussizesand canbeadjusted to dffirent heigh*. Thetypeshown

canbescrewed
to a concrete
wall or
to wall studs.Four brackets
will hold
morethanonetonof lumber.

'fil-ffi"ill'llf"'ul"'III".lll""lIl"
lll*IIf

1HO?TI?

Storing wood
to preaerveits
moieture aonient
lf you are in the middleof a
project and haveNoleaveitrtor a
couVleof weekeyou may find Vrobleme
onceyou return,A changein humidity-a
suddenperiodof humidwealher,for examplemaycauoetrhewoodto
ewellor shrink.You
can
eolvethe problemby etoringLhewoodin a plaetic
qarbaqebaqor in vinyl,oealingany loooeendewith trape.
WrappingNheboardwillkeepNhemoislurecontent of lhe
woodconelant,prevenlinq
any dimenoional
chanqee,

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89

rackusedatmostlumberyards
isimpracticalforstoringlongstockin mosthome
shops.
Youarefarbetteroffwithafrontloadingsystem,
whichmakes
it easier
to
loadup newmaterial
andto shiftwood
aroundto findtheparticular
plankyou
want.Avoidusingtriangular-shaped
brackets
to supportlumber;theywaste
preclous
space.

DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

A TRIO(lFTUMBER
RACKS
rack
Building
a pipestorage
Thestorage
rackillustrated
at leftfeatures
vertical
supports
boltedto wall
three-piece
buttress
thesteelpipes,
studs.Thesupports
whichcarrythelumber.
Youwillneedone
at eachendof therack,withan
support
oneevery
32lo 48 inches
along
additional
thewall.Use2-by-6
stockforthemiddle
forthe
stripsof thesupports
and2-by-4s
sidepieces;
thesteelpipes
should
beroughly 20 inches
longwitha 1 inchinternal
diameter.
Markcuttinglinesontheedges
of themiddlestripsat eachpointwhere
youwantto locatea pipebracket.
Make
in thesamehorizonsureall the brackets
Sawthe
tal rowwillbeat thesameheight.
middlestripsforthebrackets,
angling
the
cutsbyabout3" above
thehorizontal
so
the pipeswilI tilt up slightly(below)
to
prevent
thelumber
fromsliding
off. Once
a l lt h em i d d l set r i p a
s r ec u t ,n a i o
l nt h e
sidepieces,
formingbrackets
withevenly
notches
forthepipesupports.
Bore
spaced
pilotholes
intothewall
at 24-inchintervals
holes
through
the
studsanddrillclearance
supports
for%-inchlagbolts.Secure
the
vertrcal
brackets
to thestudswithboltsthat
penetrate
2 inches
intothewall,thenslip
thepipesintotheirnotches.

90

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DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

13/+"x51/2"x

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Making
a cantilevered
storage
rack
Therackshownaboveandat rightis
anchored
to thejoistsin theceiling
to
keepit fromtoppling
forward.
Marklines
onyourworkshop
floordirectly
undereach
joist.Toprovide
a sturdybasefortheposts,
nailshortlengths
of 2-by-6to theflooras
footings,
centered
on themarked
lines.
Use4-by-4s
fortheposts,
thencuta joist
anchor
foreachpostandasmanyarms
asyouneedfrom2-by-6stock.Anglethe
topedgeof thearmsslightly
to tilt the
lumber
in toward
thewall.Cuta mortise
at thetopof eachpostforthejoistanchors,
pointalongthepost's
andat every
front
edgewhereyouwantto locatean arm.
M a k es u r ea l lt h em o r t i s ei n
s t h es a m e
horizontal
rowareat thesameheight.
Cut
tenons
at theendsof thejoistanchors
andarms,thenboreholesthrough
the
sideof the postsfor 3/q-inch
dowels:
two
joist
holesforeacharmandoneforevery
a n c h o rI .n s e rtth et e n o n a
s n dt a ot h e
dowels
in place.Toe-nail
thepoststo the
footings.
Boreclearance
holesthrough
theanchors
andpilotholesintothejoists
forcarriage
bolts,thensecure
theanchors
(above).
in position

Arma
13/+"x 51/2"x 20"

9I

DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

rackto anunfinished
wall
Fastening
a lumber-and-plywood
of 2-by-4stock,is attached
to exposed
Therackshownbelow,madeentirely
joists.Lumber
canbepiledonthearms,
whileplywood
wallstudsandceiling
Youwillneedat least8% feet
isstacked
onedgeagainst
thesupport
brackets.
panels.
Begin
at oneendof therackto beableto slidein plywood
offreespace
themto thestuds(nghf).
brackets
andscrewing
bycuttingthetriangular-shaped
andnailthemto theshopfloor.
Cutthefootings,
slipthemunder
thebrackets
theirendsto thefootings
andthe
Next,sawtheuprights
to length
andtoe-nail
joists.Cutasmanyarmsasyouneed,aligning
thefirstrowwiththetapered
thearmsto thestuds
endof thesupport
brackets.
Usecarriage
boltsto fasten
Therackinthe
making
surethearmsin thesamerowarelevel.
anduprights,
features
armssoaced
at 18-inch
intervals.
illustration

9upport bracket
11/2"x31/2"x41./z'

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WallEtud

r
t
)ole plate

Footinq
11/2"x31/z"xB"

92

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DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

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PLYWOOD
RACKS

Leq
11/2"x31/2"x36"

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11/2"x31/2"x36"

rllllmillllllliltlfillullillttlllI]t]llltllltfiIlllllI]l1
ilullllillt
5HO?TI?
Holdingplywoodpanelo
a4ainet a wall
Treventplywoodpanele
etackedon edqeaqainel
a wallfrom fallinqover
wiNhsomeropeand a
Vairof windoweash
weiqh|o.)eNtwo20inch-lonq
2-by-4eon the
floor in fronLof Ihe wall.
Thenecrewlwo eye
hookeinto wallebudeabouN
41/zfeet,abovethe floor.Cut,two
7-foot lenqlhoof rope,and Nieoneend
o f e a c h N oa h o o ka n d t h e o N h eer n d l o a
weiqhtwrapVed
in pipeinsulation.
eland NheVanels on lhe 2-by-4oand leanthem aqainoN
the wall.
OraVethe weiqhlooverNheplywoodto keepIhem in Vlace.

plywood
Making
a freestanding
rack
Therackshownabove
canholdplywoodpanels
onedgewithout
anywall
support.
Cutthebases
andlegsfrom
2-by-4stockandnailthepieces
together.Toreinforce
therack,nailtriangularbraces
plywood
of t/z-inch
to the
outside
legsandthebases;
usesolid
lumber
braces
to support
thelegsin
themiddle
row.Toconnect
thethree
setsof legs,cut railsfrom1-by-4s
and
nailthemin place:
onehalfway
upthe
legsandanother
at thetopof thelegs.
youcanslipthe
Setuptherackwhere
panels
in andoutend-f
irst.

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DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

Furrtnqetdp
3/+"x21/2"x5'

plywood
rack
Building
a vertical
plywood
storage,
stacking
Forlong-term
from
thepanels
onendnotonlykeeps
precious
shopf loor
warping;
it alsosaves
space.
Therackshownat rightis built
rodsand
fromfurringstrips,threaded
twofurring
wingnuts.Startbyscrewing
stripsto thestudsof onewall,2 and5
feetfromthefloor.Thenscrewtworods
4t/zfeelapartintothetopstrip.Cuta
stripandborea holethrough
thirdfurrrng
it 2 inches
fromoneendandsawa notch
oI 4VzfeeI.Bothopenings
at an interval
beslightly
larger
thanthediameshould
terof therods.Placetwowoodpadson
therodsandstackthe
thefloorbetween
plywood
upright
onthem.Place
sheets
theface
thethirdfurringstripacross
slipptng
onerodthrough
ofthelastpanel,
theholeandtheotherintotheslot.Slide
washers
andwingnutsontotherodsand
thefurring
strip
tighten
them,pulling
(inseD.
fo
tightlyagainst
the plywood
remove
a sheetfromthestack,loosen
strip
thewingnutsandswing
thefurring
downandoutof thewav.

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Woodpad
3/+"x31/2"x12"

illrlllllll lllllll lIllll llllilllilllfillllllllllllltlltllflllltill]

1HO?TI?
Atemporary
plywoodpallet,
ForehorN-Nerm
etoraqe .
few
eheeLe
of ply'
of a
wood,makea palleLfrom
four ueedcar Lires,Tlacea Lire
at eachcornerof a 4-by-B-foot
area;sNacklheplywoodsheels on
top.lhe LireswillkeepNheeheete
leveland elevaledaboveanv moieLure
on Ihe floor.Do noNeLackanyLhinqon top of the
eheeLe:Lhe
addiLional
weigh|maycau6eNhemNobend.

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DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

STORING
DOWELS
Wrapping
dowels
withrope
Dowels
tendto rollaroundwhentheyarestoredflat.Stacking
themupright
is a better
alternative,
butthentheproblem
is to
keepthemfromsliding
downorfalling
over.
0neanswer
isto loop
themtogetherwith
a lenghof rope,
asshownat left.Drilla hole
t h r o u gah p a i n ct a nj u s tb e l o w
t h er i ma n dt i e o n ee n do f t h e
ropeto it; forma loopat theotherend.Drive
a column
of nails,
spaced
a fewinches
apart,intoa wallstuda fewfeetabove
the
c a n .S t a n dt h ed o w e l isn t h ec a na n dl o o pt h e r o p ea r o u n d
t h e mt w i c e .P u l lt h ec o r dt i g h ta n dh o o kt h e l o o p e ed n do n
o n eo f t h e n a i l st h a ta l l o w tsh er o p et o h a n gt a u t .M o v e
the
loopup ordownasthesizeof thedowelbundlechanges.

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Storing
dowels
intheceiling
joistsin a shopceilingareoften
Thegapsbetween
exposed
considered
wasted
space,
butyoucanmakegooduseof them
to holddowels.
Screwa coupleof 1-by-3furringstripsacross
thebottomof thejoistsandthenrestthestockontopof strips.
Thismethod
is particularly
useful
forlongdowels,
whichcan
cluttera workshoo.

95

t
DRYING AND STORINGWOOD

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STORING
SH()RT
STOCK

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a rackwitha mobile
base
Constructing
jumbled
pile
in a
a
wood
Sorting
through
piece
for
a
of
short
corner
of theshop
stockof therightsizecanbefrustrating.
shortpieces
Therackshownat rightstores
is
The
bottom
section
according
to size.
pieces
ideal
for
storing
a boxwithdividers,
of plywood;
theboxis madewith%-inch
plywood,
whilethe dividers
aret/q-inch
plywood.
Thetopsection,
builtfrom%plywood,
consists
of a backpanel,
inch
sidesandr/q"plywood
triangular-shaped
according
to thediameter
shelves
spaced
youplacebetween
them.
of thecontainers
S-gallon
cans
Therackshownfeatures
belowthe bottomshelfandplastictubes
Keep
of varying
sizes
ontheothershelves.
Cut
shortstockin thecansandtubing.
cutouts
nearthetopof thesides
triangular
flat.Tomaketherackmobile,
to holddowels
fastenit to a shop-built
dollywithcasters
(below).
to the
Cuta pieceof plywood
asthebase
of therack,
samedimensions
to oneside.Attach
thenscrewcornerblocks
a heavy-duty
casterto eachcornerblock.

96

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DRYINGAND STORINGWOOD

M a k i n ga c o m b i n a t i o
wno r k b e n c h
andshort-cut
bin
I n a w o r k s h ow
p i t h l i m i t e ds p a c e ,
b u i l da w o r kt a b l ew i t h s h o r t - c u t
s t o r a g sep a c eu n d e r n e a t hs ,u c ha s
t h e o n e s h o w na t r i g h t .C u t 2 - b y - 4 s
t o l e n g t hf o r t h e l e g s ;s u p p o rtth e m
w i t h 2 - b y - 4b r a c e s - o n es e t n a i l e d
a f e w i n c h e sa b o v et h e f l o o ra n d a
s e c o n ds e t a t t a c h e d
f l u s hw i t h t h e
t o p o f t h e l e g s .C u t t h e t o p a n d t w o
" l y w o o dt,h e n n a i l
s h e l v e sf r o m3 / q p
t h e mt o t h e b r a c e sS
. a wn o t c h e s
o u t o f t h e c o r n e r so f t h e s h e l v e tso
f i t a r o u n dt h e l e g s .M a k ed i v i d e r s
f r o m r / qi n c h p l y w o o da n d a t t a c h
thembetween
t h e s h e l v e su s i n g
q u a r t e r - r o um
n do l d i n g
s t r i p sn a i l e d
i n t ot h e s h e l v e s .

Front brace
11/z"x5t/2"x36"

Stacking
stockbetween
wallstuds
Storeshortstockbetween
thestuds
o f a nu n if n i s h esdh o pw a l l T
. ok e e p
thewoodfromfallingover,screw
springclipsto thestudsandinsert
d o w e lisn t ot h ec l i p st o s p a nt h e
gapsbetween
adjacent
studs(/eftl.
To standshorter
lengths
of stock
h i g h eur p o nt h ew a l l c, u ts h e l v e s
andsupport
cleatsfromscrapwood.
Screw
thecleatsto thestudsand
resttheshelves
ontopof them.

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97

WOOD
DIRE,CTORY
for more
landscape
. reeshaveformeda partof theEarth's
i',, than 300nillion vears- sincebeforedinosaursfirst
a rernarkroamedtheulanet.in thattimetheyhavedeveloped
nurrberingtnolethan i,000varieties
ablediversityof species,
in theUnitedStates
alone.Tieescomein manysizesandshapes,
fiorn thestuntedspruces
of northernCanadato thesublime,
Wood'sdiversiti'
giantsequoias.
torveringstandsof California's
is alsoapparentin thewidearrayof colorsandgrainpatterns
from thebold vermiiionhueof
to theu'oodworker,
available
padaukancltheinlyblaci<ness
of ebonyto theintricate,swirling
designs
of rvalnutburl.
of woodshownin thisdirectorywerechoThe 78 species
foremost
of thecabinetmaker
senn ith theneedsandinterests
woodsarehere-species
in rnind.The basiccabinetmaking
suchasoak,pine,cherryandash.Buttherearealsoa number
to ziricote.
of lessfamiliarexoticwoodstoo,from afrormosia
Someyou mayhaveonly readabout;othersyou maybe seeing for thefirst time.In eithercase,thephotosandinformain your upcoming
tion may inspireyou to nervadventures
woodworkingprojects.
accordingto a
The directoryis arrangedalphabetically
a woodmay
wood'smostcommonlyusedname.Sometimes
beknown by severalllames;to avoidconfusionyou mayneed
to usethe botanicalnamewhenbuyinga particularspecies
("spp."indicatesthat the wood comesfrom severalspecies
belongingto that genus).Thewoodsin thischapterwerephotographedwith a clearlacquerfinishto highlighttheir colorand
figure.For this reason-and becauseof the inevitablevariationswithin species-theunfinishedwood that you buy may
look somewhatdifferent.
Hardwoodsareindicatedwith an (H); softwoodswith an (S).
However,do not takethe termstoo literally.Somesoftwoods
areactuailyharderthansomehardwoods.For moreinformation on the differences
betweenthe two groups,seepage24.
Theworkabilitycategorygivesinformationaboutthe ease
or difficulty of workingrvith a particularwood.Somespecies
maybetoughto planeunlessyou reducetheangleof theblade,
while othersmayrequireyou to pre-borefor nailing.

costperboarclfbot-rvhiclr
Ratherthanprovidingtrspecific
canfluctuate-foreachrvood,priceislistedon a relatit'escale,
thc priciertvoodsare
to expensive.
Usuallv,
from inexpensive
chosenfor a specialpartof a pieceof funtiturc.\btr nrisht
pull,
for exalnple,
to makea tlt'atvt'r
a pieceof cocobolo,
select
touchto a chailleg.
or an inlayofebonyto adda decorative
in North
All thewoodsshownarecommercial\'available
you cirnnotfind iocally,checkrvooc'lAmerica;for species
Howeter,soure
ivorkingmagazines
fbr nrail-order
sources.
rare,anda tbrvtropicalharclincreasingly
species
arebecoming
is
lvoodsarein dangerof extinction.Iradein matty'sPecics
oftetr
restricted,and for this reason,woodrvorliers
severely
mustseekalternatives
to usingtraditionalu,oods.Fortunatcll',
therearemany,andtheirnumberis growing.Somehavelong
pauferro,for exampie,
rvhichisstrikingll'sirnbeenavailable:
Braziiianroservood.
Othersilar to the costly,endangered
"good
with a vietvto
woods,"grorvnandharr,ested
so-called
growth-are recentarrivalsin
conservation
and sustainable
importedprispecies,
North America.Theselesser-known
originatc
marilyfrom CentraiandSouthAmericaat present,
from sourcesthat aremonitoredin orderto be certifiecias
in thisdirecwell-managed.
Fourof thesewoodsarefbatLrred
chactacote,
chontaquiro
amarilloandtornillo.(You
tory:bayo,
canlearnmore aboutthesewoodsand rvhereto buy them
Alliancefor RainforestProtectioir
throughtheWoodrvorkers
Alliancein NervYork;or
in CoosBay,Oregon;theRainforest
in Oaldand,California.)
Scientific
Certification
Systems
Youmaywantto avoidtheproblernsof scarcitybybuilding
then
your projectswith more plentifulwoodsor pl1nvood,
Anotheralternative
is
coveringthemrvitha beautifulveneer.
wood,scavenged
from old buildings,shippingcrates
rec,vcled
or pallets.With effort and imaginationyou can transform
manyworkadayitemsinto handsomepieces.
This symbolindicatesa species
that
in at leastoneof
is rare or endangered
thecountrieswhereit is harvested.

N)

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rr :rl.rlf rlr.
pare tnr4and occaairlna '! ror \t',ttrt-.r:t'::.
W o r k a b i l i t yO
: e n e r a l l , lr , e r yd o o ) : : : ti q ' r ' , | L r r t r r . , lril
lo'n Denitna pro2erlter,: aJftl t',!{,'arar..J
al.1l',er5',
ittr!
aarae aeN bladeaL.obntr.t.
Finiehing:l\c,:;eg-'"z
fintel.,ee
we.i,l
trltet i tt:t1.
Weight: 32 1v.lc'1.
f-v.
?rice: l,/oderaf,e.

qrain: moder'
lo tl.t:rloc',F.t:d
ovtn,c)arKart-"oa rich qci)aen
boa*' btl C nq. caDi-

a ! ) t t a a zV a l \ \ \ l e 1 )

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\A/OOI)DIITECTORY

ALDER,RED

AMBURANA

(H)

(H)
6ot anical Namer Lm b ura na c. a r. n.ii.
KelaLt'telyalranqfcr tLe v,teqf,. amo,Lrarta:s a qr::::t)
c h o t c ef o r l o i n e r y .l L e i r r e q u l a ra r a n E . r a y e 2 r c l t o e
-rrat)aa
a L L r a c l i v ev e n e e ( a .T o a n Am a i r ' y : r - , " h e
, cr',\
reqione of SouLh An:enca.the NreeeciLer',.otver':.t:
1 a a f e e t . I h e v t o o dc a n p t a t e L i e e e n e e ew t l l : a n c a , : r
o f v a n i Ja .
Other Namea Cerejeira,.uffiare. cumart. rajada
( 3 r a z i ) : r o b l ed e l p a t e .V a l ol r e b o ( , A r 4 e n t i n a l ' .
i e h p i n E(o7 e r u ) .
9ources: Cenlra and SauLh /tmer'tca.
Characterislice: lnteriockecand irreqt)ar qrain: rqettt r,
-vexture:ye)iow*vo
ta coaroe
pale brownw)Ll a eJb::,e:
ex2ceure.
oranqe r.inr.,darkeninqeiiqhLlyv'ti",h
Uses: FurniLure.joinery,boal butdinq ani var,aero.
Workability:GooA;aulla culti.q edqeo nod,erately.
r e d u c ec u L L i n qa n q l eo f b l a d ew h e np l a n i n 4i r r e 4 t l a r
qrain; ?re-borefor nailinq:moderaLebendinqprogert'iee.
Finiohing:t',ccepteftnieheewellwhenii )ed..
Weight 37 \b.lcu.ft.
?ricet Moderale.

bolanical Name: ,r',iiti'srtibra

?..eaa der ie eao'1-,a cfv o.a iL LakeEfinieheevery we)|,
e e 2 e c i ay i f a , t , a e hc o e L o l r . a t n n . de A e a c i e a p V i e d
b e i o r ea i a i n i n q .T h i ev t c o dc a n b e o f e i q n i f i c a n vL a l a ei n
\,taca\Narki.q.
ite re atrivelynodeel repuT,ation.
despir-,e
z-vertaelective alder eAcaldnoL be geqqedlor lirewood.
) e f e c L z .a l c i a e b u d e a n d e l a i n s , c a n p r o d t c e b e a t f i '
ft ,ig.n"rru.
Other Names:\"leer"erna1der,areqon a der.
9ource; Tacfic CoaeLof Nor"thAnter'tca.
Cha r a cle rieti c e : G ene r aily eLraiqht' qr ai n; fi ne, eve n
lexltiret paieye:iovtLo readieh-brown.
r niLur e. c arvinq, plywood and veneere.
Ue es: I ur nin,2,f ',-t
Workability:Generaly qood: reduce bladeanqle when
p)anrrqLo prevenl LearouL:only oliqht bluntinqof cuL'
r er-.. 'ot b.r d r q ?-o?e-! e4.
Finishing: l,c c epLefi niehee vtell,
WeighhSS b,lca.tr..
?rice: lnexgeneive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

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ASH,BLACK

ASH,WHITE,

(H)
bolanical Name: Fraxtnuentqra
OiLen k.nownaa ewall? ar waLera",h,blackaeh qrov'te
mainiy tn lhe wellande of eaeNernl')orth America.Ae
+,.1esolLeat y',mericanaeh, it, te more ik.e1y
Lo be lound
i n i n t e r i o r1 on e r ga n d c a b t n e L w o r k t h a n
i n e p o r L ee q u i p m e n L ,w h e r ev , r h t t a, eo h i o c o m m o n ) yu s e d . l t a l e o h a e a
eiqniltcan"v
hieLoryae a weavinqwood for many Lygeeol
b a e l . e L e . 3 1 a caks h ' a r a L a r yc J t a n d e l i c e dv e n e e r za r e
hiqhrydecoraLiveand much oouqhtrafler.
Other Namee; 3r own aeh, hoog aoh, owamp aeh, waLer
' - ' . ' o - ?e ' n b r o n na o \ .
1ources: l,).3.4,.
and Canada.
Characteristics: 1LraiqhL qrain: coaree,eventext ure:
dark, qrayieh brown.
Uees: )oinery, cabiner.work,
glywoodand,veneere.
Workability:Generallyqood; blun|e cultero moderaNely:
.,cel er beadi"q
2-o2ertiee.
FinishingA
: c c e p t e f i n i a h e sw e 1 l .
tNeight:35 lb./cu.fL.
?rice: lnexpeneive.

(H)
9otanical Name: Fraxinue amencana
V ' l h i t ea e h c a n b e c o n o i d e r e dL h e a l -f , m e r i c a nJ e i e t r c
wood.SLronq and very ehock-reaielanf,it. le ueed Lo
make oare, pool cuee and baaebaI bala. lt ie a eo Lhe
wood of choicefor qarden-I.oolhandles,aeed exten"tivey
in boaLbuildinq
a n d ,c u t i n L o d e c o r a t i v e v e n e e r 6t . o f L e n
hae a hiqhlyvarieqated hearfwood,k.nowna., olivea""h
o r c a ) c oa o n .
Other Nameei A\rnericanwhiLeaah, Canadianael .
A m e r i c a na e h ,
Souraes: Canada and U.3.A.
Characterielicat 3lr aiqhL qr ain; coa rae LexLure: liqh-vbrown hearLwoodwilh almoeL white eapwood.
Usea Saeeballbats, pool cuee,oare, f,oolhand ee, boat.
q , f u r n i X uer a nd ve nee re .
bu i d
l ,in
Wo rkability : 3 aLiof a cLo ry : mod,er aLe b)u nti nq of c ut Lero:excellenlbendinqproperLieo;pre-borefor nailinT.
Weight: 42lb./cu. ft.
Trice: Inexpeneive.

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AVODIRE,
N
(H)

BALSA

9otanical Name:TurreanLhue afr tcanua

Considered
t's beoneof Lheworld'sbeoLqualitybloni
wooda,avodirdrarelyie available
in lar7equant"iLiee.
II;
normallycamegto North Americaae veneer,
whichpoeoeoeeean aLi.racLive
molLledoall,ern.LhaIie ueedin
finecabinef,makinq
and,Vanelinlq.
Olher Names:African satinwood.Africanwhite
mahogany,
apeya(Ghana):apaya(Niqeria):
enqan
(Cameroon);
lueamba(Zaire):aqbe(lvoryCoael):eeu
(Conqo):
AfricanfurniLurewood,olon,
)ourcea WeeI and EquatorialAfrica.
Characterialica:LighL,elronq wood;mainlyebraighL
grainbuLcan bewavyor inLerlocked:
mediumlo fineNext"ure;qoldenyellow.
Uges:Cabinetwork,
veneere,marquetryand plywood,.
WorkabilitytFair:increaaebladeanglewhenVlaninqae
qrainlende to causeLearout;Voorbending
intrerlocked
properrieo'.pre-boreI or nailinq.
F i n i o h i n gO:e n ear l l yq ood .
W e i g h t : 3 6 l b . l c uf r. .
TricetExoeneive.

(H)
9otaniaal Name:Ochroma pyramtda le
Saleahaethe ltghLeoL
weiqhtof any commercially
ueed
hardwood,.Thie
properLyhas madeiL a keyinqredient.
of life rafLs and a widevariely of eafeLyand buoyancy
ll.ln facL,thewordbalsameane
devicea
ainceWorld,War
rafLinSpanish.
A,lthouqh
iria difficulltodry,onceiLaoeo
it ie a relalively
elableand sLronqwoodfor iLeweighL.
Oiher Names:Guano(TuerloKico,I'ondurae):
lanero
( C ua
b ): po la k ( 3e l i z eN
, ci a raq ua ) ' N
, opa ( ?er u ): I a m i
(Solivia).
?ources:Weer"
lndiee,CentralAmerica,Lroeical7ouLh
America(Ecuadoi.
Charaal,erieticaz
7traiqht,qrain:fine,velvety t exture:
whiteLo oaf,mealbrown
wiLha pinkieh
tint.
Ueea:\/todelmakinq,toye,
watere?orteequipment
and
proos,
Nheaf,rical
qood,Vrovidedbladeeare kept
WorkabilitytExXremely
veryeharV:willnot bendwithoutbucklinq:
little blunlinq
of culNers.
Finiehing:Acceptefinieheawell:absorbsa qreaLquanNityof finiohingmalerial.
Weightt 6-16 lb.lcr'.fL.
TricetModerahe.

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BASSWOOD

BAYO

(H)
9olanical NametTtliaamencana
hae beenconLiqhrweiqht
and eaoyto work,basewood
foremoeN
for
eideredoneof the world,'e
carvinqwood,e
c e n N u r i e e .cl a
L nb e e h a p e dt o r e m a r k a bfl iyn ed e l a i l .l I
ie odor-freeand hae beenused,exLeneively
for d,omesLtc
qood,e
euchae kiLchen
ulensiloandfoodconf,ainere.
ie coneiAered
for ouLd,oor
Saeewool,
uneutLable
d,uLy
becau"e i16e21116o
poorly.
linden,linn,limef,ree:American
Olher Namea.A,merican
l i r r e( U . K . ) .
5ourcea EaeternCanadaand U.9.4.
Characberistics:
Straiqhxqrain:finelerturei creamy
whitedarkeninq
lo creamybrown.
toyo,pianokeya,
Ueea:Turninq,
carvinq,?attern making,
match eplinto,boxeoand,cratee.
WorkabilitytVery qood: blunf,scutLeroeliqhtly; poor
bendinqproVerDiee,
qoodwiLhall finishee.
Finiohing:
Generally
W e i g h t t2 6 \ b . / c u . f L .
?rice:lnexpeneive
(eliqhl;lyhtqherf or thick 12/+
kilnand 16/+
driedcarvinqefock).

(H)
9olanical Name:Aepidoepermac ruenLum
A wondertd,eaey-workinq
Limber,bayote a "lesoerhardwood
in larqe
knownepeciee"
Lhaf,iEofLenavailable
sizesand,someLimee
cul inlo veneere.
Noi orly aL|ractive, bayoio alooverydecay-reliotant.
frelize,I onduras.
5ouraes:3 oubheaot Mexico,
qrain',
Charaaterislicot
Slraight lo eliqhllyinterlockinq
mediumLo fineLexLure:
heartwood'.
brownieh
pink;eapwaod:creamwiNha Vinkioh
bluehthroughouL.
Lurninq,
framinq,furniLureand,decoUsea Cabinebwork,
raLiveveneere.
Workability:Generallyqood:doeenoLLakenailEwell:
good,bendingproperLiee.
Finiohing:AccepLofinioheewell.
Weighu37-46lb./cu.ft.
?ricetModerate.

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BEECH,AMERICAN

BIRCH,PAPER

(H)
OotanicalNamerFaquaqrandifolta
leavy, hardand eLronq,Americanbeechie uaedfor
everythinq
from floorinqLo woodenware.
AlthouqhconeideredleosallracLivethan European
beech,American
b e e c hh a e2 r o m i n e nrtar y ea n dv i o i b ltei n y p o r e e , l ti a
hiqhlyfiquredwhenquarlereawn.
Other Name:1eech.
5ourceq EaeternU.3.A.and Canada.
Characteristicot
Straiqht qrain:fine,evenLexture;
reddiehbrownLo liqhl brownhearLwood
witrhalmoel
whiLeeapwood.
Ueee:7enlwoodfurniNure,
turninq,handleeand
cabineLmakin4.
WorkabilifytSatiefactory: qoodwif,hmoettoole bu|
may burnwhencroescutor drilled:may bindon aawe:
excellenLturninqwood;excellenlbend,in
q properLiee.,
hiqhohrinkaqe
makesiL unelablein use,
Finiohing:
AccepLefiniaheewell.
Weight:46lb.lcu.fL.
?ricetModerate.

(H)
Dolanical NametDeLulapapyrifera
7aperbirchio a Louqh,heavywood,a)Lhouqh
iI.ie eolLer
Lhanolher birches.lIe barkwaeuaedby lr)ative
Americane
to faahionwigwame
and canoeeeo thaL manypeop)e
"canoe
eLillreferLo it ae
birch."Thewoodpoeeeeeea
an
atLracLive
figure,and,ie aometimee
elicedinto decoraT,tve
veneere.
Other Namea WhiLeblrch.eweeLbtrch.Americanbirch.
5ouraeszCanada,U.A.A.
Charaaterietica:
SLraiqhtgrain;finet exture:wide,
pale-brown
creamywhileeapwood:
hearLwood.
UeeetI urninq f or d,omeeIic ulensila, dowele, Loothpicke,
eVoolo,bobbine,hooVoand,toye, plywoodand decoraf,ive
veneerg.
Workability:Generallyqood;moderatedullinqof
cutfere:unueualcurlyqrairtmaypick.up in planinq;
oatiefacNorybendinq properLiee.
FiniehinqAcceptefinieheswell.
WeighV39 lb./cu.fr.
Trice:lnexpenoive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

BOCOTE,
(H)
9otanical Name:Cordtaaop.
A beautifuleubstiLuLefor roeewood.
bocoteie oneof
LhemanyLypeeof cordia-a qroupof hardwoode
found
Lhrouqhout
lhe West lndieo,LroVical
America,Africa
and Aaia.frocotre'e
LexLure
ie similarNoteak-although
it, ie eomewhaLharder-and iXewildfiqurepal\erno
produceeNunninq
cabineLwork.fhe
woodie availableonly
i n s m a l ls i z e s .
Other NametCordia.
Souraes:Mexico,Selize,I'onduras.
Characterielica; 1traiqht, grain:moderatelycoaree
qreenLo qoldenyellowwiLhblackfiqurepaLterne.
LexLure;
Usea Furnif,ure,
cabineLe,interior joinery,turninq and
decorativeveneerg.
WorkabiliNy:
Generallyqood;bluntocu|tinq edqes
qood bendingproperLieo.
oliqhLly;
Finiohing:Accep|ofinieheswell.
Weighh4b lb./cu.fL.
TriaetExpeneive.

BUBINGA
N
(H)
1otanical name:Guibourtiaeoo.
A rosewood
eubetibut
e, bubinqa'o
loqeoflen weigh
morethan 10 tons:they can becut into exlremelywide
Kevazinqo,
a veneerpeeledfrom irreqularly
Vlanke.
qrainedloqe,Voeeeooee
a wild,,flame-like
fiqurethat io
eopular f or cabinet work.
Olher Namee:African roeewood,
eseinqanq,kevazinqo
\r otary cut veneeronly).
Souraee,Equatorial
Alrica (Cameroon,
Gabonand 7_aire).
Charaat,eriatiasz
Verydenee;finegrain:purpliehpink
lo ealmonred,wiLhdark Vurpleveining.
QuarLereawn
boardeofLenehowveryatlracf,iveblackmotlle fiqure,
UeeetTurninq, f urniture, cabinetwork a nd veneere.
Workabilityz
Generallyqood:irregulargrainNende
to tear whenhand-planed:
pre-borefor nailinq.
Finiahin1 Excellent.
Weight:55 lb./cu.fr,,
?ricezExpeneive.

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BUTTERNUT

CATALPA

(H)
bolanical Name: Jt.rqlanectnerea
i , m:rrtberof "vle 'ua rtaLf amily.br.ftfernfi haa aeeumed
a r.).tc.: of l tono; ae lhe vtr:odolLen ciosen lor cAurcA
eli.ar.r'.fhielree tr' lrea"'tred for more LAan i-"ewood:
'.'1.
a rich. deiic aro nJ-,ane ?roducea
?a....a.6
-vltat e used,t o mal.ea eweeLeyruV simi ar
a aag
1..,me? . t'!rn?.
Other Namee: V.lhfievtalnuL,oi nt,ti.
1 o u r c e e : a + o d ' . 0 . 1 . t -.
Characlerietica: Straiqlt qratn;eofl but coaree lexI . ' .- e , m a ' l b ' o * r .
Ueea: 7lrnir.lre. inl,etor Lr'tmon boate, int eriorjo nery.
aaf"/n4. venaafa.
WorkabilitytGenerallyqood: becaueewood ie eofL, it
ie imgorLantto keepct)ttera eharg: willfuzz uV when
a a n d e d ;g o c r b e n d i n 7p r o g e r L i e e .
FinishingzAccepl,efinieheevery well.
Weight 2b lb.lc',t.fl.
Price: ModeraLe.

(H)
6ot anical Name: CaLa Ipa apt:c rt:t a
/,, co7r, at.lracltve vtor:d.oaLal2a t:' a l,n,':aatit',e-;",'rt:r:,:i
orj ia i a eLi't.::J\'
aa ey ta rvork with a vtavy I qt;re. I Ite't't,::
inerpertei,,,e.
btL olLen di+Jictt to lini ctcaly. Le c:ptn
qrain and exceear'ieaaflnea'afial.e tl L)1a.t-iara lor
fr.trnilureLhal wtllraae:e aeaq '.pe. F.r:ai'"lanlr.r,
decay, iL ie tdea for r:tldor:r oar\'flQi.
O t h e r N a m e e :C a t a w b a .a q e - ; r c e . n d i a n - l t . a n t. r : r L r t '
ern caLel?a.
5ourcet 1-).3./:.
Cha r a cleri sti c s : G e ner a|ly L)aeve., wa,""1 qr ai n: m edi t m
caarae,evenLetLrr.i Iigl:f tan wii,ha 2ro':ninentdarl.er'
qrowilt nnq fiqure.
U e e e :C a b i n e l m a k t n qL.t r n i n q ,p i r : L t r ei r e m e e a n d q e n '
e r a lo r n a m e n l a u a e a .
Workability Generally very qcod: may fray til'tencrr:ee'
c t t : d u l l ec u L t e r s o n l ye l i q h t l y .
Finiohingzt',cce2Lofiniaheevtel.
Weight: 2b-32 lb.I cu. tL.
?ricezInexpenaive
to moderale.

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CEDAR,ALASKAYELLOW

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b otanical Name;Cha maecypa rie nooLkaLe

nete
A'taeka
yellowced,arie etableand remarLably
reeisLanl
to aecay,Likemoet,membersof the cedarf amily,iI hae
a dJeLincLive
odorthat,f adeeae Ihe wooda4eo.Thie
woodia not,abundantlyavailable.
TheIreee qrowtro60
lo ba feel;in heiqhtin Lheforest,eof Lhe?acificnorLhweef,,an) if,can take up tu ZaO yearefor them to reach
marketable
eize.
Olher Names:Yellow
cedar,?acificCoasLyellow
cedar,
nooLkafalee cypreoe,yellowcy?re6e.
Source:TacificCoasLof Norfh America.
Characterisliae;SLraiqht,qratn;fineLerture;paleyellow.
joinery.boat build,inq
Uses:Furnilure,
and veneers.
WorkabilitytVeryqood:lowdullingof cutLere.
Finiehinq:
Acceptefinisheewell.
Weight:31lb./cu.ft.
TricetModerale.

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OotanicalName:J uniperuevirqiniana
LikemosLol,herLreeeknownae "cedar,"aromaLiccedar
"cedar"
ie nol boLanically
a
at,all.ln f acr.,the Lreefrom
whichthie softwoodcomeeie a iuniper.
7uLIhe timber
conNaine
cedaroilandqiveeoffihefamiliar"cedai'ecenl
that, is eaidto reVelmoLhe.fheae
two characleriettca
are f,hereaeonwhyLhewoodis frequentlyusedIo line
cloeef,sand chesLe.
Other Namee:Kedcedar,eaeLernred cedar,fenneeeee
red cedar,juniper,
SourceaCanadaand eaEternU.9.A.
Characterielicsz7Lraiqht,qrain;finetexLureireddiehbrowni boa rd e ofLen have knoLe and ba rk incluaione,
Uaeo:Cawing,lininqo
of cloeeLeand cheete,veneero
and pencile.
WorkabilitytGenerallygood,but briXtle:may breakor
chipwhendrilled,;
mayeplit in nailinq.
Finishin7:Acceplefinieheswell,except,for LurpenlinebaoedVroducf,e,
WeighttSO lb./cu.fL.
?rice:lnexpensive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

CEDAR,WESTERNRE,D

CEDAR,WHITE

botanical Name:Thujaplicata
Lree,weetern red,ced,arcan qrowLo ffiore
A qrand-eized
x h a n1 5 Of e e t i n h e i q h Ll L. i a o n eo l t h e l t q h t e eal n d
makinqit idealfor ouLdoor
mosLdurableeofLwoode,
uoe.lte dielinct qrowLhnngli4ureand,alLraclivecolor
valuefor panelinq
and,veneer.
aleoqiveiI eiqnificant,
"knotty
cedar."Thie
Eepecially
knolty pieceoare eoldae
leveleof
currenNheavy
epecieeie elowlo reqeneraLe;if
coneumpf,ion
do noLabate, weelernredcedarcould
becomea rarewoodin Lhe21el Century,
(U.3,A.);red,ced,ar
Other Namea Gianl arborviLae
(Canada): 9 ribieh Columbi
a red,ced,ar (U.K.)
; canoe-ceda r.
1ourceetCanada,l.e.A.
Characterietice:
Straiqhf,qrainicoareelexLure.
exLerior
millwork.
furniture,boat buildinq,
UeeszOutd,oor
WorkabilityzGenerallyqood:keepculLeroaharp.
FiniehinqAccepLefinieheewell.
Weiqht:23 lb.lcu.ft.
?rice: ModeraLe.

B olanical Name: Thuja occ td enta lie

Whtte cedar ie oooular in NorDhAmerica for if,e reeia'
Lance lo decay. lt is ofl.en ueed far canoea,ehinqlee
a n d o t h e r e x L e r i o ar p p l i c a t i o n e . W h i lneo l e e p e c i a l l y
etronq, the wood ie eaey Lo work and is wellauited
objecle. Smal er Lreeeare ueed
Lo out door d,ecoraLive
f o r p o l e ea n d p o e t e . T h e w o o d i ee e l d o m f i q u r e da n d ,
almo1T,neverubea a9 veneer.
Other Names: Arbowilae, eaglern whiLecedar,
ewamp cedar.
Sourcea Canad,aand,U.3.4.
CharaaNerielicezStratqh| 7rain: even terLure; liqht
brown hearlwood; eapwood ie white; many knol,e
commonly ?reoent,.
fencinq.
Ueea; 7oai, buildinq,poele and d,ecoraLtve
Workability..Good.
Finiohinq Accepte finieheewell.
Weight;23 lb.lcu,ft.
Tricet lnexpenoive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

CHACTACOTE
(H)
9otanical Name: 9ickinqia ealvadoreneie
ChacLacote,a hardwoodlrom wellmanaqed eourcee,
q r o w o i n l h e Y u c a t a n a n d C h i a p a i or e q i o n oo f e o u t h eaef,ernMextcoand Selize.Seau|iful and eaoy f,a work,
iL ie a wood,of inlenee color and olLen poeeeeeeea qorq e o u ef l a m e f i 7 u r e . l Li e r e c o m m e n d , eLdo u e e a f i n i e h
wiLh ulLravioleLray proLecLanN,
since iLe incrediblehue
fadee wiNhex?o6urelo f,he eun.
Other Namea Chacahuante;Kedwood(Selize\
9 ources: 9 out\ eaar, M ex'co, 3 elize.
Charaateristiae: Fairly irreqularqrain;fine LexNure:
hearLwood,:
brilllanl crimson red; eapwood:crearn,
Ueeq FurniLure,cabinelworkand Lurninq.
WorkabilityzVerygood,
FiniehinryAccepf,efinieheswell.
Weight: 40 -45 lb./cu. tt.
?riaet Mod,eraLe.

CHERRY,
BLACK

(H)
OotanicalnametFrunueeeroLtna
Extremely
eLablewhenil cameeLo checkinq
and warpinq,and excepLionally
beautifu|blackcherryia oneof
NorLhAmerica'e
fineet,cabinef,
woode,However,Nhere
to a ?ronaunced,
variancein colorbeLween
ite eapwood
and hearlwood,
whichcan somef,imee
be problemaNic.
lf Lhetwo are ueedoide-by-eide,
finiehedworkmaydieplaya discrepancy
in color,whichwillinNeneily
ae the
woodagee.A goodportionof blackcherrywoodcont ainequrndeVoeiLe
Lhrou7hout.
AlLhouqh
thie doeenot.
eignificanr.ly
affecI the lumber,it showeon veneero;1oqe
wiLhexceaeive
qumare avoidedfor veneers.
Other nameatAmericancherry,rum cherry,whiekey
cherry,wilAcherry,fruitwood.
5ourcee;Canada,U.9.A.
CharacterislicetFineqrain;omooLhlexture; reddieh
brownto deepred hearLwood.
Us ea FurniLure,f,ur ninq, ca winq, joinery,mueical
insf,rumenLo,
boat interiorsand decoraliveveneer..
Wo rkabil*y: Very good,: blunte cutli nq edqee moderat ely:qoodbendinqproperLiee.
Finiehing;Acceptefinieheswet|
Weight:36lb./cu.ft,
TriaetModeraNe.

WOOI) DII{EC'I'ORY

AMARILLO
CHONTAQUIRO

AME,RICAN
CHESTNUT,

(H)
g o t a n i c a l N a m e z) . 1 | t , c ' | |
amariio ie iot:nd:.t
t h a r a , f ' e a v yL i m b e r ,c h o n L a q u i r o
a b u n a a n c ei n l l e t r o g i c a if o r e s l " o i 7 e r t .a, t A l : r a z i .
wood,wiil a atrikinq fiqlre or boLr:
t ie a beatft,ift-t
. .aA aca \l aa a
p l a t n ' e a w na n d q a a r L e r e a w nI u m b e r U
e, Lhie 1es s er - kno\Nri 5p. ci. a |)
mah o4 a ny e obst tLr-tt
beqinninqto be exporr,edinto l loft'h l'.mericafcr tae
i n f t n el u r n i i u r e a n d c a b i n e L m a k i r : q .
O l h e r N a m e s : 3 t c u 2 i r o c. a l - t l c .
S o u r c e : 3 o u L hA m e r i c a .
Characteristico: )LraiqhL to intedocLea4ratn',rncaer'
at ely coaroe Lo coar6e lexLLrei iqht t o dark.brout'n
y ellowiehcr earn eapwood.
hearLwood:
U s e s : F u r n i t u r e c, a b i n e t ' m a L t naqn d a r a a q . a l c o n eLrucLionusee.
Workability:Generally,qoo,):doee naL t)r. or ehape tve)i.
F i n i o h i n qA
: c c e p t e l t n t e h e ev re l l .
Weiqht: 5B lb.lcu.tL.
?rice: \,4oderate.

(H)
Ootanical Name: Castanea cenlta[a
by a fun4t-tedieeaeeknownae
i'irt.ra ;r er.r"erninaLed
-vle ma)onL'1of chesLnul .ow corie.
clteelntfi b tE6*',
i r o m r e , c y c l e Ld t m b e r ef r o n b a r n ea n ) ' o t h e r b u i l d i n q c
ll,a-v Stre-dalethe b qlL. )l hae a eo beenavailable
irorr eLandtnqdead treee t'hai have beenaLLacled by
:.naecle,Ihe ree,-tLtrq "wormy cheeLnut" is noneLheeaE
s
cor,eideredan atLreclive wood Lhat' retaine cAeaI'nut,
for or,tldooruee
.eL.Nradurabt|Nyand makeeit' excellenL
Or.her Namee: !\torrry cheeLnut',oweet cheaLnuL.
?ourcee: Canada ana Eaelern U.3.4,.
Characterislics: Toroue qrowth rinqe reeulNin promirtenLfiqure;coeree t,ey.rilreipale brown.
l J s e e zI t c ; 1 e, eo L a k e e ,g i c t u r e l r a m e s , f u r n i L u r ea n d
deacraLlveveaeera.
WorkabiliNy Generally ea6y Lo work: ferroue mer.ale
rnay otatn lhe wood blue:eplir'oeaeily;medium bendinq
properLiee.
Finishing':/^,cceptefinieheevery well.
Weighr,: 3a b.lct-t.fL.
?rice: "loberaLe ta P\ ?c4a"\.e.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

COCOBOLO
N

C.YPRESS,
BALD N)

v(H)
6olanical Name:Dalber4iaretuea
A durable,hardwood,cocobolo
someinler?ae6egee6
eelinqworkinqproperLiee.lN
conLaina
a nal,uraloilyeubof,ancef,haI noLonlywalerproofeIhe wood,but makee
iNveryeaeyto workand finieh.However,
ile fine eawdueL
may caueeitchinqand eneezing
and,ofLentemporarily
d , y e ot h e e k i no r a n q e .l t , i s r e c o m m e n d eNd oc o v e r
expooed
ekinwhenworkingwith cocobolo.
Other Nameo Granadillo(Mexico):Nicaraguanroeewood,qrendill.
Source:WeeN
coaeLof CenbralAmerica.
Characterietico:Heaug,deneewood:otraiqhtlo irreqular grain;mediumLexlure:purple,oranqe,ruel and
yellowcolorwifh blackmarkinqe,
d,arkening
with exVosure
Lo a deepred,d,ish
oranae.
Ueeo:Turning,knifehaidles, bruehbacke,t oolhanaws,
inlayeand veneerg.
Workabilitytgalief acilory:eiqniticanL
dullinqof cuttersi
blad,ee
ehouldbe exiremelyeharp:reducebladeanqle
for planing:verydifficult f,o qlue.
FiniohinqAcceptsfinishesverywell.
Wei1httOB lb./cu,ft.
?riae:Expenoive.

(e)

Ootanical Name: Taxodrum d taLichum

N o r m a l lfyo u n di n w e Lr e q i o n e
a n d e w a m p eb, a l d
cy?reeslumberio truly al homein waLer.ln f acL,iL
ie ofLenusedin bridqeeand docke,Old-qrowLh
timber
ie eignificantlymoredecay-resieLant.
Lhansecondgrow\hwood,thouqhbobhare coneidered
idealfor
o u L d o ou
r e e .V a l u r e s l a n d s o f t h i e e p e c i e sa r e
gcarce,and ae gwarypeare drained,iL te
becoming
sufferingfrom a lose of habitat, whichwillmakeiI
increaeingly
rareao Limepaeeee,Daldcypreeeoccae^ionally
yield,a
intereelinqveneere
and,panelinq.
Olher Names Soulherncypre6e,ewam?cy?re6e,
li dewaLercy?re6e,yellowcypr eoe, while cypr eee,
red cypreee,blackcypreeo
Source:3 ouLheaeLernU,9.A.
Charaaterietice:Straiqht,Train:oilytexture; yellowb r o w n t od a r k b r o w n .
UaeetJoinery,chemical
vaLeand tanke,boaLbuildina.
poleo,poeteand manyconetruclionapplicatione.
WorkabilitytGenerallyqood:keepcutters sharp.
Finiohing:AccepLatinisheswell.
w eight 2B-35 lb./ cu.tL.
Trice:lnexpenoive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

DOUGLAS-FIR

E,BONY:w

(H)

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(e)

7otanical Name: Dtoepyroo .pp.

A I e b o n yi e r a r e a n d e x p e n o i v ee,e p e c t a l yL h e f a r n e d ,
aI' one Iime. wae obta ned
inLeneeblack ebonyv'thich,
grimarilyfrorn )ndiaand )ri Lanka.Today,il e loun) in
limited quantir.ieain areae ol Equatorial V'lesLAfri':a.
l - ) n l i kM
e a c a e e a re b o n y ,A f r i c a n e b o n yi e q e n e r a l ye o l i d
b l a c k ,w t t h o u t e t r i p e e o r m o l L | n q . 3 h 1 p 2 e tdo N o r t h
America in ehorL hearLwooAbillet'e,iL ie uaed in the
finestwood oblecLe,Sawdustlrom ebonycan cauae
reepiratory probleme.
Olher Names: SaLulinau,lndianebony,Ceylonebony,
Africanebony,MaAaqaocarebony,Gabon ebonyetc.,
a c c o r d i " qt o c a ) n t r y o " o r q t .
9ourceq lndia,Sri lanka, Africa.
Charaateristics: )enee wood with a coaroe I'exture;
qrain: very d,arkbrownI'o b1ack.
eLraiqht to inLerlocked,
Ueee: Turninqa,brueh backs,mueical inetrumenf'e,han'
d l e o , i n l a y , b u l t ao f b i l l i a r dc u e e ,o c c a o i a n a l lvye n e e r b
and other ht4hlydecoraNiveapplicaLione.
W orkability : Diffic ulf,:dulle c ut ler s a ever ely: Vr e- bo r e
for nailinq.
Finiehinq AcceVte finieheewell.
Weight 65lb.lcu, fL.
?rice:Very exVeneive,

7otanical Name: FEeudotouqa menzteeii

ane of r,he moet wtdelyuee),woode in North America,
, ouqlaa-fir
a n d t A e c o n l i n e . I ' o m o e t p l e n t i l u le p e c i e eD
ie htqhlyvaluedas a conetrucLionwood becauseol if'e
etrenqth, eLiffneoe,moderaLewelqhl'and availabilityof
wilhout't'he
Iarqe eizetimbera, 1Lie f requenLlyepelled,
"Oouqlae
iyphen ae
fir," althouqh lL ie, in f acL, not' a fir
aL all baL part of Lhe qenuo Teeudot'euqa,or"falee hemock," Current ehorLaqeoof t'his umber are due more Lo
loq1inqbans Nhanany real ecarc'tt'y.Withif'6 prominenL
qrowLh rinq fiqure, Douqlae-firaleo yieldear"traclive
"/eneeraana ?tywaoa.
Other Names: Srir"iehColumbiaVine,Oreqonpine,yellow
ftr, red fir.
Souraee; Canada, WeaLern U.3.4.,Europe.
Characterieticat 3f,raiqhf'qrain; mediumlexLure: red'
d,iehbrown:may be reeinoue.
Useet ?lywood,,joinery, veneere ani a wide ranqe of
c o naLrucLio n a 2 p||c a'i o na,
Workability: Oenerally qood',beLLerwit'h machine toole:
blunLecuLLeremoAeraLely.
Finiehinq AccepNafiniehesfairly well,

Weighu,33lb.lcu.tt.
?rice:lnexVeneive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

E,BONY,
MACASSARl'ffil

ELM,WHITE

(H)
Botanical Name:Droepyroe
opp.
Macaeearebony,unlikeblackebonywith iLeintenee
d e e ph u e ,i e m u l L i c o l o r eude,u, a l l m
y o r el i q h tl h a n d a r k .
7oLhMacaeearebonyand,blackebonyare ueed,in I,he
fineel inlayand,cabineLwork.Macaeaarebonycomee
from a numberof d,ifferent
epeciee
Nhatare all parLof
Lheebonyf amily:Nheremay be eomevariaLion
in deneiLy.Lext)reand,a??earance
from onegiecet o anor"her.
wood,coromarlel(U.K.);
Olher Namea Calamander
qold en e0ony,marblew
ood.
1ource3
: ot L h e a e tA a i a .
Extrremely
Characteriatica:
denoewith verybrittle
heafLwood,:
moetlyetraiqhLgrain,buf,may be irreqular
dark brownto black,with
or wawt fine,evenf.eKLurei
liqht-brown
ef,reaks.
Lurninqo,
bruehbacke,walkinq
eLicke,
Usea Cabinetwork,
mueicalinelrumenLe,
inlaywork,billiardcueeand deco'
ral,iveveneers:saowoodusedfor lool handlea.
Workability:Veryd,ifftcull';:
exlremebluntingof cuLLere;
p r e - b o rfeo r n a i l i n qu;n e u i t a b lf e
or gluing.
Finiahing:
Acceptefinieheeverywell.
Weightz60 -bO lb,I cu.ft .
Trice:Veryexpeneive.

(H)
9otanical Name:Ulmueamericana
Whiteelmie Lhelarqeet.
and arquablythe moet.eLately
elmof a1l.Moreso than olher elme,Lhiemajeeliclree
waedevaetaf,edby Dutchelmdiaeaoeana iaaay tt i5
relarively
difficultLo lind whiteelmlumber.Ihewool,ie
exI;remely
eaeyto bendand ie moet,olLenueedLo make
furniNure,
Whenelicedon the quarLer,whiteelmproducee lovelyribbon-ef,rip
ed veneere.
Other NamestAmericanelm,waterelm,ewampe\m
qrayelm(Canada),
(U.9.A.);
orhamwooA,
Souraesz
Canadaand,U.3.4.
Charaaierietico:
UouallysLraightqrain,Lhouqhoften
inberlocked: coa r ee f,eKLure: lighf,,y ellowieh- brown color.
boat.buildinq,
o?arf,6equipment.
Usee:FurniLure,
and
decoraf,ive
veneerS.
WorkabilitytGenerallyqood:dullecuLtinqedqeemoderalely;goodbendinqproperLiee,
buxproneIo warpinq.
Finiehing;
AccepLo
finioheawell.
Weight:35lb.lcu.fL.
Tricezlnexpeneive,
but.increaoingd,ueto ecarciLy.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

.N-;
GONCALOAIVF,S
Lv uv
'l>

HACKBERRY

(H)
Ootanical name: AaLrontum 7raveolene
SeauLifal,durable and etronq, qoncaloalvee eomef,imee
bears a reeemblancef,o bolh roeewoodand Macaeaar
ebony.II ie ueed,lor fine applicalionelikeknife handlee,
billiardcue butt a, bruah back.e,and dampero in grand
pianoo.SecauEeLhe tree has becomean endanqered
epecieo,qoncaloalvee ie difficult.Lofind in NorLh
America. lL ie availableprimarilyin veneere.
Olher Name:Iiqerwood
5ourcer Srazil.
Characteristice: Dense,very heavy wood; irceqular,
int e rlocked,qr ai n: m edium LexLur e: r ed dieh-br own
marbled with black elreako: large variatione in color
and qrain.
Uses: FinefurniLure,cabineLmakinq,
Lurninqand
veneer6.
Workability: Difficult: blunLecu|I;inq edqee moderately
to eeverely;Vre-borefor nailing.
Finiahing AcceVX.o
finieheewell.
Weight:59 lb.lcu.fL.
Trice: Expeneive.

(H)
Ootanical Name: CelLtaocctdenta|te
lackberry ie elaeLic,ehack-resi""tanLand eaey to bend,
characf,erieLiceiX eharee with elm and,aeh',iL ie ofLen
uaed ae an aeh eubstitut e in Lhe farniLureindu""fry,
HackberryLreee qrow to more fhan 1aO fueI Lall.
All,houghmoeL hackberryie ueed for conetraction, the
wood'sdistinct,figure makeo if, an att racLivechoicefor
veneerg, cabineLworkand,lurniLure.
Olher Names: euqarberry, hack-f,ree,baeLard e m, net XleIree, beaverwood.
Sourceet Eaelern U.3.A.and eouLhernCanada.
Characteristics: lrregularqrain; moderalely coaree t exture: liqht brownwith yellowbande.
Usest Furnif,ure,I?orlo equtpmenL,cabineAwork,
plywooa and veneer?.
Workability: Generally qood: dulle cuttero moderately:
interlocked,
qrain requireereduced planinqanqle;qood
bendinqproVerLies,
Finiahinq Accep|e ftniehea well:ea?eciallyaLLracLivein
naLuralcolor.
tNeight':40 lb.lcu.fL
Tricet lnexpeneive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

HICKORY

HOLLY

(H)
9otanical Name:Caryaepp.
For ol;renqLh,
hardneoaand flexibiliLy,
hickoryia the besL
commercially
available
woodin NorLhAmerica.lL ie ueed
for Loolhandlee,
euchae axeeand,maule,and,foreporL'
inTequiVmenL.
EveniIe woodchiVeare ueeful:Ihey are
oflen uaed,in emokinqmeal.
Other NameetShaqbarkhickory,piqnuthickory,mockernuLhickory,red hickory,
whitehickory.
9 ource:Eaef,ernU.5.A.
Charaoleristice:
NormallyetraighLqrain,buLcan be
irreqularor wawi coaroet"exlure:brownto reddieh-brown
hearlw ood; whitreeapwood.
furnilure,chaire,
Ueee;SporLtnq
equipmenL,
benLwood
eLrikinqhandlee,
and veneere.
plywood
Workability:DifficulL:blunLecutLingedqeemoderaLely:
whenplaningirregularqrain,reduceblade'ecutf,ingangle;
veryqood,bendinqproVertieo.
Finiohing:
Acceptefinieheewel|
Weight:51lb./cu.ft.
?rice:lnexpeneive.

(H)
6otanical NametIlexeoo.
A clooe-qrained,
almoetrwhitewood,with vtrLually
no
viaible
fiqure,hollyio valuedfor inlaywork.Hollyveneer,
for ebony.Very
dyedblack,eubatiLulee
little of thie
timberie cut,eachyear,makinqil a difficullwoodLo
obtain.Spri7eof holly,however,
with Lheirehinyleavee
and red berries,
are commonChrietmaedecoralione.
Olher Names:Whiteholly.
Sources:Europe,U.9.4.and weelernAeia.
Characterielice:lrreqularqrain;fine,evenlexLure:
whiLeIo grayioh-white;
?ranelo blueeLain.
Uees:)rnaLe Lurninqe,musicalinof,rumenle,
inlay,
rnarquetryand veneere.
Workabilit"y:
Difficult:keeVcuNNing
edqeovery oharV
and reducecuLbinq
anqleof planeblade.
Finiehing;AcceplefinieheEverywell.
rNeightz35 -5O lb./cu.ft .
?riae:Expeneive.

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I ALL' I -\-,r
n RurA

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YIN)
\ _\\,

(H)
9otaniaal Namet Hymena ea courbaril
A etronq, hard wood,iatoba has shock-reEist'ance
qualitieosimilarto ash and hickory,and i6 olLenueed
Althouqha diffiin tool handleoand eporte equipment.
cult woodIo work,lat obalakee on a e?ecialglowwhen
it io planed,lte bark is similarto that' of paperbirch
of iL are usedin canoe-makinq.
and eheeNe
Olher Namee Amerelo,cuapinol,courbaril,West lndian
|ocuet,(U.9.A., U.K.);|oouet,etinkinqtoe (Weot,|ndieo):
guapinol(CentralAmerica):jut'aby,iatai vermelho
(Arazil):alqarrobo.
SourcesrCentraland )outh AmericaandtheWestlndies.
qrain;mediumto
CharacteriEtiaaMootly int'erlocked
^almonre+Lo oranqebrownhearLwood
coa?6eteKVu?ei
with dark brownstreake,darkeninqto reddishbrown:
whiie t o oinkishoagwood.
UeeetF urniiur",c)binetmakinq,turnin4,tool handles,
and veneero.
o?ortin7equipment,froorin4,Vanelinq
Worl'abilityt Faia lough to sawi interlockedqrain hard
bendinq?ro?erbiee.
to plane;poorfor nailinq;moAeraNe
Finiehin1Accefio stains well,butdoesnot poliahto
a hi7h-qlooofinioh.
tNaighrz4B'56 lb./cu. tN.
?riaezModerate.

t)-.

KINGWOOD SN)
v(H)

1ot aniaal Name; Dalberqtacearenaia

Likemost rceewoodo,kinqwoodie heavyand very
aLiraclive.Oeeewinqof ite reqalname,NhieNimberwas
ueedin lhe finesLfurnilure built for LouieXIVand
ie an endanqered
LouisXVof France.Today,kingwood
epecieolhal is becominqe*remely ecarce.Thesmall
amounf,olhat are availablefind ueein reetoralionwork,
finelurninqoand veneere.
violetta (U.9.A.);
Alher NameezVioletwood,
violete(brazil).
5ouraetOrazil.
Characterislioez
)traiqht qrain; line texlure: violel'
brown,dark violetand blacketripeeaqainet'yellowlo
violeL-br ownbackqround.
UseezTurninqand veneerofor inlayand marquetry.
WorkabilltyrOenerallyqood;blunto lool and blade
cuthinq edgeemoderalely.
Finiahingl Aaaepto finishes well;well euit'edto a
naturalwaxfinieh.
Weiglrf,r7O-75 lb./ cu. fN.
?rlcelVery expen6iv6.

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LIGNUMVITAEN
(H)
Aotanical Namer Guaia cum officinale
"wood
of life"receivedile namelor the
Lignumvitae or
oupVooedly
curaf,ivequalilieeof its resin.ThieeVecieo,
whichis extremelyolow'qrowinq,
produceeoneol t'he
world'sheavieslcommercialtimbere,and io virLually
self-lubricatingdueIo ito hiqhraeinconhent.This
makeait idealfor ito prinaiValuse,ao bearinqoand
buohin7blocksfor ehiVpropellorshafas,lor whichthere
oubot'ilute.
ie preoentlyno elfective oynNhebic
Olher Nameerlronwood(U,5.A.);7uayaaanneqro,palo
oanio (Cuba);boisde gaiac (Franae).
5ouraea Trooical America and Weet lndieo,
Charact'erlEblaetHeavy,denoe woodi intarlocked, irrequ'
to blaak.
lar qrain:qraenioh-brov,n
lJEes:Manne bearin4a,mallebheads,pulleyoand u)minqz.
Worlability, Difficuli'; dulls autters moderawlg not
ouitablefor qluinqunleaotreated frroL,
Flniehing AcceVto finishes w ell.
.'
Weighb-77lb.lcu.ft,
?riaet,Veryil?eneive.
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MADRONE
(H)
9 otanical NamezArbutu a menzieeii
Madronevarieogreatly in size,sometreeo reaching
125teeLin heiqhtwilh enormouobnnchee somelirnee
oLrelchinqaut overan area of IO,OOOequarefeet.lt
offerea beaulifult imber,which,thouqh diffiaultto
srnoothfinish.Smaller
dry,canbeqivena remarkably
madronetimberoften has burlqrowthoatit's baee;
these are frequently developedinf,ootunningveneers,
It ie also knownas one of r,he beat,sourceeof charcoal
for makin16unpowden
OhherNameal 7aoftic ma*rone,arbutuo, madrona.
9ourceat Canadaand western U.5.4.
Chalz,otnriallcet5t raigWbto irreqularq?aini fine,even
iet&urei palereddioh'yellowto deeVerred or brown.
UeeszFinefurniture, htrninq ani decoraiiveveneero.
Wo*abiltq6 9 atisf act'oryt blunto cutting edqeo r aiher
eevar elyi mediumbandin6 ?r o?efti es.
FlnlehingzAcce?t o finishes well
Waigltu48lb.lcu.ft.
?dcrltModerata.

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WOOD DIIIECTORY

MYRTLE

HARD
MAPLE,,

(H)
caltforntca
botanical Name:Umbellularta
wellknownfor iLeclueLerand burlfiqareA
Eopecta)ly
lor
myrLleio a favorif,e
amonqftnecrafLErnen
veneerg,
c a b i n e t n a k i naqn d m a r q u e L r y . W ht tl lhea ea e t r o n q
Lendency
lo checkand warpin dryinq,oncezeaeoned
myrtleio a touqhwood,ableLo withet'andmuchwear
turntnqwood,myrf'leie
and,abuse.Aleoa preferred
amanq
frequenLly
madeinlo bowlaand,canaboticko,
o t h e r f i n eq o o d e .
laurel,mounlainlaurel,
Alher Names:Californta
bayrtree,
epiceLree.
I).3.4.
1ources;Oreqonand California,
Characl eristicotGenerallyoI raiqhLqrain,bul occa 5ionqol)enLanXoyellowieh-qreen,
fineLexXure:
allyirreqular;
joinery,cabineImakinq,
panelUees;f urninq,furniLure,
inq,and veneera.
Fair:dullscuLtinqedqeeeeverelyand quick'
Workabilisyt
l y :r e d u c ec u t L i n ga n q l e f o rp l a n t naqn d e h a V i n q .
Acceptsfinieheeverywell.
Finishing:
Weight:3b lb.lcu.ft.
?rice:ModeraLe',
burlio exVereive.

(H)
Oolanical Name: Acer eaccharum
f' denee wood, harA maple'eueea afLenLake advantaqe
of ite reeiet,a.ceto wear and,abraaion.)i ie ueed in a
w i d er a n q eo f c o n o L r t c t i o n ,i n c l u d i n qb o w l i n qa l l e y oa n d
dance floora. Olten poeeeeeinqan atlraclive liddleback
o r c u r l yf i q u r e ,L h i e i e a l e o l h e m a p l ew h i c hp r o d u c e el h e
veneere.
f arroue bird,'a-eye
Other Names: Rock maple,euqar maple,whiLemaple
( e a p w o o d )b, i r d ' e - e y em a p l e( 1 tt h e d i o t i n q u i e h i nqqr a i n
ie preaent).
S o u r c e s :C a n a d a ,U . 3 . 4 .
Char a ct'erist'icot 3t rai7ht qrai n, o c c a eio nally c urly, wavy
or bird'e-eye;f\ne texLure:hearLwoadia reddiehbrown:
eapwoodio whiLe,
mueical
Ueee: Turning,furnilure, 6?arLo equiVment',
inetrumenf,s,butcher'a block.e,floorinQ,plywood
and veneerg,
Workabilit'y: Dttficult: blunle cutLing ed4ee mod,erately:
pre-borefor nai inq:qood bendinqproVerLiea.
Finiehing:Acceple finieheowe1l.
Weighi 42lb.lcu.ft.
?rice: lnexpeneive
lo moderaf,e,
on fiqure.
depend,ing

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OAK,RED

OAK,WHITE

(H)
botanicalname;Quercueepp.
Kedoak,l:hemoEt.caffirnan
oakvarieLyin North
America,qrowaveryquickiy-younq treeo olLena2rout
a foot.a year.fhe wooAia an al,lracliveand valuapte
hardv,tood
and,hae beenoneol Lhemoef,popularNor1h
Americanoako'ueedin EuropeeinceLheearlylBLh
Century.Il ie coneidered
uneuiLable
for exLerior
work.
Olher Names:NorLhern
red oak,Americanred oak,
Canadianred oak,qrayoak.
Sources:Canadaand eaeternU.3.A.
Characterietice; 7tr aiqht.qrain; coa ree texLure: pinkieh-redcolor.
Uses:Furniture,inLerior
joinery,floorinq,Vlywood
and veneerg.
Workability:Generallyqooii moderaLeblunlinqof cuLlere; moderate bendinq?ro?erLiee,
FiniahinqSatiefactory:becauoe
of openporee,iL
ehouldbefilled,beforeanyfinishingor painLinq.
Weight:40 lb./cu.fL
?ricet N4oderale.

(H)
Ootanical Name: Quercue epp.
Thie oak-a wood of uniqaeveroatility-prodacee Lhe
fineeLoak veneerzand lumber,and ie very reej",tanL t o
wear.Tieae qualiLieemaV.eit eiqnilicantlymore vallable
Nhan red oak.7ut perhapeita moeL-valuedproperty ie
lhe preeencein iLe cells of tylosee, a honeyconblike",ubetance thaL makeeI;he wood waLerLiqhLand idealfor
whiekeybarrela.Kecently,lheee barcelshave bequnLo
be reuaed,red,ucinqthe larqe drain on whtLeoak.for
that purpoee,
Other Namee: American while oak, burr oak, swamV while
oak, cheotnJf,oak, overcuVoak, ewamp cheetnuL oak.
Sourcee: Canada and l,).3.A,
Characteriatice,t1f,raiqht qr ain: moderately coaroe
lexLure: liqhl Lan wif,h a yellowiehLint.
joinery,cabinef,making,
Ueea: FurniLure,
boat buildinq,
barrele,Vlywoodand veneers.
Workability: Good; pre-bore for nailinq:qood
bendinqproperLiee.
Finiahing;Accepte finioheawell.
rNeight:47 lb.lcu.ft.
?rice: ModeraL.e.

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OLIVE,WOOD

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(H)
Aotanical Name:)lea europaea
caaot,European
oliveGrownalonqthe lr4ed,itrerranean
wood
woodie a comelytree,andyieldea fine,att'racLtve
Thietree
Lhat,ernitaa oweelscent.wheniL is worked,.
in very
ie aleof amouafor iLefruil and,oil.Available
ia
olivewood
amallamounte,and proneLo d,efecte,
or cawedqoode
ofLenuaedto produceemallLurned
anAiT'ie aomefimee
for salein EuroVe'e
trourislmarket',
cul inLoveneer.
OtcherNametlNalianolivewood.
Califarnia.
1ourcee;ltaly and,eouthernEurope,
9Ir aiqhl'to irreqularqraiwfiner'exCharacteristicat
f,ure;liqhLLo dark brownbackqroundwit'hd,arkereNreake.
carvingand lnlaywork.
UeeetTurninq,
WorkabilityrGenerally good, t'houqhrelatively difficult'
to oaw.
FiniohinqAcceVtofinieheewell.
W e i g h t : 5 &l b . l c u . f t .
TricetExpeneive

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PADAUK,
AFRICANN

(H)
Ootanical Name: ?t;erocarpueooyauxii
6f,ronq,
durableand slable.
Africanpadaukie exf,remely
than f,herareAndamanpadauk,
Thouqhleeawellknown
ana i6 Lrulya
iL compareewell,is muchmoreavailable
handaome
woodin iNeownriqhL.ln eomeVarteof lhe
ueedfor floorinq,
worldAfricanpadaukie commonly
whereif,iEconeidered,
of excepLional
qualiNy:
pad,auk
veneera
are no leasvaluedfor their beauty.
barwood,camwood.
Olher Namest7ad,ouk,
1ourcetWeetAfrica.
grain;moder'
)traiqht' xo intrerlocked,
Characleristiaet
wif'h
alely coaroelexfroreideepred to purple-brown
red et"reake.
Ueest Furnilure, cabinetmaking,joinery,lur ning, ha ndlesand veneerg.
WorkabiliNyz
Good:dullscuttere eliqhlly.
FiniohinyAcceplefinisheeverywell.
Weight:45lb./cu.tL.
?riaetModerate.

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PERSIMMON

(H)

(H)
B o l a n i c a l N a r n e :.
) 1. t
, ' : , tr, ii r L , 4 rt . r i a a t 1 a , , ' 1

boLanical
N a n f e : , i r ' ! I : , : r . r 1I. ,: .r l - i r : t : : f ' . 1r . . : ; r ' ; : ; i i i i l l i . t i : , ' i . , ]
. , , 1 r t t , i , ; . t i , " ' ' ' , ' . , . . i , r 1 . , r , : . l a f . t t : , . r , ; , t r j _ i r , L n t - ; , ' ,a1j' l,' j a i : ) a : i '

t
. f ' , ' ' r . ' . . . : l ' : , 1 . t t - t l l.,lt , ) i t . , ' a ) \ \ t \ t ' . \ . : tt r: r) r- 'l.. l r a :d t . t . , : , f t , J : ,
't)i:'.a)l:..\,\iaoa1 j',, ,1,,'t-rf
,al:f.
,rr,.r'a':.1i,l:-i
t' l,:it--;f'a:t
,17,11
',,;:, ,;i,i
ri' ri;i../,ilf
r l t , ' : a ' , , i ! : . 'l.f t l L r , r l t 1 l t e t t . ) a l a t \ , , a t . ) t : ) , .
t - . , - , t l a : : l ] r : : aaaf.ii.'ia, , " , a O ' l '
I , " r . . : : i i li r , l ' i ' l i r ' . : l f l , i - : i l : , t . , . . l , " i l - . r 1 .
, . , . i . . : , : t , . : . -l , , r : . . ,: - r . r . r t r a r . . l . i a : :iitl, 2 L t r r ' .^ r r : i O f l i _ r , . t t - l r c .i i . r
't
i i ri ,-'1-.1. | .2t:) aari-,t
qi.,t)t.il,t.. al at.i.:.ltqr.l.,.
l)1..a);'tl):,
i t i , : : ' . t l'lr. ; ' , [ l , t
Otrher Nameg'
t. .\,\aaL )a:a,aa,',^,,1Lar
I : . i i . , r - \ / .i ) 'j . . ' , . t t ) i : a . 2 i . . i , ' l , 1 , fl t L t l . i t t [ . O 1 " r .
i -tt)fi i).r,

, . . , , _ -rl fi l . i r j . , , . , a i r)l/ : : , ( ) i . ) i . t t a ,t , a i r f , . t f a : l . , r : . a fr . 1 t , ' i ; t ; , ,4U

'-::,:.t,:1:',.l'-) t' t )'r tl', . ),) l.rt,. a,'.i i ai r{'it it,at.

'

Workability: iztr: i.:ar, )t.tt,t.t:.t-'f,,rta,eiqe!, ee',,t:rt.-lytiadtae

,.'..';itr.,,:t,.)a
t :t\A
, \ , , , ) t .;.t.,l,t:.r , i r , qo r 1 | : l ; t p : n qt . r e ! ' . t a r o , r ' , ; i n
i t t ' a i - . ) . . i .i : : t r : i l t t r j ; ' , , 1 1 i1" ',,a, : . : l l : t : , n ) i n q 2 r O p e i i e e .
Finiehing:
W e i q h t : I ( , . ' i . , ir - ' . r : . ' i . .
7 ri c e'. i',,1
o ri : r'ial r:.

Wei7ht:7:2.:1.I ct. i..

:.

? rice: n ev.oen ai\ta I.i.) ft1odat'a i,r:).

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.it,.,.1r'r
W o r k a b i l i t y : ( i o r , t : : r a |1' r l t t t . t Ar: - . l l : - ,a , l t i1. .!.a c , : . 1 r 1 r : , ,
,
:
)
a - t a { , r a d J a t . c t r i . r . . i n qa n q l t v ' , | - ' t n . } 1 t 1 a .i : ) p 5l r p r ' . ,f;r i , l '
n a r i n q : n , c t i i t , r ^ a - ,l.tct i t ; \ n q ? i a i ) . i r i . . . : : . .i't, ( l ' t i , f i i . i . r - r , : r i :
'...t. | .
F i ni ohi n 6 : i', r:r: t-,1tL.. "':,t i",r,t a r., !/arr'v f r/r'

I l r t . , i f t r J . i ' r . ril. i I . r) t . a . i,. . ) a ) ' ti , , : . n ) ' t e : t . r p o r ' l . e

I'i

IirJLrrr.
c2rt ltit,,it .ia all.,t a)aIt\.,a,
O l h e r N a m e g l : , o t t . , o o l , . ' r r a r ; r - ; , ; r ; , tr. - . r i r : . 1 ,. {a"rr',r . , . ' r r . , l , 1 , I. :r
1 . / . fl l / j : ': i 'j l t i f ' r , l ' ' . . '
l . )J l l 1 ,\ ' l . l q i f , t . a ; l ; f . cf L ; t r . f l r : r i t t l l f l r | i r i .l'
9 o u r c e g : i . , - ' . r . " ; r a; n r ' i : , r - r r t l r i : , 1 . : p . . i i .
C h a r a c l e r i s t i c s : ' : i r a ' a l : i . . a t a a t i ' i l ' . t .a. i ! ' a i fi l 1 - r i. rr t ' / : :I f t .r!
ir, r;ii-;'',1';. .
la're lar'r. t:'of,\/NOr i:'rt:,t.|.:,'i..rt
,,k:,.,'.t),,j1)\\(.)t))
,l-'
lrrr'.rjr,,
U s e s : G o l ' t . . t b l ' , r a l z ,. t: '.i 1t I i
l

'
Sourceg:
Characteristics: !:t.r: tt'i;. qt a -lct.li,ltoito,rtbi.:rfitl t1t t

Uses:

"

: . tZ t i : 1t.' , 1 , . ,r,.f i , r r i l i ' : . ' l i . , ri , ,l r i l t " ! , : r i r r , , ' . , . ' , ,1r I . f : , - , : r i l i '

: . . f i i ; , t 1 r i l 1 i , r j i ,i t ' r t : r t i l i f l t : r l - , ,i,r l : j r ' f r' , a . , . , , , , i t . t i i : : . i I r I
-r:
: . f f a t h e a l - 1 . ' , ^ , , i -a,a :,t!:. . a
' ,N ) . , i J t a t ] ' : . i ' : l l r '
1,
i i r'
i , , a i , - r ; 1 r ' , ' . a l I. n
a rf ,- - r i i ' ] i - - , ' l . . r r r l i r , . , i .i ' . : . : : : i '):l,' 1- t t ) . . ' : l r / ] l , i ' : l
'1
,za)l'ir,i";,tina
r L r ; ; l i t, ' : , i ,[ .. r ' r i : l ' i - l ] i r . l , t 1 , , ' , ; tt 1 : i ; , 1
'
'
.
,
;
1
.
1
.
,
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)
,
:
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;
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;
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..

.: r: .l
,, i, ,111,,
;,,.,,.,'i '-:i )l)a'a:t.a.t.at:' i..it,a.,.,,,',l.,fiaa:t",,t:itt)
.\, ;r111t.1
':',
j
t:tl' .),tft aa.
l ritr f ilklti.'iitr:
f ,il.al't tl't...1-lt'l.t' .j \,',,i1..:

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PINE,PONDEROSA

PINE,SOUTHERNYELLOW

(e)

(e)

OotanicalName:Finueponderoea
Oneof the mo6Laf,f,racf,ive
pinee,t"heponderoeaqrowe
acroeawegternNorf,hAmericaand eometimeemakeo
iLehomeatrelevaf,ions
of morethan 1O,OOO
feeLin the
K o c k i e eD. e c a u e eo f i L s r e s e m b l a n cien c o l o ra n d
texLurelo whiLepine,ponderoea
has increaeingly
been
usedas a eL)boLiLute
for that wood,Tonderoea
pineie
eornetiffie.elicedinLoknoLIypineveneer,buLi|e primary
ueeis in conelruclionand ae inLerior
frim.
Other Namee: 3iq Vine, bird'e-eye pine, knotty pine,
polepine,pricklypine,weoLern
yellowpine.
Sources:Canadaand wesLernU,3.A.
Characteristics:Wideliqhi-yellowsapwood;darker
yellowto reddieh-brown
hearLwood:
qenerallyeilraight,
qrain:eventexture.
Usea Furnit,ure,turninq
joinery
ani cawinq(eapwood):
and qeneral conelrucLion (hearLwood ): occa eionauy
panelinq
and veneers.
Workability:Good;blunLscuLLinqed4eealiqhr,ly:
ooor
bendinqproperl,iee.
FiniohinqAcceVLofinieheewell,butdoes not etain
ae wellae whibepine.
tNeighfr32\b./cu.tL.
Tricezlnexpeneive.

DotanicalName:Finueaoo.
7ouf,hernyellowpineie Lhe heavieetcommercialeofLwoodand cerLainlyof foremoetrim?o-ancefor the
conef,rucf,ion
and pulpinduef,nee.
7ut, becaueeof the
d e c r e a e i nogu p V l yo f w h i t r e
p i n e , i l h a er e c e n t l yb e q u n
to be usedexleneively
in veneere,which
are darkerand,
markedby dieLinclgrowLhrinqe.TheeeLreeoaleo
s u p V l yl u r V e n L i n ep,i n eo i l a n d r e e i nu e e di n l h e c o e meNiceinduetry.
Other Namea ?il,chpine,shorLleafpine,longleaf
pine,loblolly
pineand severalof,hertree namee.
5 ourcetI outheaetern \J.3.A,
Characteristics:SLraighLqrain:coareeNexf,ure;
yellow-brown
to reddieh-brown
hearLwood.
Uses: FurniNure,
conetrucf,ion,
plywoodand veneers.
Workabilityr
Fair;highreeincontentwillcauaeqummy
build-upon Loolo:LendeLo Learwhencrooecut..
Finiohing:AccepLofinisheefairly well;becaueeof
hi7hreeinconhenL,
finisheeeomelimeebubbleup,eeVec i a l l ya r o u n d k n o l e .
Weight:3O-3B lb./cu.lt .
?riae:lnexoeneive,

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WOOD DIRECTORY

PINE,WHITE

POPLAR,YELLOW

(e)

(H)
9otanical NameszLrriodendron tulipifera
Muchof the remaininq
eupplyof thie wood,reqardedao
oneof lhe moeLvaluable
timberein Ihe eaelernU.3.4.
lieein the Appalachian
Mounlaine.l-)eed,
in
ex\eneively
|,hewoodie ueed,
Europetnf,heearlyl9OOs,Loday
mainlyin the l-).3.for a ranqeof woodworking
applicaNioneandfor Vulp.Theeapwoodie eometimescalled
whilewood.
Olher Names; Ca noe wood, xuliVpopla r, tuliplree.
SouraetU.3.4.
Characterieliaa:Straiqht qrain;fine,evenLeKLorei
whif,eoapwoodLo pale-brown
hearLwood
wiLhgreen
or darkbrownef,reake.
UaeozJ oinery,f urnilure, cabinelwo rk,mueical ineLru'
rYtent7,
cawingand veneerg.
WorkabilitytGood:dullecu+vLere
onlyeltqhtly.
Finiehingz
Accepbefinieheewell.
Weight:,30-35 lb.Icu.ft.
Trice:lnexpeneive.

9otanical Name:FtnueeLrobue
WhiLeVine'e
verealility,workabilily
and non-reeinoue
naturemadeif,a preferredwoodfor both conolruclion
lor cenf,uriee.
EarlyAmericanseLllero
and woodworking
olLenhonored,
Nhewhibepine,puNtinqit,on the coloniee'
f l a 4 d u r i n qI h e A m e n c a nK e v o l u t i o an n d o n o t r h e r
flaqe and coinethrouqh Lheyeare.l-)nforf"unalely,
becauaeof iLewideeVread
uee,whitepinehae become
ecarcera
, l t h o u q hb e c o n aq e n e r a t i o ng t r a n i ga r e
preeentlymaLlrinq.
Olher Namee:EaeLernwhiLepine,norLhernwhiLepine,
norLhernpine,QuebecVine,sofl pine,baleam
pine,
whif,epine.
Canadian
1ources:Canadaand,U.3.4.
Characterielicet)Lraiqht grain;event exLure:liqhty ellowlo reddiah-b
rown hearLwood.
joinery,boat buildinq,
Uses':FurniLure,
conef,ruclion,
plywoodand veneere.
Workability:Good;blunte cuLf,ereeliqhf,ly;
poorbendinq
propertieg;too sofLfor somefurnilure uses.
Finiehing:Acceptefinieheswell.
Weight:28 lb.lcu.ft.
Triaetlnexpenetve.

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WOOD DIRE,CTORY

PRIMAVERA
N

(H)
DotanioalName* Cybiotaxdonnell-emit
hii,
eyn.Tabebu
ia donnell-amithti
SomelimeewronqlyreferredLo ae"whilemahoqany,"
ie oneof the fineetr"blond"cabineL
woodein
Vrimavera
the world.Secaueeof the depleLion
of oupply,however,
today iNio relativelyhard to geL Thewoodie wellknown
for ile beautifulliqht-coloredveneere.OfIenLheyare
elriped or havea handeomemoLLledfiqure.
Olher Nameo:Duranqa(Mexlco);)anJuan (Hondurae):
Valo bla nco (Guatemala); cortez, corLezblanco
(El Salvador).
Source:CenLralAmerica.
Charaateristiae;SLraiqhtto irregularqrain;mediumLo
coar ee tefrure: y ellowieh-white
to y ellowieh-brown,
Ueeq Cabinetwork,fine furnitureand veneero.
Wo rkabilityt Very good: moderale bending properLiee.
Finishingl.
AccepLefinieheeverywell.
Wei6ht: 3O-bB lb./cu.fL
?riaezExpeneive.

PURPLEHEART
(H)
gotaniaal Name: Feltogyneepp.
A uniquely
altraclive and durablehardwood
and a challengeLo workwiLh.
Cuttinqcan be hampered
by qum
depoeiLe,
whichwilleeepouLof Lhewoodif iI io heahei
wiLhbluntcuttinq ed,geo.
Sladee,Lherelore,
mueNbe
keVN
exlremelyeharp,and woodehouldbe run elowly
throuqhmachines.
WhileLhewoodie purple,lheee
qum
deposiLs
can ranqefrom coalblacktowhile,and olten
etreakthewood.
Ot,her Na mee:Amaranth, violelw
ood ( U.3.A.); eakavalli,
oaka,koroboreli
(Guyana);?auroxo,nazareno(Venezuela):
(Orazil):Lananeo(Colombia).
?auroxo,amaranNe
5ouraeetCenLral
and 9ouLhAmerica.
CharaateristiaetStraiqhLqrain;moderateto coarae
Lerture:deeppurVle,maburinqLo a rich brownafLer
lonqexpoeure.
Uses:Veneers,
turninq,indoorand outdoor,furniture,
tool ehafls and handlee,
and butls of billiardcues.
Workabilibyt)ifficult: moderaLet o eeverebluntin4;preborefor nailinq;
propertiee.
moderaLe
bending
Finiohing;Acceptefinieheswell:lacoruer
?reoeNeopurplecolor:alcoholbasedfiniEheeremovelhe color.
Weightz54lb./cu.fL.
Trice:Moderate.

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WOODDIRECTORY

REDWOOD,CALIFORNIA
(e)

gotanical Name: I equoia eempervirene

ThetascinalinqCaliforniaredwoodqrowoto an incredibleeize.NaIiveto coaslal Californiaand )reqon, it io
capableof reachinqwellover3OOfeex in heiqhN
and
oneLreemayyieldlhoueandeof boardfeet of lumber,
Allhouqheupplieeof this woodhavebeeneeriouely
depleted,redwoodcan eomelimesstill be acquiredin
ertremelywideplanko.Thewoodie noted for ito stabiliIy, durabiliLyand resisLanceto decay:ito larqeburle
are cul inlo veneers.
Olher Namet Redwood,
SouraetWestcoast of U.9,A.
Charaoteriatioez?traight qraini fine, eventexf,uretaeep
reddish-brown.
Ueea Joinery,furniture,Vooto,panelin4,?lwood and
veneere,and muchliqht ouldoor con;lruction.
Workabiliiy: Good:dulls cuttera only sli4htly:moAerate
bendin7properliee.
Finiehin6zAccegta fi nishee well.
Wei6ht;26lb./cu.ft,
?ricet lnexpengive
to moAerale,

ROSEWOOD,
HONDURASN)
(H)
6otanical Name; Da Iberqia eteveneonii
Thiehard,heavy,durablerosewood
ie primarilyvalued
in lhe makinqof marimbabareand qrowsonlyln Selize,
lhe formerDritishHondurae.
Ao euppliee
are verylimited,iLs other mainuseeare confinedto fine cabinelwork,
marquelryandlurned iteme.1omeepecimene
are very
oilyand willnottake a hiqhnaturalpolieh.
Other Namet Naqaed.
5ourcet 1elize.
Characteristicst3t r aiqhLIo somewhal,streaked
t o purple
6rain:moderatelyfinetexLurctpinkieh-brown
with dark,irre4ular
6rainlinee,
Uaes:MueicalineNruments,
veneerofor fine aabinetworkand Lurning,
Workability.Fair,toughlo machinebecaueeof hardnesaiseverelydullocuLtingedqee:poorbendinq?ro?ertiea.
Finiahin1zAccepto finishes well,Vrovidedthe wood
io nottroo oily.
Weight:60 lb./cu.fL.
?rlcet Exoensive.

WOOD DIRECTORY

WOOD DIRECTORY

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SATINWOOD,
CEYLON .,

SASSAFRAS
(H)
7otanioal Name: 7aeeafrae albidum
S a s e a f r a a .a m e m b e ro l L h e e a m el a m i l y a e c i n n a m o n ,
ie beel knownfor it e fraqranl oil, ueed lor flavorinq
and ocentinq,and Lhe Nea made from iLe roof, barK.
\ N h i l ee t m i l a ri n c o l o r ,q r a t na n d L e x L u r et o b l a c ka o h ,
aaeealrae Limber ie briLtle an), aoft and ie ee dorn
availab)ein larqe aizee.ILe decay reeietanceand reaonance rnakeiL an alLractive choicefor eorneepeciAt z e da p p l i c a t i o n e .
Olher Names: Cinnamonwood,red aasaafrae,qumbofile.
Source: EaeLernU.e.A.
Charact erieiice: 7Xraiqht. qrain; coar ee f,exture: ljqhL
io darkbrown.
Uees: Aoar"buildinq,kayak Vad,dleo,
conlainere,furnitJre and,mueical ineLrarYentg.
Workability: Fair: wood is briLLleand eofL, oo keep tool
edges very eharV:pre-borefor nailinqLoavoid eplittinq:
qood bendinqproperLiee,
Finishing:AccepLefinieheewell.
Weight:2b lb,lcu,ft.
Tricet lnexpeneive
f,o moderate.

(H)
Ootanical Nam e: ChIo roxyIo n ewieLen ta
Ihouqh Lhe name eaLinvtoodhae beenqivent"o many
world Limbero,CeyloneaLinwoodle one ol very few that
h a v ef o u n d o i q n i f i c a n L
u a e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a .) l h a e
b e e na e e d i n f i n e w o o d w o r k i naqn d c a b i n e L m a k i nf qo r
c e n l u r i e e ,b u LL o d a y t a v a l u e dm a i n l yf o r i t e e t l n n i n q
veneere-ea?eciallyIhe f amoue bee'o-winqrnot;Lle.)n
aoliAforrn it qenerallyie ueed lor fine Lurned qoode
euch ae brush backa,reaordereand inlay v',ark.
Olher Names: Eaet lndian eattnwood.'yeltow
eanAere;
billum
, a a h w a l( l n d i a ) :C e y l o no a L i n w o o d( . 3 r iL a n k a ) .
S o u r c e s :l n d i aa n d 3 r i L a n k a .
Char a cterieli cs : Inle d ocked qr ai n; f ine, eve n *'exLLlr ei
l i q h t y e l l o w L oq o l d .
U e e a tC a b i n e L m a k i nfqu,r n i t u r e ,L u r n i n qj,o i n e r ya n d
decoralive veneere.
Workability:)ifficult: qrain lende ta tear in planing
quarLerbawn maLerial:qood bendinggrapertiea.
Finiehinq AccepLofinieheewellwhenfilled,
Weightt 6l lb.lcu. ft.
Tricet Expeneive.

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WOOD DIRECTORY

J ,N
SNAKEWOOD
\:X

(H)
gotanical Names:Fiet inera7uianenoio.
eyn.Droeimum
4uianenbio
lLomarktnqo,
whichreeemble
thoeeon enakeektn,
qive
r.hteemall,relaLively
raretimberile name.Foundin limiNedquantitieein Guyanaand Surirtarn,
it.ie predominanlly ueedin Lurneditemsand carriesa cerLaincachel .
A enakewood
canear umbrella,lorinsf,ance,
miqhLbe
considered
a oreciouepoeseeeion.
Secauseof iLshardnese,enakewood,
ie verydifficultto work.
Olher Namee:Lelterwood,leopardwood,
epeckledwooa.
SouraetSouLh
America.
CharacteristiaotStraiqh| qraln;fine,evenLextrure;
deepredLo reddieh-brown
wiLhirreqular,
horizonLal
blackmarkinqe.
violinbowe,knifehandlee,
UseszFineturnedqood,e,
marquetryand veneers.
WorkabilityzDifficult:d,ullocutt inq ed,qee.
FiniehinqAccepr"o
finiaheswell.
W e i g h tB
; 1lb./cu.fL.
TricetVervexzenoive.

N)

SPANISH
CEDAR

(H)
Ootanical Name:Cedrelaeoo.
A.lLhouqh
manyopecieo
are markeledunAerf,hename
Spaniehcedar,the moel imporLanL
inLheNorLhAmerican
woodLrade,Cedrelamexicana,
qrowein CenlralAmericaand
Mexico.ExlremelyVrizedin iLenativeregionlor ito eLabiliby,
weatrhering
qualitieeand relatrive
eLrenqth,iNie expor1ed
on
"cedare,"
a verylimiLed,
scale.Likeolher
this hardwoodwill
arouoeLhesenseswitha pleaeanl,
aroma.
Olher Names;Srazilian
cedar,Honduraecedar,cedro,
ced,rorouqe.
SourceszMexico,
Centraland SouthAmerica.
Charaateristiae;)tr aiqht,occaeionallyinf,erl
ocked, qrain:
fineLo coarse,uneven
Lexf,urei
pinkieh-toreddtsh-brown
hearLwood,
darkenewif,hexpoaurelo a deeeerred,occaeionallywilh a purpleNint:eaVwood
ia whit,e
f,o Vink.
joinery,boal building,
Usea:Furniture,
cabinef,work,
muaical
inetrruntente,lead
pencile,
ciqarboxee,plywood,
and decoraveneere.
T,Me
good:difficulttroboreand veneeremay
Workability:Generally
goodbendinqproperLiee.
tend to bewoollyin cuLLing;
FiniehinryFaicwood
conlaineoilsandqumwhich
maybetroubleeome,bu|if
filled,rt canbebroughttoa emoothfrniah,
Weightt 3O lb.lcu.fL.
TricezVoderaLe.

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SPRUCE,
SITKA

(e)

Ootanical Name: Ttcea eitchenato

C,iVa

- - ' - a- nrr r e l h e l a r n e a l a n e e i e a a f a a . t e e r-a-n ' ,, r o w

marethan ZaO feeLhighwiLhd,iametera
exceed,inq
eix
feet,.Albhouqh
it.ie probablymooLvaluedlor newepaper
prod,ucLion
becauee
of iLewhiLeneee,ite
etrenqthand
workabiliLy
rnakeiLa favorilein wood,workinq
an) conoLrucLion.lL
io alooa veryrezonantwoodand ie widely
ueedtnall typeoof otrinqand keyboard
inef,rumenls.
SiLkaeoruceie olLenauarLereawn.
Other Namesz1ilvere?ruce,eeq,-toia
eilverep'uce,tide)ande2ruce,Menzieso?ruce,coael,g?ruce,we6f,ern
g?ruceandwesl coaoLo?ruce.
5ources:Canada.U.K.and U.9.4.
CharacteriaticotSLraiqhLqrain;med,ium,
evenlexfure:
whibeLo yellowieh-brown
wiNha eliqhLVinkioh
tinge.Very
hiqh etr enqth-t o-weiqht,rabio.
UaeatlnNerior
muaicalineNrumenr,a,
boat build1oinery,
inq,oare,rowingeculla,qlidero,plywood,
conotrucLion
and veneers.
Workability:Good:ver! qood,bendinqpropertiee.
FiniehinqAcceptefinieheewell.
W e i g h t ; 2 bl b . l c u . f t .
?riaetMod,eraf,e.

AMERICAN
SYCAMORE,
(H)
Ootanical Name:FIaLanuo occtd enLaIte
Arowingto heighlelhat tropZaO fuet,thie opeciea
and
f,ulip2oplarare r.helargeolhard,woode
in eaelernNor|h
America.With
iIE liqh|qreenleh-gray
bark,American
lycarAoreie a prominentr
in anyforeoi,and ie
?reeence
eomeLimes
calledthe qhoallree.WhenquarLereawn,
Lhietimber?abaeaoee
fleckfiqure.Ueed,
a d,iolinctive
to
a qrear eKterLin furnilure,Arnericargycaorcreocca6oaallyia roLaryculfor veneer6.
plane
Other NameetAmericanplaneNree,
buLLonwood,
f,ree,water beech.
9ouraeetEasf,ern
and centralU,3.4.
CharacterieliaaUeuallyetraiqhl qrain:fine,evenf,exture: pale reddieh-brown.
Ueea Furnibure,
buXcher's
blacke,
and,veneere,
1oinery,
Workabililoyt
Generallyqood:may bindon eaws',mainlain
v e r yo h a r pc u t t i n qe d g e e : h i 7ohh r i n k a q e w i a
l ht e n d e n cy to war?.
Finiohin1AccepNofinieheewell.
tNeightt35lb./cu.fL.
TricetlnexVeneive.

WOODDIRECTORY

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WOOD DIRECTORY

N)

TULIPWOOD

WALNUT,BLACK

(H)
Ootanical Name: Dalberqiafruteacena
Thieie an extremelyvaluablelimber,liqhterin colorlhan
normallyavailableinsmallcultinqo
any olher rosewood,
only.Likeall rosewoods,it qrow6very olowlyand needs
for the heaibwoodio develoVr,op-qualitycolor.
cenNurieo
1ecaueeof ita pooravailability,tulipwood
i6 not,uoually
ueedin eolidform, bul ae veneerfor inlayon frnepieaeo.
Whenit, is worked,this woodt ends tn oplinf,erantd,like
manyof the rosewood^,qiveooff afraqirant'aroma.
Ath er Namea b razilian pinkwood, pinkw
ood ( U.9.A,);
pau de fuoo,jacaranda rosa (Orazil),
9ourae:5outh America.
t*xhure:
Charao't'enetlcatlrre4ular4raint meAium-frne
rich qolden-pinkiohhue with salmonto red otripeo.
j;auelryboxeo,
Uaeal Turnin6,brush backs,woodware,
cabinztwork,inlay work,inlaid bandin1o,marimbakoyo,
decorativeveneersfor inlay workand marquetry and
antioLuereVaire.
Workablffty: Difficult; extreme dullinqof cuttnr6: ?re
borefor nailinq.
Finfahing: As6ePo frniahesvery wallicah be brouqbb
w ahigh naturalpolloh.
WeQltu65lb./cu.fr,

(H)
6otanical namet Juglane niqra
Owin4to itreqreatbeauty and 4oodworkinqcharaclerisLice,blackwalnutris oneol Lhemool valuablenaLive
woodein NorbhAmerica,1incecolonial
times,it e wide
ranqeof figureahas qracedLhefinee| Americancabinetwork.Alxhouqhknownfor iLeworkability,walnutdoee
aontainjuqlone,a chernicalbelieved
to caueedermatitie
in gomewoodworkerg.
OI,herNameetAmericanblackwalnut,Americanwalnul,
Virqinia
walnut(U.K.);
walnui,Canadian
walnuf.
5ources; EaeNernU,9.4.and Ontario,Canada.
CharacterielicslTouqhwoodof rnediumdeneity;4enerallyoiraiqht qrain:mediumcoareeNexlure;dark brown
tn purVliahblack.
UaeotFinefurnil,ure,qunof,ocke,interior joinery,cabinobmakinq,
t urninq,boai buildinq,muoicalinslrumenls,
clockcaeee,carving,?Wood, panelinqand veneere.
qood
Workabifiiy: Good; blunts cuttere moderaNely;
bendinqproperlieo,
FlniehingzAccefio nal,uralwoodfrnishesee?eciallywell.
WeQhtl40 lb.lcu.ft.
?naezModerata

WOOD DIRECTORY

WE,NGE,"..

WILLOW

(H)
9otanical Name: MilleLl,taelp,
t', eLronq.lteavy",laravtrtod,vtenqeoffere a f amiliar combinati:n lo Lle vtoodvtorV.er.
)L ie difficllL Lo work, bul
A e t i q h l f ul o o o ? a. L . a r i q i n a t t n q f r o ma L r e e o f m o d e r a"te.ize, Lh e dee2 crovn and blackwood can offer distincLiveveneer. vtit"hcharacleriotic ItqhLetreake of
-"reelieeae involvedin food eLoraqeand,
2arenchyrna,a
con6um?Lio..For beoLreautLe,wenqeehoula be worked
V'/ia.t),
very 'f)ar? Cl,Ller7,
Other Namee: Dikela,mibotu, African palieander.
9 o u r c ee: 7 oruaio r tal Al ric a (Ca rner oo n, G abo n, Zair e).
Characteristico: Heavy,denee wood:etratqht 7rain;
coarae LextJre: dark brown wiLh blackiehveinoand,
e o m e l i f f i e ee L r e a k e dw i L hf i n e . l i q h Lb r o w n1 i n e a .
Uaee: Twninq, inLeriorand exLeriorjoinery,cabinef,rnak'.1q.
ear'eirq atd deco'ar.lveve('eerq.
WorkabilitytGenerallyqoad; blunte cuLtinq edqeo rapid,
1y:pre-borelor nailinq;poor bendingproVerLiee.
Finiohing:SatielacLoryt mu.JLbe filledlor qood reeulto.
W e i g h L : 5 5 l b . l c u t, L .
?rice: lloderaLe.

(H)
gotanical Name:)alix ni7ra
W h i l ei I e E u r o 2 e a n
c o u a i ni e u e e dm o e f ,n o L a b l yt n
c r i c k e Lb a L e ,b l a c kw i l l o wi s m o e Lf r e q u e n t l yu e e di n
NorLhAmericaby echoolwoodworkinq
ehope:iL ie LAe
moel commercially
valuab)e
of lhe moreLhan1Oatypee
o f n a l i v eN o r L hA m e r i c a nw i l l o w eW
. i l l o w 'e L r e n q L h
a n d ,r e l a t i v el i q h t n e e em a k ei t ,L h ec l e a rc h o i c ef o r
a r t i f i c i al i m b e .
Other Name:3lackWillow.
Sources Canad,a,
Eaef,ern
U.9.A,and Mexico.
Characteristiaer
Liqht,Louqhwood;otraiqht,grain;fine
t eKLure; qrayieh- br own with r eddieh- brown eNreaks.
Ueea ArLificial limba, t oye, wickerwo rk,ba skete,boxee,
craf,eo,decoraLive veneero.
Workability:SaLiefactory: mainLainehar?cLttteraf.o
?revent,f rayinq: poor bendinq properf,iee: ofLenconLaine
reacLionwaod.
FiniahinqAcceptefinisheewel|
Weight:26lb,/cu
f t..
?ricetlnexpeneive.

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f,

WOODDIRECTORY

ZEBRAWOOD
N)
(H)
9 otaniaal Name: Microberlinia brazzavi||enaie
OiehincLive
in appearance,
zebrawoodcomeefrom Lwo
opecieeof larqeNreeefoundmainlyin Cameroon
and
Gabon,Wes| Af rica.While il ie ueually eeena6 a veneer
ir NorthAmerica,whenquarLersawn
lhis Nimber
can
givebeaulifulresulte in eolidform.kbrawood ie
difficult Nowork,however,
and veneerstend Nobefragile.
Other Names:Zinqana(France,Gabon):Allenele,
amouk(Camercon):
zebrano.
Source;West Africa.
Charao.t
erietiaozWavyto interlockedgrain;mediumt o
paleyellowbrownwilh lhin
coa?oeteKVureihearLwood,
darkerstreaks;eapwoodwhite.
UoeozTurninq,tool handles,ekio,inlay,furniLure,
cabineLwork
and decorative venee(6.
Workabili?y:
Fair:dulls cuttinq edqeomoderately:
interlocked{ain willtend to leari suffersfrom hiqh
ohrinkaqeand may be unslablein use.Flal-aut boarde
hardlo dry.
FiniahingzFaic may be difficult,to finieh becauseof
inLerlocked
6rain.
Weightz45-50 lb,/cu. fL,
?ficetExoensiva.

ZIRICOTE
(H)
Ootanical Name;Cordiadodecandra
A ehunninq,
darkwood,ziricoleio eaeytroworkanI can
be broughttoa veryemooLhfinieh,fhough
difficulLNo
dry, onceNhisie achievedit ia relabively
etableand hiqhly
durable.Likebocote,ziricoteie a CenbralAmerican
memberof the cordias.Thetwo woodoare,in f act, quite
eimilar,differingmainlyin color,
Olher Name:Cordia,
5 ourceszBelize,Mexico.
Characteristiaa:Sbraightqrain,mediumNomoderately
finetexlure; black,gray or dark brownwith blackebreake.
Us e s t Fu rn i t ur e , ca b i ne I wo r k , in t e r io r j o i ner y
and veneers.
WorkabilityrVery qood:liLllebluntingof cutLers.
FiniohinglAccepte tinieh well.
Weightz45-50 lb./cu. fN.
TricetExpenaive.

GLOSSARY
A-B
Absolute humiditv: A measureof the
weightof watervairorper unit volume
ofair, usuallyexpressed
asgrainsper
cubicfoot; seerelativehumidity.
Air-dried lumber: Dried lumberthat
hasreachedits equilibrium moisture
contentby exposureto the air.
Angiosperm:Belongingto the botanical sub-phylumor group ofwoody
plantsthat haveencapsulated
seeds
suchasa walnut or acorn:includesall
hardwoodtreespecies.
Annual growth ring: Thevisiblelayer
of growththat a treeputson in a single
year,includingthe earlywoodandthe
latewood;seenin the endgrain ofwood.
Bark The outermostlayerof a tree's
trunk that protectsthe innerwood
and cambiumfrom the elements;
composedof the outer,deadcork
and the inner,living phloem.
Bird's-eyefigure Figureon plainsawn
and rotary-cutsurfacesofa few
speciesof wood-most commonly
maple-exhibiting numeroussmall,
roundedareasresemblingbirds' eyes;
causedby localfiber distortions.

Bucking: Crosscutting a tree into logs

ofa desired length.
Burl veneer: Highly decorative veneer
taken from bulges or irregular growths
that form on the trunks of some
speciesand on the roots ofothers.
Butt veneer: Veneercut from the area
in a tree'strunk just abovethe roots;
also known as stump veneer.
C
Cambium: A layer of actively growing
tissue, one cell thick, between the
phloem and the sapwood, which
repeatedlydivides itselfto form new
cells of both.
Cant A log that has been debarked
and sawn square in preparation for
further cutting.
Case hardening: A lumber defect
resulting from drying a board too
rapidly; the outer layersofa board
are in compressionwhile the inner
layersare in tension.

Chedc A lumber defect in which

splits develop lengthwise acrossthe
growth rings during seasoning
becauseof uneven shrinkage of wood.

Boardfoot A unit of wood volume

measurement
equivalentto a pieceof
wood I inch thick, 12incheswide and
12incheslong.

Clear: Describesa board facethat is

free of defects.

Boundwater:Moisturepresentin
wood found within the cellwalls;
seefreewater.
Bow:A lumberdefectin which a board
is not flat alongits length.

Cross grain: Generally, lumber in

which the wood fibers deviate from
the longitudinal axis of the board;
seespiral grain.
Cross section: A viewing plane in
wood identification seenin the end
grain of lumber, cut perpendicular to
the axis of the tree trunk: also known
as a transyersesection.
Crotchveneer: Veneercut from the
fork ofa tree trunk.
Crown-cut veneer: Decorative veneer
that is cut from flitches using the flatslicing method.
Cup: A lumber defect in which the
face of a board warps and assumes
a cupJike shape.
Curlygrain: Seewavy grain.

Celft The smallestunit of wood structure, eachwith its own specialized

function; cells include vessels,fibers,
rays, and tracheids.

Blister figure: Figureon plainsawn

or rotary-cutsurfacesthat lookslike
various-sized
elevatedand depressed
areasof roundedcontour.

Bookmatch:In veneering,a decorative

patternin which successive
veneers
in a flitch arearrangedside-by-side
in
a mirror formation,like pagesof an
openedbook.

Crossband: In plywood with more

than three plies, the veneersimmediately beneath the surface plies are
oriented with a grain direction perpendicular to that of the surfaceplies.

Common grade lumber: In softwood,

lumber with conspicuous defectssuch
as red or black knots and pith.
Compression wood: Reactionwood
formed on the undersidesofbranches
and leaning or crooked stemsof softwood trees.
Conifer: Any of several families of
softwood trdesthat bear cones;see
softwood.
Crook A lumber defect where there is
an edgewisedeviation from end-to-end
straightnessin a board.

138

Cuttinglish A list of the sizesof lumber neededfor a specificproject.

D-E
Deciduous: Any of severalfamilies of
trees that shed their foliage annually;
seehardwood.
Defech Any abnormality or irregularity that lowers the commercial value of
wood.by decreasingits strength or
attectrng rts appearance;seewarp.
Dendrochronology: The scienceof
dating past events and changesin
environmental conditions by comparative study of annual growth rings.
Diamond match: In veneering, a decorative pattern formed when successive veneersfrom the same flitch,
usually with a diagonal stripe figure,
are arranged in a diamond shape.
Diffuse-porous wood: Hardwoods in
which the pores tend to be uniform in
size and distribution throughout each
annual growth ring.

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GLOSSARY

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Earlywood: The portion of the annual

growth ring formed in the early part
of the growing season;seelatetuood.

Free water: Moisture present in wood

found inside the cell cavities;see
bound water.

Hygroscopicity: The ability of a substanceto readily absorb, retain, and

desorb moisture.

Equilibrium moisture content The

moisture content that wood eventually reacheswhen it is exposedto a given level of relative humidity and
temperature.

Grade stamp: A stamp applied to most

softwood and some hardwood lumber
indicating the grade, strength properties, speciesof wood and the mill that
manufactured it.

Interlocked grain: Wood that features

repeatedalternation ofleft- and righthand deviations of fibers from the axis
ofthe tree trunk, usually over several
growth rings; results in ribbon figure
on quarter-sawn surfaces.

Extractive: Resinsand other substancesdeposited in the heartwood

during a tree's growth that impart
both color and resistanceto decay.

Grain: Generally,the direction, size,

arrangement, appearance,or quality
of the elementsin wood or lumber;
specifically, the alignment of wood
fibers with respectto the axis of the
tree trunk.

F-G
Faceveneer: Veneer used for the
exposed surfacesin hardwood and
softwood plywood.
Fiber: A specific hardwood cell type,
elongated with narrow ends and thick
walls; contributes to the strength of
the wood.
Fiber saturation point (FSP):A condition in which wood cell cavities are
free of all water, yet the cell walls
remain fully saturated.
Fiddlebadc An attractive figure resulting when wood with curly or wavy grain
is quartersawn; commonly used in the
manufacture of stringed instruments.
Figure In the broadest sense,the distinctive pattern produced in a wood
surfacebv the combination of annual
growth rings, deviations from regular
grain, rays,knots, and coloration.
Finish gradelumber: Softwood lumber graded for appearance,not
strength, seasonedto a moisture content of 15 percent or less;includes
superior and prime categories.
Firsts and seconds:The top or premium grade ofhardwood.
Flat-slicedveneer: Veneer that is sliced
offa log or a flitch with a veneerslicer.
Flitch: A section ofa log cut to extract
the best figure and yield ofveneers
from a log; also known as a cant.

Green lumber: Freshly sawn, unseasoned lumber having a moisture content abovethe fiber saturation point.
Gymnosperm: A botanical sub-phylum or group of woody plants that
have exposedseedslike a pine seed;
includes all softwood tree species.

H-r-J-K-r
Hardboard: A type of manufactured
board with smoother surfaces than
particleboard, made by breaking waste
wood down into its individual fibers,
mixing them with adhesives,and matforming them into a strong, homogenous panel.
Hardwood: Generally, wood from
angiosperm tree species.
Headsaw: The large bandsaw or circular saw at a mill that cuts logs into
large slabs of timber for resawing; also
known as headrig.
Heartwood: The dead, inner core of
a tree extending from the pith to the
sapwood, usually distinguishable
from sapwood by its darker color.
Herringbone match: In veneers,a
decorative match createdwhen successiveveneersfrom one flitch, usually
with a diagonal stripe, are arranged to
form a herringbone pattern.
Humbolt undercut: A method of
felling treeswhere a wedge is cut in
the stump of a tree rather than in the
upper log before it is felled.

r39

Key: A master list of wood species

used in identification, ordered by criteria such as gross anatomical features,
macroscopic features,or microscopic
teatures.
IGln: A heated chamber used in drying lumber, veneer,or wood products
where temperature, humiditS and
air circulation are controlled.
IGln-dried lumber: Lumber that
has been dried to a specific moisture
content.
Knot: The baseof a branch or limb
that has been overgrown by the
expanding girth of the trunk or other
portion ofthe tree.
Latewood: The portion of the annual
growth ring formed in the latter part
of the growing season;seeearlywood.
ksser-known species(LKS) : Woods
recently introduced to the market,
such as chactacote,tornillo and chontaquiro amarillo, many of which come
from sourcesthat practice sustainable
torest management.
Linear foot A measurement referring
only to the length of a piece of wood;
seeboardfoot.
Lumber: Logs that have been roughly
sawn into timbers, resawn,planed
and sawn to length.
Lumber-core plywood: Plywood in
which softwood and hardwood veneers
are glued to a core of narrow, sawed
lumber.
Lumber ruler: A tool used to measure
the board-foot volume of a piece of
lumber with a flexible wooden shaft
and a hook for turning boards.

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GLOSSARY

Luthier: A builder of stringed musical

instruments such asviolins and guitars.
M-N-O
Macroscopic features: Referring to
anatomical featuresof wood identification visible with low-power magnification, typically a 10x hand lens.
Marquetry: Decorative inlay work
done with veneers,metals or other
materials.
Medium density fiberboard (MDF) :
A tFpe of tempered hardboard with a
fine texture used in cabinetmaking.
Moisture content: The amount of
water contained in wood, expressedas
a percentageofthe weight ofthe ovendried wood.
Mottled figure: A type of broken stripe
figure with occasionalinterruptions of
curly figure.
Nominal sizs The rough-sawn commercial sizebywhich lumber is known
and sold.
Non-porouswood: Wood devoid of
vessels,or pores; softwood.
Oven-dried weighfi The constant
weight of wood that has been dried in
an oven at temperatures between 2l4o
and22l" F. to a point where it no
longer contains moisture.
P-Q
Parenchvma: Thin-walled cells in
wood; reiponsible for the storage
of carbohydr ates. Seeray.
Particleboard: A tyoe of manufactured board made by breaking waste
wood down into small particles, mixing them with adhesives,and extruding or mat-forming them into panels
ofvarying thickness.
Particleboard-core p\nuood:
Plywood in which hardwood and softwood veneersare glued to a particleboard core for added strength.

Phloem: The inner bark. which distributes nutrients derived from photosynthesisin the leaves.
Photosynthesis: A processby which
plants synthesizecarbohydratesand
other nutrients from water and minerals in the presenceofcholorphyll
and sunlight.
Phylum: A botanical group or class
ofplants.
Pitch pockeh A pocket found within
the grain of some conifers, containing
an accumulation of liquid or solid
restn.
Pith: The small, soft core occurring in
the structural center ofa tree trunk.
Plain-sawn lumber: Lumber that has
been sawn so that the wide surfaces
are tangential to the growth rings; also
known as flat-sawn lumber when
referring tb softwood; seequartersawn
lumber.
Plywood: A manufactured board consisting of an odd number of layers
or Dliesof softwood or hardwood
veneer;may also be made with a solid
core, seelumber-coreplywood.
Pors A cross-sectionof a vesselas it
appearson a transversesection of
wood; see?esseL
Porouswood: Wood that has vessels.
or pores, large enough to be seenwith
a hand lens; hardwood.
Quarter-cut veneer: A veneer created
by slicing a flitch to exposethe quartersawn surfaceof the wood.
Quarter match: A decorative veneer
pattern createdby arranging successive
veneersfrom the same flitch, usually
with a burl or crotch figure in a circular
or oval formation; also known as fourway centerand butt.

Quartersawn lumber: Lumber that

has been sawn so that the wide surfacesintersect the growth rings, at
anglesbetween 45oand 90o;also
known as vertical-grained lumber
when referring to softwood; seealso
plain-sawnlumber.
Quilted figure: A distinctive, blisterlike figure found in bigleaf maple.
R
Radial section: A viewing plane in
wood identification cut acrossthe
grain perpendicular to the growth
rings and parallel to the wood rays;
the plane that extendsalong the axis
of the tree trunk from pith to bark.
Radial shrinkage Shrinkage that
occurs acrossthe growth rings as
wood dries.
Ray: A ribbon-shaped strand of cells
extending acrossthe grain from pith to
bark that appearas streal$ on quartersawn surfaces:sometimesreferredto as
medullary ray.
Reaction wood: A lumber defect
causedby stressesin leaning tree
trunks and limbs; known as compression wood in softwood, and tension
wood in hardwood; characterizedby
compressedgrowth rings and silvery,
lifelesscolor.
Relative humidity: The ratio of the
water vapor present in the air to the
amount that the air would hold at its
saturation point, usually expressedas a
percentagefigure; seeabsolutehumidity.
Resin canat Vertical passagesbetween
wood cells in conifers that conduct
natural resins and pitch.
Ribbon figure: Distinctive vertical
bands ofvarying luster found on
quartersawn boards of wood with
interlocked grain.
Riftsawn lumber: Lumber whose
growth rings are at anglesbetween 30o
and 60" to the board face;also known
as bastard-sawnlumber.

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GLOSSARY

Ring-porous wood: Hardwoods in

which the pores are comparatively
large at the beginning ofeach annual
growth ring, and decreasein size
toward the outer section of the ring,
forming distinct zonesof earlywood
and latewood.
Roe figure: Figure formed by short
stripes lessthan I foot in length,
found on quartersawn surfacesof
woods with interlocked grain.
Rotary-cut veneer:A continuous sheet
peeled from a log or flitch by rotating
it on a lathe against a stationary knife.
S-T-U
Sap: The water in a tree, including any
dissolved nutrients and extractives.
Sapwood: The outer portion of a tree's
trunk extending from the heartwood
to the cambium; distinguishablefrom
the heartwood by its lighter color.
Sawyer: The person at a sawmill
"read"
whosejob it is to
a log before it
is cut and selectthe appropriate cutting patterns.
Seasoning:The.processor technique
.
of removing moisture from greenwood
to improve its workability.
Selects:In softwood, defect-freelumber graded for clear appearancerather
than strength, separatedinto firsts and
second,C selectand D selectgrades.
In hardwood, selectsis one grade
below firsts and seconds.
Semi-diffuse porous wood: Wood
with pores exhibiting the clear distinction between earlywood and latewood
that is lacking in diffrrse-porous wood,
yet not so pronounced a difference as
that shown by ring-porous wood; also
known as semi-ring porous wood.
Slipmatch: In veneering, a repeated
decorativepattern createdby laying
successivesheetsofveneer from a
flitch side-by-side.

Softwood:Generally,speciesfrom the
familiesof treesthat havea orimitive
cellstructure,bearconesand for the
mostpart haveneedle-likeleaves;
wood producedby softwoodtrees.

Tensionwood: Reactionwood formed

occasionalyon the upper side of
branchesdnd leanin!br crooked
stems of hardwood trees.

Solarkiln: A kiln that drieslumber

with solarenergy.

Texture: Refersto the size ofthe

cells in wood, indicatedby adjectives
from fine to coarse;often'confused
with grain.

Sound:Describesa boardfacefreeof
defectsthat would weakenthe wood.
Specificgravity: The ratio of the
weightof a wood sampleto that of an
equalvolumeof water.

Twist A defect causedby the turning

or winding of the edgesof the board,
so that one corner twists out of plane.

Spermatophyte:Any of a phylum or
groupofhigherplantsthat reproduce
V-W-X-Y-Z
by seed;includesalmostall treespecies. Veneer: A thin layer or sheetof wood
Spiral grain: A form of crossgrain
causedby the spiralalienmentof wood
fibersin a staniing trei.
Stain:A discolorationin wood caused
by fungi, metals,or chemicals.
Sticker:A pieceof wood, usually3/+to l-inch thick,usedto separate
boards
of lumber in a drying stackto permit
arr crrculatron.
SubstrateA pieceof plywood,softwood or hardwoodusedin veneering
asa core.
Surfacing:The waylumber hasbeen
preparedat a mill beforeit goesto a
lumberyard.Alsoknown asdressing.
Sustainable forest management The
processof managing forest land to
ensure future productivity and maximize the flow of forest products without placing undue strain on the physical and social environment.
Thngential section: A viewing plane in
wood identification cut along the grain
tangentialto the growth rings;plainsawn lumber is sawn tangentially.
Tangential shrinkage: Wood shrinkage that occurs tangentially to the
growth rrngs.

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Tiacheid: Long, fibrous cells that conduct sap and help support the tree.

t41

sawn,slicedor rotary cut from a log

or flitch.
Veneer-coreplywood: Plywood
that consistsof three or more plies
ofveneers, eachlaid at right angles
to each other with respectto graln
direction.
Veneerpress:A commercialor shopbuilt pressused to apply veneersto
substrates.
VessehWood cells of comparatively
large diameter found in hirdwoodi,
set one atop the other to form a continuous tube for conducting water
and sap up the trunk; when viewed in
cross-section,vesselsappearaspores.
Warp: A lumber defect or distortion
of a piece of wood; seebow, croolgcup,
and, twtst.
Wavy grain: Grain resulting from
repeated,undulating right and left
deviationsin the alignment of wood
fibers from the axis 6f a tree's trunk;
also known as cuily grain.

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INDEX
Pagereferencesin lralicsindicate
an illustration of subiectmatter.
Pagereferencesin bold indicate
a Build It Yourselfproject.

ABC

Air-dried (AD) lumber, 43,79, 87-88

American Lumber Standards
Committee,48
Arno, Jon,l0-ll
Aversdon,Sven,45
Bark, 15
Bird's-eyefigxe,27, 59
Blue stain (wood defect),50, 5l
Board-foot measurement,42,43, 44
Botanicalnames,17,98
Build It Yourself:
Log crosscuttingjigs, 39
Solarkilns, 84-85
Veneer-trimmingjigs, 66
Burlfigure,27
Burl veneers,59
Butt veneers,59
Cambium,14,i5
Cant,37-38
Centerfor Wood Anatomy Research,34
Common gradelumber, 45, 46,47,
48,49
Crotch veneers,59
Cutting lists,44

DEFG
Defectivelumber, 20-21, 50-52
SeealsoWarpedstock
Density.SeeSpecificgravity
Diffirse-porouswoods, 16
Dowels,95
43,50, 78-79
Drfttg processes,
Air drying, 43,79,87-88
Solarkilns, 84-85
Earlywood,15, L6,37
Edgebanding:
Plvwood,74
shop-madeedgebanding
(ShopTip),75
Veneers,64
trimming edgebanding
(ShopTip), 64
Edge-grainsawnlumber. See
Quartersawnlumber
Edgemarks,T2
Endangeredspecies,98
FASgradelumber,46,47
Fiberboard,56,77
Fibersaturationpoint (FSP),80
Fiddlebackfigure, 26, 27
Figure,2G27
Veneers,59
Finishgradelumber,48,49
Flat-cutveneers,59
Flat-grainedlumber. SeePlainsawnlumber

Gradestamps,48,49
PIywood, T2
Grading.SeeLumber: Grades;Plywood:
Grades
Grain,26,28-29
Growth rings,.15,24,25,33
Gum (wood defect),5O 51

HIIK
Hardboard,56,77
Hardwood,16,98
Grades,46-47
Identification,33
Plywood,70,71,72,73
Heartwood,14, 15,25
Identificationkeys,34 35
InternationalWood Collectors
Sociery34
figs:
Log crosscuttingjigs, 39
Veneer-trimmingjigs, 66
Jointing,53
Concave/convex
surfaces,55
Kiln-dried (KD) lumber, 43,78-79
Solarkilns, 84-85
Knots (wood defect),20, 50

tM NO
Landscapefr9ure,26,27
Latewood,
15,16,31
Leaves,16
Linear-footmeasurement,42
Linnaeus,Carl,17
Logs,13
Sawinginto lumber, 22-25,36-39
Squaring,37-38
log crosscuttingjigs, 39
Storage,87
Veneer-cutting,59,60-61
Lumber:
Abbreviations,back endpaper
Carryinglumber by car (ShopTip), 42
Defects,20-2I,50-52
Grades,40,41,42,45
hardwood,46-47
softwood,48-49
Measurement,42, 43
cutting lists,44
Moisturecontent,43,49,79,80-83
making a moistureindicator
(ShopTip), 86
readingmoisturecontentin thick
stock(ShopTip)83
storingwood to preserveits moisture content(ShopTip), 89
Purchasing,42-43
Recycled,4l
Sawingfrom logs,24-25,3G39
Seasoning,
43,50,7&79
air drying,43,79,87-88
solarkilns, 84-85
Selection,4l
24, 80-82,86
Shrinkage/swelling,

r42

Sizes,42,48
Storage,79
racks,89-92,95-97
storingwood to preserveits moisture content(ShopTip), 89
Surfacing/dressing,
43, 53-55
Seeabo Manufacturedboards;Plywood
Lumberyards,4l
Machineburn (wood defect),5l
Manufacturedboards,56,57,76-77
SeealsoPlywood
Microscopicexamination,3I-33
Mottle figure,26
National Hardwood Lumber Association
(NHLA),46,47
Newsprint, 17

PQRS
Particleboard,56,76
Phloem,15
Pith, 15,25
Plain-sawnlumbet 24-25
Shrinkage,24,
86
Planing,54
Grain,29
Plywood,56,57,70-71
Edgeconcealment, 74-75
shop-madeedgebanding (Shop
Tip),75
Grades,72-73
Plywoodcarrier (ShopTip),73
Storage
holding plywood panelsagainst
a wall (ShopTip), 93
racks,92-94
Temporaryplywood pallet (Shop
Tip),94
Types,71
Poynter,Andrew, 8-9
Quartersawnlumber, 24-25,37
Shrinkage,24,
86
Rays,15,25,31
Reactionwood,50, 52
Resincanals,3.1,33
Ribbon frgtre,27
Ring-porouswoods, 16,33
Safetyprecautions,front endpaper:
Chain saws,front endpaper,36
Sapwood,14,-15
Sawmills,22-23,4l
Selectgradelumber,46,47,48,49
Sharp,]ohn, 6-7
ShopTips:
Lumber
carryinglumber by cat,42
checkinglumber for twist, 52
making a moisture indicator, 86
readingmoisture content in
thick stock 83
storingwood to preserveits moisture content,89
straighteningout an uneven
edge,55

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Plywood
holding plywood panelsagainst
a wall, 93
plywood carriet, T3
shop-madeedgebanding, 75
temporaryplywood pallet,94
Veneers
salvagingwarpedveneer,62
trimming edgebanding, 64
veneeringa curvedsurface(Shop
Tip),68
Softwood,16,33,98
Grades,4&49
Plywood,70,71,72,73
Specificgraity,27,28
Splits(wood defect),51
Stripedveneers,59

TU
Through-and-throughsawnlumber,
24,37
Tools:
Chain saws,36
Lumber mills, 36
Moisturemeters,79,83
readingmoisture content in thick
stock (ShopTip) 83
Veneering,63
Wood identification, 30
Seealsoligs
Tracheids,16,3l
Trees:
Anatomy, 14-15
Botanicalnames,17,98
Conservation,
7,98
Felling,front endpaper,I8-22
Industrialuses,l7
Twisting. SeeWarpedstock

VWXYZ
Veneers,57-58
Application, 63-68
trimming edgebanding (Shop
Tip),64
veneeringa curvedsurface(Shop
Tip),68
veneer-trimmingjigs, 65
Cutting
bandsaws,6l-62
from logs, 59,60-6I
Decorativepatterns,69
Salvagingwarpedveneer(Shop
Tip),62
Warped stock,50, 5l
Checkinglumber for twist (Shop
Tip),52
Salvaging,
53,54-55
salvagingwarpedveneer(Shop
Tip),62
straighteningout an unevenedge
(ShopTip), 55
Woods,13
Color,26,33
Figure,27

Grain,26,28-29
Identification,7, 30-35
Luster,33
Odot27,33
Species
African mahogany,27, 120
African padauk,123
afrormosia,99
agba,99
Alaskayellow cedar,82, 107
alder, 100
amburana,100
Americanchestnut,/I0
Americansycamore,82,87, 133
aromatic cedar,107
ash,82,87, 101
avodir6,58, 102
bald cypress,111
balsa,102
basswood,
82,87, 103
bayo,103
beech,59,82,87,104
birch, 104
blackash,I0I
black cherry, 82,87, 109
blackwalnut,58,82,87, 135
blackwillow, 82, 136
bocote,I05
Brazlian rosewood,I 7, 58, 98
bubinga,105
butternut,82,87, 106
California r edwood.,129
Carpathianelm,27,58, 59
catalpa,82, 106
cedar,82,107-108,132
Ceylonsatinwood,58, l3I
chactacote,109
cherry 82,87, 109
chestnut,I l0
chontaquiroamarillo, I.l0
cocobolo,IIl
qpress,Ill
Douglas-fir,12, 18,82,87,112
EastIndian rosewood,59
ebony,112-1lj
e l m , 5 8 ,5 9 , 8 2 , 8 7 , 1 1 3
Europeanbeech,59
goncaloalves,.l14
grayelm, 87
hackberry 82, 114
hard maple,I2I
hickory 82,87,115
holly,82,I15
Hondurasrosewood,129
imbuia, 58, 116
Indonesianrosewood,130
iroko,.l16
jatoba,1l7
kingwood,-117
koa,l18
lacewood,58,
118
lignumvitae,i19
macassarebony, l.l3
madrone,82, 119

r43

mahogann58,59,82,120
maple,27, 58, 59,82, 87, 121
movingue,26
myrtle, 58, 121
oak,82, 87,122
olivewood,58, 123
padavk,123
paperbirch, 104
pauferro, 124
pear,58,124
pecan,125
perobarosa,26
persimmon,35,82,
125
pine,31,82,87,126-127
ponderosapine, 126
poplar, 127
primavera,128
purpleheart,58, 128
red alder, 100
redcedar, l08
red oak, 82, 87, 122
red spruce,87
redwood,87,129
rosewood,17, 58, 59,129-130
sapele,58, 130
sassafras,
10,82,131
satinwood,58, 131
sitkaspruce,133
snakewood,132
SouthAmericanmahogann 82, i20
southernyellow pine, /26
Spanishcedar,132
spruce,87, 133
sugarmaple,82, 87
sugarpine, 87
sycamore,
82,87,133
teak,82, 134
tornillo, 134
tulipwood, 135
walnut, 58, 59,82,87, 135
wenge,136
westernred cedar,82, 108
white ash,82,87, 101
white birch,26
white cedar,108
white elm, .l13
white oak, 82, 122
white pine, 31,82,87,127
willow,82, 136
yelTowcedag107
yellow poplar, 127
yew,58
zebrawood,58, 137
ziricote,137
Texture,26
Weight,27,28
SeealsoHardwood;Logs;Lumber;
Manufacturedboardi; Plywood;
Softwood;Trees;Veneers
Wood samples,30,34
WoodworkersAlliancefor Rainforest
Protection(WARP),8

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Theeditorswishto thank thefoUowing
UNDERSTANDINGWOOD
DeltaInternationalMachinery,Guelph,Ont.; SheilaFoley,Councilof ForestIndustriesof B.C.,Vancouver,B.C.;
fim Gundy, AppalachianHardwood ManufacturersAssn.,High Point, NC; Haddon Tool, Chicago,IL;
Richardfagels,Dept. of ForestBiology,Universityof Maine, Orono, ME; LeeValleyTools Ltd., Ottawa,Ont.;
Doug MacCleery ForestInventory and Planning,U.S.Dept. of Agriculture,Washington,DC; Duncan
McTaggert,MacMillan Bloedel,Vancouver,BC; David Mitchell, CentennialAcademy,Montreal, Que.;
JackPitcher,National Hardwood Lumber Assn.,Memphis,TN; Woodcraft Supply,Parkersburg,WV
SELECTINGLUMBER
LesBoisM & M lt6e.,St-Mathieu,Que.;fim Carse,A & M Wood SpecialtyInc., Cambridge,Ont.;
Communication Masters,Norcross,GA; Delta InternationalMachinery,Guelph,Ont.; DaveDoucette,
Highland Hardwoods,Brenfivood,NH; Hitachi PowerTools U.S.A.Ltd., Norcross,GA;
RogerLandreville,Montreal, Que.;JackPitcher,National Hardwood Lumber Assn.,Memphis,TN;
American
Bob Sabastina,
National Hardwood Lumber Assn.,Memphis,TN; Tom Searles,
Lumber StandardsCommittee,Germantown,MD.; Shopsmith,Inc., Montreal, Que.
VENEBRSAND MANUFACTI.]RED BOARDS
AdjustableClamp Co., Chicago,IL; Delta InternationalMachinery/PorterCable,Guelph,Ont.;
LeeValleyTools Ltd., Ottawa,Ont.
DRYINGAND STORINGWOOD
LeeValleyTools,Ottawa,Ont.; Bill Simpson,U.S.ForestProductsLab,Madison,WI;
WOODDIRECTORY
A & M Wood SpecialtyInc., Cambridge,Ont.; PeteAtkinson,World ConservationMonitoring Centre,
Cambridge,England;R.S.BaconVeneerCo., Hillside, IL Tom Barrett,GeneralWoods and Veneers,
Montreal, Que.;Jim Carse,A & M Wood SpecialtyInc., Cambridge,Ont.; Iohn Curtis, The Luthier's Mercantile,
Healdsburg,CA; Michael Fortune,Toronto, Ont.; RjeanGarandenr., St-R6mi,Que.;DebbieHammel, Scientific
CertificationSystems,Inc., Oakland,CA; BruceMacBryde,U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service,U.S.Dept. of the
Interior, Washington,DC; Gary Meixner, Pittsford Lumber,Pittsford,N.Y; Mark Platin,Wildwoods Co.,
Arcata,CA; JohnShipstad,WoodworkersAlliancefor RainforestProtection,CoosBay,OR
Thefollowingpersonsalsoassisted
in thepreparationof this book:
Adrienne Bertrand,ElizabethCameron,Donna Curtis, LorraineDor, Graphor Consultation,
Marie-Jos6eHarcc,CarolynJackson,LeonardLee,Ednaand William Mills, Brian Parsons,Maryo Proulx

PICTURECREDITS
Cover RobertChartier
5,7 Mark Tucker
8,9 Bob Anderson
10,11 BobAnderson
12 CourtesyWesternWood ProductsAssociation
13 Gloria H. Chomica/Masterfile
17 Bob Anderson/Masterfile
18 Ed Gifford/Masterfile
19 Erik Borg
20 Al Harvey/Masterfile
21 CourtesyWesternWood ProductsAssociation
22 Erik Borg
23 Erik Borg (2)
33 CourtesyU.S.ForestProductsLaboratory(2)
36 CourtesyBetterBuilt Corporation
a0 Philip C. Jackson
60 CourtesyDavid R. Webb Co., Inc.
78 Erik Borg

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WORKSHO
GPU I D E
USEFUL
LUMBER
ABBREVIATI()NS
AD
BD
BDFT
CLR
COM
CUFT
DIM
E
FAS

Airdried
Board

LINFT
MC

Linear,
or lrneal,
foot

STD

Moisture
content

STK

Boardfoot
Clear -

0C

0n center
Ogee
Planed

Common

0G
P

Cubicfeet
Dimension

PAD
PC

Edge

" RDM
REG
RGH

Firstsandseconds
FT
Foot
(infeet) RIP
FTSM
Surface
measure
GR
Green
RL
HDWD Hardwood
RND
HRTWD Heartwood
SAP
lN

lnches

JTD
KD

Jointed
K i l nd r i e d

LBR
LGTH
LIN

SD
SE

Partially
airdried
Piece
Random
Regu
lar
Rough
Ripped
Random
lengths
Rou
nd
Sapwood
Seasoned

Lumber

SF

Square
edge
Select
Surface
foot(1 square
foot)

Length
L i n e aorr l i n e a l

SM
S0

Surface
measure
Square

SEL

I
I

Stock
' Footorfeet
SYMBOLS
"
Inchor inches
x by(asin2x4)

a / q6 h . 8 h( a n ds o o n ) '
R o u g ht hi c k n e s isn
f r a c t i o nos f a n i n c h

S&E

Qidp :nd

SIE
s2E

Srrrfacod nnc pdoo

sls
s2s
s4s

S u r f a c e od n es i d e

odop

Qrrrfanod tuin pdoes

Surfacedtwo sides
S u r f a c efdo u rs i d e s

s 1 s l E S u r f a c eodn es i d e ,o n ee d g e

s 1 s z E S u r f a c eodn es i d e ,t w oe d g e s
T&G
VJ

Tnnsrrpand srnnvp

WDR

Wider

WT

Weight
width

WTH

Vl o r n t

REC()MMENDED
MOISTURE
C()NTENT
FORCABINETMAKING
LUMBER
Ave"ane

mniaf.t tre rnnf.enl

B%

, J

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Standard

Average moteture
conl;enL 6%

Average moteLure
contenL 11%

Asthismapprovided
bytheU.S.
Forest
Products
Labshows,
theideal
moisture
content
forwoodusedto
b u i l di n d o of ru r n i t u rdee p e n dosn
t h er e g i o fno rw h i c ht h ef i n i s h e d
a r t i c lies i n t e n d e dI n. t h er e l a t i v e l y
drySouthwestern
states,
forexample,
lumber
should
bedriedto a moisture
content
of 4 to 9 nercent.
A levelof
8 to 13 percent
wouldbe betterfor
theSoutheastern
region
of thecountry
w h e r eh u m i d i tiys g e n e r ahl liyg h e r .
Thenational
average
fallsbetween
5 and10 percent
moisture
content.